BACTERIOLOGICAL DISEASES

CONTINUING EDUCATION
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT COURSE
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Printing and Saving Instructions
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This course booklet does not have the assignment. Please visit our
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Internet Link to Assignment…
http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/BacterilogicalDiseasesAss.pdf

State Approval Listing Link, check to see if your State accepts or has
pre-approved this course. Not all States are listed. Not all courses are
listed. Do not solely trust our list for it may be outdated. It is your sole
responsibility to ensure this course is accepted for credit. No refunds.

Professional Engineers; Most states will accept our courses for credit
but we do not officially list the States or Agencies.

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All downloads are electronically tracked and monitored for

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IDEXX’s SimPlate for HPC method is used for the quantification of heterotrophic plate
count (HPC) in water. It is based on the Multiple Enzyme Technology which detects viable
bacteria in water by testing for the presence of key enzymes known to be present in these
little organisms. This technique uses enzyme substrates that produce a blue fluorescence
when metabolized by waterborne bacteria.

The sample and media are added to a SimPlate Plate, incubated and then examined for
fluorescing wells. The number of wells corresponds to a Most Probable Number (MPN)
of total bacteria in the original sample. The MPN values generated by the SimPlate for
HPC method correlate with the Pour Plate method using the Total Plate Count Agar
incubated at 35oC for 48 hours as described in Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater, 19th Edition.

We will go more into detail in the Water Monitoring Section.

This course contains EPA’s federal rule requirements. Please be aware that
each state implements drinking water regulations that may be more stringent
than EPA’s regulations. Check with your state environmental agency for
more information.

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Contributing Editors
Joseph Camerata has a BS in Management with honors (magna cum laude). He retired
as a Chemist in 2006 having worked in the field of chemical, environmental, and industrial
hygiene sampling and analysis for 40 years. He has been a professional presenter at an
EPA analytical conference at the Biosphere in Arizona and a presenter at an AWWA
conference in Mesa, Arizona. He also taught safety classes at the Honeywell and City of
Phoenix, and is a motivational/inspirational speaker nationally and internationally.

Dr. Eric Pearce S.M.E., chemistry and biological review.

Dr. Pete Greer S.M.E., retired biology instructor.

Jack White, Environmental, Health, Safety expert, Art Credits.

Copyright Notice
©2001- 2018 Technical Learning College (TLC) No part of this work may be reproduced
or distributed in any form or by any means without TLC’s prior written approval.
Permission has been sought for all images and text where we believe copyright exists and
where the copyright holder is traceable and contactable.

All material that is not credited or acknowledged is the copyright of Technical Learning
College. This information is intended for educational purposes only. Most unaccredited
photographs have been taken by TLC instructors or TLC students. We will be pleased to
hear from any copyright holder and will make good on your work if any unintentional
copyright infringements were made as soon as these issues are brought to the editor's
attention.

Every possible effort is made to ensure that all information provided in this course is
accurate. All written, graphic, photographic or other material is provided for information
only. Therefore, Technical Learning College accepts no responsibility or liability
whatsoever for the application or misuse of any information included herein.

Requests for aknowledgements or permission to make copies should be made to the

following address:
TLC
Editor
PO Box 3060
Chino Valley, AZ 86323

Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for
errors or omissions appearing in this document.

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Bacteriological Diseases 1/1/2018
Some States and many employers require the final exam to be proctored.

Do not solely depend on TLC’s Approval list for it may be outdated.

A second certificate of completion for a second State Agency $50 processing

fee.

Most of our students prefer to do the assignment in Word and e-mail or fax the
assignment back to us. We also teach this course in a conventional hands-on
class. Call us and schedule a class today.

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Technical Learning College’s Scope and Function
Welcome to the Program,

Technical Learning College (TLC) offers affordable continuing education for today’s
working professionals who need to maintain licenses or certifications. TLC holds several
different governmental agency approvals for granting of continuing education credit.

TLC’s delivery method of continuing education can include traditional types of classroom
lectures and distance-based courses or independent study. TLC’s distance based or
independent study courses are offered in a print- based format and you are welcome to
examine this material on your computer with no obligation. We will beat any other training
competitor’s price for the same CEU material or classroom training.

Our courses are designed to be flexible and for you do finish the material on your leisure.
Students can also receive course materials through the mail. The CEU course or e-manual
will contain all your lessons, activities and assignments. All of TLC’s CEU courses allow
students to submit assignments using e-mail or fax, or by postal mail. (See the course
description for more information.)

Students have direct contact with their instructor—primarily by e-mail or telephone. TLC’s
CEU courses may use such technologies as the World Wide Web, e-mail, CD-ROMs,
videotapes and hard copies. (See the course description.) Make sure you have access to
the necessary equipment before enrolling, i.e., printer, Microsoft Word and/or Adobe
Acrobat Reader. Some courses may require proctored closed-book exams depending
upon your state or employer requirements.

Flexible Learning
At TLC, there are no scheduled online sessions or passwords you need contend with, nor
are you required to participate in learning teams or groups designed for the "typical"
younger campus based student. You will work at your own pace, completing assignments
in time frames that work best for you. TLC's method of flexible individualized instruction is
designed to provide each student the guidance and support needed for successful course
completion.

Course Structure
TLC's online courses combine the best of online delivery and traditional university
textbooks. You can easily find the course syllabus, course content, assignments, and the
post-exam (Assignment). This student friendly course design allows you the most flexibility
in choosing when and where you will study.

Classroom of One
TLC offers you the best of both worlds. You learn on your own terms, on your own time,
but you are never on your own. Once enrolled, you will be assigned a personal Student
Service Representative who works with you on an individualized basis throughout your
program of study. Course specific faculty members are assigned at the beginning of each
course providing the academic support you need to successfully complete each course.

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Satisfaction Guaranteed
We have many years of experience, dealing with thousands of students. We assure you,
our customer satisfaction is second to none. This is one reason we have taught more
than 20,000 students.

We welcome you to do the electronic version of the assignment and submit the answer
key and registration to us either by fax or e-mail. If you need this assignment graded and
a certificate of completion within a 48-hour turn around, prepare to pay an additional rush
charge of $50.

Contact Numbers
Fax (928) 468-0675
Email [email protected]
Telephone (866) 557-1746

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CEU Course Introduction
Bacteriological Diseases CEU Training Course
This short CEU Course will review commonly found water and wastewater diseases,
symptoms, and identification techniques. This course will cover water and wastewater
sampling techniques, waterborne disease identification ND control, general water quality
operations and definitions. It will also cover disease symptoms, disease diagnosis, history
of the disease, susceptibility, and disease sources of contamination.

This course will apply to all categories of water treatment/distribution and wastewater
treatment/collection. As water professionals, it is our responsibility to identify, stop, and
control all waterborne diseases.

This course was designed for the enhancement of laboratory technical abilities. This
course was intended for Water Laboratory Analysts, but can be utilized by Wastewater
Treatment, Collections, Water Distribution, Well Drillers, Pump Installers, and Water
Treatment Operators.

This course is also an excellent introduction for a person interested in working in the water
quality field, water/wastewater treatment or distribution or a collections facility and wishing
to maintain CEUs for a certification license or to learn how to do the job safely and
effectively, and/or to meet education needs for promotion. Every operator or customer
service person that has contact with the public should have this booklet accessible to help
answer water quality and waterborne disease related questions.

Course Procedures for Registration and Support

All of Technical Learning College’s distance learning courses have complete registration
and support services offered. Delivery of services will include e-mail, web site, telephone,
fax and mail support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service.

When a student registers for a distance or correspondence course, he/she is assigned a

start date and an end date. It is the student's responsibility to note dates for assignments
and keep up with the course work. If a student falls behind, he/she must contact TLC and
request an end date extension in order to complete the course. All students will be tracked
by a unique number assigned to the student.

Course Assignment Material

Most of the EPA questions will come from the EPA summary, waterborne disease section
identification, MCL listing, water sampling and laboratory procedures. Other detailed
information will come from the Center of Disease Control. The EPA rules and laboratory
procedures are also available online at the EPA Web site: www.epa.gov. You are
expected to read and understand all these rules and laboratory procedures.

Instructions for Written Assignments

The BACTERIOLOGICAL DISEASES distance learning course uses a multiple-choice
style answer key. You can find the answer key in the rear of the assignment. You may
have the option of completion of the laboratory assignment, either the heterotrophic plate
count, Method 1623 - Cryptosporidium and Giardia, or most EPA's data gathering and
monitoring programs under the Unregulated Contaminant Monitoring Rule.

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To receive alternate credit for the course, please contact TLC to receive permission from
your Instructor.

Feedback Mechanism (examination procedures)

Each student will receive a feedback form as part of his or her study packet. You will be
able to find this form in the front of the course assignment or lesson.

Security and Integrity

All students are required to do their own work. All lesson sheets and final exams are not
returned to the student to discourage sharing of answers.

Any fraud or deceit and the student will forfeit all fees and the appropriate agency will be
notified. A random test generator will be implemented to protect the integrity of the
assignment.

Grading Criteria
TLC will offer the student either pass/fail or a standard letter grading assignment. If TLC
is not notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice. In order to pass your final
assignment, you are required to obtain a minimum score of 70% on your assignment.

Required Texts
The BACTERIOLOGICAL DISEASES CEU course comes complete with a short
summary of the EPA's Rules and Regulations and related drinking water standards. If you
need more information or a complete set of Rules, you can download them off the EPA’s
web page, www.epa.gov or contact your local state environmental agency. You may
need to contact a laboratory or state agency for certain sampling information.

Recordkeeping and Reporting Practices

TLC will keep all student records for a minimum of seven years. It is the student’s
responsibility to give the completion certificate to the appropriate agencies. TLC will not
release any records to any party, except to the student. We will send the required
information to Texas, Indiana, and Pennsylvania for your certificate renewals.

ADA Compliance
TLC will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities.
Students should notify TLC and their instructors of any special needs. Course content
may vary from this outline to meet the needs of this particular group. There is an option
course assignment available, please contact an Instructor for further assistance.

Mission Statement
Our only product is educational service. Our goal is to provide you with the best education
service possible. TLC will attempt to make your learning experience an enjoyable
opportunity.

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Educational Mission
The educational mission of TLC is:
To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and skills
needed for the environmental education field,

To provide TLC student’s opportunities to apply and understand the theory and skills
needed for operator certification,

To provide opportunities for TLC students to learn and practice environmental educational
skills with members of the community for the purpose of sharing diverse perspectives and
experience,

To provide a forum in which students can exchange experiences and ideas related to
environmental education,

To provide a forum for the collection and dissemination of current information related to
environmental education, and to maintain an environment that nurtures academic and
personal growth.

This course contains EPA’s federal rule requirements. Please be

aware that each state implements drinking water regulations that may
be more stringent than EPA’s regulations. Check with your state
environmental agency for more information.

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 12
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Common Definitions................................................ 16
Federal Timeline…… ............................................. 17
Course Introduction................................................. 19

Main Players Chapter 1......................................... 21

Bacteria................................................................... 25
Prokaryotes............................................................. 26
Gram Stain.............................................................. 29
Fastidious Bacteria.................................................. 33
Eukaryote Section..................................................... 35
Wastewater Biology................................................ 39
References............................................................. 41

Giardiasis Chapter 2............................................. 43

Giardia Images........................................................ 47

Cryptosporidiosis Chapter 3................................ 49

Route of Transmission............................................. 51
Images.................................................................... 54
Symptoms............................................................... 57
Prevention............................................................... 59
Water Filters............................................................ 61

Cholera Chapter 4................................................. 65

El Tor...................................................................... 69
Cholera Toxins....................................................... 71

Legionnaire’s Disease 5....................................... 73

L. Pneumophila....................................................... 77

Escherichia Coli Chapter 6................................... 79

Database................................................................. 81
References.............................................................. 83

Related Diseases Chapter 7................................. 85

Amebiasis................................................................ 89
Life Cycle................................................................. 91
Menningoencephalitis .............................................. 93
Naegleria Deaths...................................................... 95
Calicivirus..................................................................97
Schistosomes.......................................................... 99
Gastroenteritis .......................................................... 101
Rotavirus.................................................................. 105
Noroviruses.............................................................. 107
Hepatitis Section...................................................... 109
Hepatitis A................................................................ 110
Leptospirosis............................................................ 115
Pseudomonas.......................................................... 119

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Pyoverdin................................................................ 121
Pathogenesis........................................................... 122
Shigellosis............................................................... 123
Transmission........................................................... 125
Typhoid Fever ........................................................ 129
Tularemia................................................................ 131
MIB Geosmin.......................................................... 135
Arsenic.................................................................... 137
Methemoglobinemia..................................................139
References.............................................................. 141

Symbols.................................................................. 145
Glossary.................................................................. 149
Appendix................................................................. 219
Chlorine Charts...................................................... 281
Conversions............................................................ 293
Course References…………………………………… 297

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Water Quality Introduction
Water is basic to life and health. Over 1 billion people worldwide have no access to safe
drinking water. The United States is fortunate to have one of the best supplies of drinking
water in the world. Although tap water that meets federal and state standards is generally
safe to drink, threats to drinking water quality in the United States still exist. Outbreaks of
drinking water-associated illness and water restrictions during droughts demonstrate that
we cannot take our drinking water for granted.

We are blessed to have plentiful supplies of good drinking

water sources. Water-related illnesses – typhoid fever, cholera,
dysentery – are almost unknown in this country today. Waste
and wastewater treatment, the development and enforcement
of drinking water guidelines, public health practices and
education – all have resulted in a decrease in water related
illnesses. Developing nations are less fortunate: 80% of their
diseases are water-related.

The price we must pay to prevent water-borne disease is

constant vigilance against bacterial contamination. Periodic
beach closures and local epidemics are evidence that the battle
is never won. These problems underscore the need for
maintaining strict control over water quality and for improving
water and wastewater treatment.

A major concern today is toxic chemicals that enter our waters

from many different sources, including industry, agriculture and the home. Little is known
about the effects of these toxic substances on human health; often the effects do not
become noticeable for long periods of time, and it is difficult to distinguish them from the
effects of other factors that impact on our day-to-day life (e.g., nutrition, stress, air quality).
Much more remains to be done to control toxic chemical pollution. Meanwhile, we can all
contribute to the prevention of water pollution by not abusing the water or the land.

Municipalities throughout the US - from the largest cities to the smallest towns - sometimes
fail to meet EPA standards. The EPA may fine the jurisdiction responsible for the violation,
but this does not always motivate the municipality to take corrective action. In such cases,
non-compliance with SEPA may continue for many months or years after the initial
violation.

This could result from the fact that the city simply doesn't have the financial resources
necessary to replace aging water pipes or upgrade their purification equipment.

In rare cases, the source water used by the municipality could be so polluted that water
purification processes can't do an adequate job. This can occur when a town is
downstream from a large sewage treatment plant or large-scale agricultural operations.

Citizens who live in such places - especially young children, the elderly, or people of any
age with autoimmune deficiencies - may suffer serious health complications as a long-
term result of drinking water from their own taps.

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Common Water Quality Definitions

Units of Measurement
mg/l = Milligrams per liter. One milligram per liter equals one packet of artificial sweetener
sprinkled into 250 gallons of iced tea.

μg/l = Micrograms per liter. One microgram per liter is equal to one packet of artificial
sweetener sprinkled into an Olympic-size swimming pool.

NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units. A measurement on the cloudiness of the water.

pCi/I = Picocuries per liter. A measure of radioactivity.

Acronyms
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The highest level of a contaminant that is allowed
in drinking water.

Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The level of a contaminant in drinking

water below which there is no known or expected risk to health.

Treatment Technique (TT) - A required process intended to reduce the level of a

contaminant in drinking water.

Action Level (AL) - The concentration of a contaminant that, if exceeded, triggers

treatment or other requirements which a water system must follow.

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Timeline of Existing Federal Water and State Drinking Water
Quality Regulations

National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR) Promulgated 1975-

1981 Contained 7 contaminants Targeted: Trihalomethanes, Arsenic, and Radionuclides
Established 22 drinking water standards.

Phase 1 Standards Promulgated 1987 Contained 8 contaminants Targeted: VOCs.

Phase 2 Standards Promulgated 1991 Contained 36 contaminants Targeted: VOCs,

SOCs, and IOCs.

Phase 5 Standards Promulgated 1992 Contained 23 contaminants Targeted: VOCs,

SOCs, and IOCs.

Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) Promulgated 1989 Contained 5 contaminants

Targeted: Microbiological and Turbidity.

Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection By-product (D/DBP) Rule Promulgated 1998

Contained 14 contaminants Targeted: DBPs and precursors.

Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) Promulgated 1998

Contained 2 contaminants Targeted: Microbiological and Turbidity.

Radionuclide Rule Promulgated 2000 Contained 4 contaminants Targeted:

Radionuclides.

Arsenic Rule Promulgated 2001 Contained 1 contaminant Targeted: Arsenic.

Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Promulgated 2001 Contained - Targeted:

Microbiological and Turbidity.

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Common Disinfectant Information
Sources of
MRDL1 MRDL1 Potential Health Effects
Contaminant Contaminant in
(mg/L)2 (mg/L)2 from Ingestion of Water
Drinking Water
Chloramines MRDLG=41 MRDL=4.01 Eye/nose irritation; Water additive used
(as Cl2) stomach discomfort, to control microbes
anemia
Chlorine (as MRDLG=41 MRDL=4.01 Eye/nose irritation; Water additive used
Cl2) stomach discomfort to control microbes
Chlorine MRDLG=0.81 MRDL=0.81 Anemia; infants & Water additive used
dioxide (as young children: nervous to control microbes
ClO2) system effects

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Waterborne Disease Introduction
Bacteria, viruses, and protozoans that cause disease are known as pathogens. Most
pathogens are generally associated with diseases that cause intestinal illness and affect
people in a relatively short amount of time, generally a few days to two weeks. They can
cause illness through exposure to small quantities of contaminated water or food, or from
direct contact with infected people or animals. Pathogens that may cause waterborne
outbreaks through drinking water have one thing in common: they are spread by the fecal-
oral, or feces-to-mouth, route.

Pathogens may get into water and spread when infected humans or animals pass the
bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in their stool. For another person to become infected, he
or she must take that pathogen in through the mouth.

Waterborne pathogens are different from other types of pathogens, such as the viruses
that cause influenza (the flu), or the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. Influenza virus and
tuberculosis bacteria are spread by secretions that are coughed or sneezed into the air by
an infected person.

Human or animal wastes in watersheds, failing septic systems, failing sewage treatment
plants, or cross-connections of water lines with sewage lines provide the potential for
contaminating water with pathogens. The water may not appear to be contaminated
because the feces has been broken up, dispersed, and diluted into microscopic particles.
These particles containing pathogens, may remain in the water and be passed to humans
or animals unless adequately treated.

Only proper treatment will ensure eliminating the spread of disease. In addition to water,
other methods exist for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral route. The foodborne route
is one of the more common methods. A frequent source is a food handler who does not
wash his hands after a bowel movement and then handles food with unclean hands. The
individual who eats feces-contaminated food may become infected and ill. It is interesting
to note the majority of foodborne diseases occur in the home, not restaurants.

Day care centers are another common source for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral
route. Here, infected children in diapers may get feces on their fingers, then put their
fingers in a friend’s mouth or handle toys that other children put into their mouths. You
will usually be asked to sample at these facilities for Giardia. The general public and some
of the medical community usually refer to diarrhea symptoms as stomach flu. Technically,
influenza is an upper respiratory illness and rarely has diarrhea associated with it;
therefore, stomach flu is a misleading description for foodborne or waterborne illnesses,
yet is accepted by the general public. So the next time you get the stomach flu, you may
want to think twice about what you’ve digested within the past few days.

Chain of Transmission
When water is contaminated with feces, this contamination may be of human or animal
origin. If the human or animal source is not infected with a pathogen disease-causing
bacteria, viruses or protozoa, no disease will result.

The pathogens must survive in the water. This depends on the temperature of the water
and the length of time the pathogens are in the water.

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Some pathogens will survive for only a short time in water. Others, such as Giardia or
Cryptosporidium, may survive for months.The pathogens in the water must enter the water
system’s intake and in numbers sufficient to infect people. The water is either not treated
or inadequately treated for the pathogens present. A susceptible person must drink the
water that contains the pathogen in order for illness (disease) to occur. This chain lists the
events that must occur for the transmission of disease via drinking water. By breaking the
chain at any point, the transmission of disease will be prevented.

Bacterial Diseases (More detailed information in the next chapters)

Campylobacteriosis is the most common diarrheal illness caused by bacteria. Symptoms
include abdominal pain, malaise, fever, nausea, and vomiting. Symptoms begin three to
five days after exposure. The illness is frequently over within two to five days and usually
lasts no more than 10 days. Campylobacteriosis outbreaks have most often been
associated with food, especially chicken and unpasteurized milk, as well as unchlorinated
water. These organisms are also an important cause of travelers’ diarrhea. Medical
treatment generally is not prescribed for campylobacteriosis because
recovery is usually rapid.

Cholera, Legionellosis, salmonellosis, shigellosis, yersiniosis, are other bacterial diseases

that can be transmitted through water. All bacteria in water are readily killed or inactivated
with chlorine or other disinfectants.

Viral Diseases or Viruses

Hepatitis A is a common example of a viral disease
that may be transmitted through water. The onset is
usually abrupt with fever, malaise, loss of appetite,
nausea, and abdominal discomfort, followed within a
few days by jaundice. The disease varies in severity
from a mild illness lasting one to two weeks, to a
severely disabling disease lasting several months
(rare).

The incubation period is 15-50 days and averages 28-30 days. Hepatitis A outbreaks have
been related to fecally contaminated water; food contaminated by infected food handlers,
including sandwiches and salads that are not cooked or are handled after cooking; and
raw or undercooked mollusks harvested from contaminated waters. Aseptic meningitis,
polio, and viral gastroenteritis (Norwalk agent) are other viral diseases that can be
transmitted through water. Most viruses in drinking water can be inactivated by chlorine
or other disinfectants.

Terrorism
Recent investigations have shown proof the terrorist organizations have been able to
reproduce most of these pathogens and have the technology and funding to attack our
public water supply system. You will need to know these diseases and how to deal with
these issues. Even diseases that we have not seen in years are easily and readily
available for a terrorist to backflow into our distribution system, or pour into a wellhead or
clearwell.

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The Main Players- History and Biology Chapter 1
Before we define the major waterborne diseases, let’s first examine the germs and other
creatures that cause the diseases. Most of the following information may be simple or
instruction that you already know. But to be safe, let’s review the basics.

History of Research
By the last half of the 19th century, the microbial world was known to consist of protozoa,
fungi, and bacteria, all visible with a light microscope. In the 1840s, the German scientist
Jacob Henle suggested that there were infectious agents too small to be seen with a light
microscope, but for the lack of direct proof, his hypothesis was not accepted. Although the
French scientist Louis Pasteur was working to develop a vaccine for rabies in the 1880s,
he did not understand the concept of a virus.

During the last half of the 19th century, several key discoveries were made that set the
stage for the discovery of viruses. Pasteur is usually credited for dispelling the notion of
spontaneous generation and proving that organisms reproduce new organisms. The
German scientist Robert Koch, a student of Jacob Henle, and the British surgeon Joseph
Lister developed techniques for growing cultures of single organisms that allowed the
assignment of specific bacteria to specific diseases.

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First Experiment
The first experimental transmission of a viral infection was accomplished in about 1880 by
the German scientist Adolf Mayer, when he demonstrated that extracts from infected
tobacco leaves could transfer tobacco mosaic disease to a new plant, causing spots on
the leaves. Because Mayer was unable to isolate a bacterium or fungus from the tobacco
leaf extracts, he considered the idea that tobacco mosaic disease might be caused by a
soluble agent, but he concluded incorrectly that a new type of bacteria was likely to be the
cause. The Russian scientist Dimitri Ivanofsky extended Mayer’s observation and reported
in 1892 that the tobacco mosaic agent was small enough to pass through a porcelain filter
known to block the passage of bacteria. He too failed to isolate bacteria or fungi from the
filtered material. But Ivanofsky, like Mayer, was bound by the dogma of his times and
concluded in 1903 that the filter might be defective or that the disease agent was a toxin
rather than a reproducing organism.

Unaware of Ivanofsky’s results, the Dutch scientist Martinus Beijerinck, who collaborated
with Mayer, repeated the filter experiment but extended this finding by demonstrating that
the filtered material was not a toxin because it could grow and reproduce in the cells of
the plant tissues. In his 1898 publication, Beijerinck referred to this new disease agent as
a contagious living liquid—contagium vivum fluid—initiating a 20-year controversy over
whether viruses were liquids or particles.

The conclusion that viruses are particles came from several important observations. In
1917 the French-Canadian scientist Félix H. d’Hérelle discovered that viruses of bacteria,
which he named bacteriophage, could make holes in a culture of bacteria. Because each
hole, or plaque, developed from a single bacteriophage, this experiment provided the first
method for counting infectious viruses (the plaque assay). In 1935 the American
biochemist Wendell Meredith Stanley crystallized tobacco mosaic virus to demonstrate
that viruses had regular shapes, and in 1939 tobacco mosaic virus was first visualized
using the electron microscope.

In 1898 the German bacteriologists Friedrich August Johannes Löffler and Paul F. Frosch
(both trained by Robert Koch) described foot-and-mouth disease virus as the first filterable
agent of animals, and in 1900, the American bacteriologist Walter Reed and colleagues
recognized yellow fever virus as the first human filterable agent. For several decades
viruses were referred to as filterable agents, and gradually the term virus (Latin for “slimy
liquid” or “poison”) was employed strictly for this new class of infectious agents. Through
the 1940s and 1950s many critical discoveries were made about viruses through the study
of bacteriophages because of the ease with which the bacteria they infect could be grown
in the laboratory. Between 1948 and 1955, scientists at the National Institutes of Health
(NIH) and at Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions revolutionized the study of animal viruses
by developing cell culture systems that permitted the growth and study of many animal
viruses in laboratory dishes.

Germ Theory of Disease History

Louis Pasteur along with Robert Koch developed the germ theory of disease which states
that "a specific disease is caused by a specific type of microorganism."

In 1876, Robert Koch established an experimental procedure to prove the germ theory of
disease. This scientific procedure is known as Koch's postulates.

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Koch's Postulates
• the causative agent must be present in every case of the disease and must not be
present in healthy animals.
• the pathogen must be isolated from the diseased host animal and must be grown in pure
culture.
• the same disease must be produced when microbes from the pure culture are inoculated
into healthy susceptible animals.
• the same pathogen must be recoverable once again from this artificially infected animal
and it must be able to be grown in pure culture.

Koch’s postulates not only proved the germ theory, but also gave a tremendous boost to
the development of microbiology by stressing a laboratory culture and identification of
microorganisms.

Circumstances under which Koch’s postulates do not easily apply

• Many healthy people carry pathogens but do not exhibit the symptoms of disease. These
"carriers" may transmit the pathogens to others who then may become diseased.
Example: epidemics of certain hospital acquired (nosocomial) infections, gonorrhea,
typhoid, pneumonia, and AIDS.
• Some microbes are very difficult to grow under in-vitro (in the laboratory) conditions.
Example: viruses, chlamydia, rickettsias, and bacteria that cause leprosy and syphilis.
Some of the fastidious organisms can now be grown in cultures of human or animal cells
or in small animals.
• Not all laboratory animals are susceptible to all pathogens. Many pathogens are species
specific. Ethical considerations limit the use of laboratory animals and human volunteers.
• Certain diseases develop only when an opportunistic pathogen invades a susceptible
host. These secondary invaders or opportunists cause disease only when a person is ill
or recovering from another disease. For example, in the case of pneumonia and ear
infections following influenza, isolation of bacteria-causing pneumonia may mislead the
isolation of influenza virus.
• Not all diseases are caused by microorganisms. Many diseases are caused by dietary
deficiencies (scurvy, rickets). Some of the diseases are inherited or are caused by
abnormality in chromosomes. Still others, such as cancer of the lungs and skin, are
influenced by environmental factors.

Cells
Robert Hooke observed small empty chambers in the structure of cork with the help of his
crude microscope. He called them cells. With the help of advanced microscopes it is now
known that a cell is composed of many different substances and contains tiny particles
called organelles that have important functions.

Two German biologists, Matthias Schleiden and Thedore Schwann, proposed the "Cell
theory' in 1838. According to this theory, all living things are composed of cells.

Rudolph Virchow completed the cell theory with the idea that all cells must arise from
preexisting cells.

In biology, a cell is defined as the fundamental living unit of any organism and exhibits the
basic characteristics of life. A cell obtains food from the environment to produce energy
and nutrients for metabolism.
Metabolism

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Metabolism is a term that describes all the chemical reactions by which food is transformed
for use by the cells.

Through its metabolism, a cell can grow, reproduce, and it can respond to changes in its
environment. As a result of accidental changes in its environment, a cell can undergo
changes in its genetic material. This is called mutation.

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Bacteria
Bacteria consist of only a single cell, but don't let their small size and seeming simplicity
fool you. They're an amazingly complex and fascinating group of creatures. Bacteria have
been found that can live in temperatures above the boiling point and in cold that would
freeze your blood.

They "eat" everything from sugar and starch to sunlight, sulfur and iron. There's even a
species of bacteria—Deinococcus radiodurans—that can withstand blasts of radiation
1,000 times greater than would kill a human being.

Schematic of a typical rod-type bacteria.

“Bacteria” is a plural word. The singular for this word is “bacterium” (bacter = rod, staff).
Bacteria are prokaryotes (Kingdom Monera), which means that they have no true nucleus.
They do have one chromosome of double-stranded DNA in a ring.

They reproduce by binary fission. Most bacteria lack or have very few internal membranes,
which means that they don’t have some kinds of organelles (like mitochondria or
chloroplasts). Most bacteria are benign (benign = good, friendly, kind) or beneficial, and
only a few are “bad guys” or pathogens.

Kingdom Monera is a very diverse group. There are some bacteria relatives that can do
photosynthesis--they don’t have chloroplasts, but their chlorophyll and other needed
chemicals are built into their cell membranes.

These organisms are called Cyanobacteria (cyano = blue, dark blue) or bluegreen algae,
although they’re not really algae (real algae are in Kingdom Protista). Like us, some
kinds of bacteria need and do best in O2, while others are poisoned or killed by it.

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Prokaryotes
Bacteria and archaea are the only
prokaryotes. All other life forms are
Eukaryotes (you-carry-oats),
creatures whose cells have nuclei.
(Note: viruses are not considered
true cells, so they don't fit into either
of these categories; this will be
covered in the next few pages.)

Early Origins
Bacteria are among the earliest
forms of life that appeared on Earth
thousands of years ago.

Scientists think that bacteria helped shape and change the young planet's environment,
eventually creating atmospheric oxygen that enabled other, more complex life forms to
develop.

Many believe that more complex cells developed as once free-living bacteria took up
residence in other cells, eventually becoming the organelles in modern complex cells.

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The mitochondria (mite-oh-con-dree-uh) that make energy for your body cells is one
example of such an organelle.

There are thousands of species of bacteria, but all of them are basically one of three
different shapes. Some are rod - or stick-shaped and called bacilli (buh-sill-eye).

Others are shaped like little balls and called cocci (cox-eye).

Others still are helical or spiral in shape. Some bacterial cells exist as individuals while
others cluster together to form pairs, chains, squares or other groupings.

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Bacteria live on or in just about every material and environment on Earth, from soil to water
to air, and from your house to arctic ice, to volcanic vents. Each square centimeter of your
skin averages about 100,000 bacteria. A single teaspoon of topsoil contains more than a
billion (1,000,000,000) bacteria.

Peptidoglycan
Most bacteria secrete a covering for themselves which we call a cell wall.

However, bacterial cell walls are a totally different thing than the cell walls we talk about
plants having. Bacterial cell walls do NOT contain cellulose like plant cell walls do.
Bacterial cell walls are made mostly of a chemical called peptidoglycan (made of
polypeptides bonded to modified sugars), but the amount and location of the
peptidoglycan are different in the two possible types of cell walls, depending on the
species of bacterium.

Some antibiotics, like penicillin, inhibit the formation of the chemical cross linkages needed
to make peptidoglycan.

These antibiotics don’t kill the bacteria outright, just stop them from being able to make
more cell wall so they can grow.

That’s why antibiotics must typically be taken for ten days until the bacteria, unable to
grow, die of “old age”. If a person stops taking the antibiotic sooner, any living bacteria
could start making peptidoglycan, grow, and reproduce.

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Gram Stain
However, because one of the two possible types of bacterial cell walls has more
peptidoglycan than the other, antibiotics like penicillin are more effective against bacteria
with that type of cell wall and less effective against bacteria with less peptidoglycan in their
cell walls. Thus it is important, before beginning antibiotic treatment, to determine with
which of the two types of bacteria one is dealing. Dr. Hans Christian Gram, a Danish
physician, invented a staining process to tell these two types of bacteria apart, and in his
honor, this process is called Gram stain.

In this process, the amount of peptidoglycan in the cell walls of the bacteria under study
will determine how those bacteria absorb the dyes with which they are stained; thus,
bacterial cells can be Gram+ or Gram -. Gram+ bacteria have simpler cell walls with lots of
peptidoglycan, and stain a dark purple color. Gram- bacteria have more complex cell walls
with less peptidoglycan, thus absorb less of the purple dye used and stain a pinkish color
instead.

Also, Gram- bacteria often incorporate toxic chemicals into their cell walls, and thus tend
to cause worse reactions in our bodies. Because Gram- bacteria have less peptidoglycan,
antibiotics like penicillin are less effective against them. As we have discussed before,
taking antibiotics that don’t work can be bad for you, thus a good doctor should always
have a culture done before prescribing antibiotics to make sure the person is getting
something that will help.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a strictly aerobic, oxidase

positive, gram-negative nonfermentative bacterium. The
Gram-stain appearance is not particularly characteristic,
although rods are somewhat thinner than those seen for the
enteric-like bacteria. Mucoid strains that produce an
extracellular polysaccharide are frequently isolated from
patients with cystic fibrosis and this capsular material can be
seen in the photo.

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Two types of cells- Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
A Prokaryotic cell exhibits all the characteristics of life but it lacks the complex system of
membranes and organelles. Example: Bacterial cells and cyanobacteria.

A Eukaryotic cell has a complex structure. It contains a true nucleus and many membrane
bound organelles. Example: Protozoa, fungi, algae, all plants and animal cells.

Structure of a Eucaryotic Cell

Cell Membrane
The cell is enclosed and held intact by the cell membrane/plasma membrane/cytoplasmic
membrane. It is composed of large molecules of proteins and phospholipids. These large
molecules permit the passage of nutrients, waste products, and secretions across the
cellular membrane. The cell membrane is selectively permeable.

Nucleus
The Nucleus unifies, controls, and integrates the function of the entire cell. The nucleus is
enclosed in the nuclear membrane and contains chromosomes; the number and
composition of chromosomes and the number of genes on each chromosome are
characteristic of each species. Human cells have 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes.

Each chromosome consists of many genes. A gene is a coiled unit made up of DNA and
proteins that code for, or determine, a particular characteristic of an individual organism.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is the cellular material outside the nucleus. It is composed of a semifluid
gelatinous nutrient matrix and cytoplasmic organelles including endoplasmic reticulum,
ribosomes, Golgi complex, mitochondria, centrioles, microtubules, lysosomes and
vacoules.

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Cell Wall
A cell wall is found as an external structure of plant cells, algae, and fungi. It consists of
cellulose, pectin, chitin, and some mineral salts. A rigid exterior cell wall defines the shape
of bacterial cells. It is different from the simple cell wall of plant cells and is made up of
macromolecular polymer-peptidoglycan (protein and polysaccharide chain). The thickness
and its exact composition varies with the species of bacteria.

Cilia and Flagella

Some eukaryotic cells possess relatively long and thin structures called flagella. These
are organs of locomotion. Cilia are also organs of locomotion but are shorter and more
numerous

Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell

All bacteria are prokaryotes and are simple cells. They divide by binary fission.

Chromosome
The chromosome of a prokaryotic cell is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane, it has
no definite shape and no protein material associated with it. It usually consists of a single
circular DNA molecule and serves as the control center of the bacterial cell. A typical
bacterial chromosome contains approximately 10,000 genes.

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a semi-liquid that surrounds the chromosome and is contained within the
plasma membrane. Located within the cytoplasm are several ribosomes, which are the
sites of protein synthesis. Cytoplasmic granules occur in certain species of bacteria which
can be specifically stained and used to identify the bacteria.

Cell Membrane
The Cell Membrane is similar to that of the eukaryotic cell membrane. It is selectively
permeable and controls the substances entering or leaving the cell. It is very thin and can
be seen by electron microscopes only.

Capsules
Some bacteria have a layer of material outside the cell wall. When highly organized and
firmly attached to the cell wall, this layer is called a capsule; or if it is not highly organized
and not firmly attached, a slime layer. Capsules consist of complex sugars or
polysaccharides combined with lipids and proteins. The composition of the capsule is
useful in differentiating between different types of bacteria. Capsules are usually detected
by negative staining, where the bacterial cell and the background become stained but the
capsule remains unstained.

Encapsulated bacteria produce colonies on nutrient agar that are smooth, mucoid and
glistening, whereas the noncapsulated bacteria produce rough and dry colonies. Capsules
enable the bacterial species to attach to mucus membranes and protect the bacteria from
phagocytosis.

Flagella
Flagella are thread-like proteins that enable the bacteria to move. Flagellated bacteria are
said to be motile while non-flagellated bacteria are generally non-motile. The number and
arrangement of flagella are species specific and can be used to classify bacteria.
Peritrichous bacteria- possess flagella over the entire surface.

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 Lophotrichous bacteria-possess a tuft of flagella at one or both ends.
Amphitrichous bacteria-bacteria with one flagellum at each end.
Monotrichous bacteria-bacteria with a single polar flagellum.

Pili or Fimbriae
Pili or Fimbriae are thin hair-like structures observed on gram negative bacteria. They are
not associated with motility. They enable the bacteria to attach to other bacteria or to
membrane surfaces such as intestinal linings or RBC. They are also used to transfer
genetic material from one bacteria cell to another.

Spores
Some bacteria are capable of forming spores (also called endospore) as a means of
survival under adverse conditions. During sporulation the genetic material is enclosed in
several protein coats that are resistant to heat, drying and most chemicals. Spores have
been shown to survive in soil or dust. When the dried spore lands on a nutrient rich
surface, it forms a new vegetative cell. Spore formation is related to the survival of
bacterial cells, not reproduction.

Bacterial Nutrition
All life has the same basic nutritional requirements which include:
Energy. This may be light (the sun or lamps) or inorganic substances like sulfur, carbon
monoxide or ammonia, or preformed organic matter like sugar, protein, fats etc. Without
energy life cannot exist and quickly dies or becomes inactive.
Nitrogen. This may be nitrogen gas, ammonia, nitrate/nitrite, or a nitrogenous organic
compound like protein or nucleic acid.
Carbon. This can be carbon dioxide, methane, carbon monoxide, or a complex organic
material.
Oxygen. All cells use oxygen in a bound form and many require gaseous oxygen (air),
but oxygen is lethal to many microbes.

Phosphorous, Sulfur, Magnesium, Potassium, and Sodium.

Calcium
Most cells require calcium in significant quantities, but some seem to only need it in
trace amounts.
Water
All life requires liquid water in order to grow and reproduce; which is why the Mars
Mission is so interested in water on Mars. Some resting stages of cells, like bacterial
spores, can exist for long periods without free water, but they do not grow or metabolize.
Iron, Zinc, Cobalt
These are called trace metals that are required by some enzymes to function.

The sources of these various requirements define an organism, so a description of every

organism should include this information.

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Fastidious Bacteria
Many bacteria can synthesize every complex molecule they need from the basic minerals,
but others, said to be fastidious, require preformed organic molecules like vitamins, amino
acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates; humans are fastidious. In general bacterial
pathogens need more preformed organic molecules than do nonpathogens, but that is not
always true. For example, some bacteria that are found in milk hardly make any of their
own basic organic molecule; that is, they let the cow (or more to the point the number of
microbes that live in the cow's gut) make these things for them. A simple rule of thumb is
"if humans can use something for food, many microbes will also love it". The reverse
is not always true, as microbes can "digest" some very strange substances including
cellulose, sulfur, some plastics, turkey feathers and asphalt, just to name a few.

Table of differences between Archaea, Bacteria and Eukaryotes

Characteristic Archaea Bacteria Eukaryotes
Predominantly multicellular No No Yes
Cell contains a nucleus and other membrane bound
No No Yes
organelles
DNA occurs in a circular form* Yes Yes No
Ribosome size 70s 70s 80s
Membrane lipids ester-linked** No Yes Yes
Photosynthesis with chlorophyll No Yes Yes
Capable of growth at temperatures greater than 80 C Yes Yes No
Histone proteins present in cell Yes No Yes
Methionine used as tRNA Initiator*** Yes No Yes
Operons present in DNA Yes Yes No
Interon present in most genes No No Yes
Capping and poly-A tailing of mRNA No No Yes
Gas vesicles present Yes Yes No
Capable of Methanogenesis Yes No No
Sensitive to chloramphenicol, kanamycin and
No Yes No
streptomycin
Transcription factors required No Yes Yes
Capable of Nitrification No Yes No
Capable of Denitrification Yes Yes No
Capable of Nitrogen Fixation Yes Yes No
Capable of Chemolithotrophy Yes Yes No
* Eukaryote DNA is linear
** Archaea membrane lipids are ether-linked
*** Bacteria use Formylmethionine

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 34
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Eukaryote Section
Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is organized
into membrane-bound nuclei. They include the animals, plants, and fungi, which are
mostly multicellular, as well as various other groups called protists, many of which are
unicellular. In contrast, other organisms such as bacteria lack nuclei and other complex
cell structures, and are called prokaryotes. The eukaryotes share a common origin, and
are often treated formally as a superkingdom, empire, or domain. The name comes from
the Greek eus or true and karyon or nut, referring to the nucleus.

What are Protists?

 They are eukaryotes because they all have a nucleus.
 Most have mitochondria although some have later lost theirs. Mitochondria were
derived from aerobic alpha-proteobacteria (prokaryotes) that once lived within their
cells.
 Many have chloroplasts with which they carry on photosynthesis. Chloroplasts
were derived from photosynthetic cyanobacteria (also prokaryotes) living within
their cells.

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotes, typically with a thousand
times their volumes. They have a variety of internal membranes and structures, called
organelles, and a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules and microfilaments, which plays
an important role in defining the cell's organization.

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Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several bundles called chromosomes, which are separated
by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division. In addition to asexual cell division, most
eukaryotes have some process of sexual reproduction via cell fusion, which is not found
among prokaryotes.

Eukaryotic cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to

as the endomembrane system. Simple compartments, called vesicles or vacuoles, can
form by budding off of other membranes. Many cells ingest food and other materials
through a process of endocytosis, where the outer membrane invaginates and then
pinches off to form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles
are ultimately derived from such vesicles.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane, with pores that allow material to move
in and out. Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is
called the endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is involved in protein transport. It includes
rough sections where ribosomes are attached, and the proteins they synthesize enter the
interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter vesicles, which bud off from
the smooth section. In most eukaryotes, the proteins may be further modified in stacks of
flattened vesicles, called Golgi bodies or dictyosomes.

Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain
enzymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are used to
break down peroxide which is toxic otherwise.

Figure 1. A diagram of Paramecium sp. with major organelles indicated.

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Contractile Vacuoles
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In multicellular
organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most of a cell's
volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its osmotic pressure.

Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called flagella when long and
cilia when short. These are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. These
are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are supported by a bundle of microtu-
bules arising from a basal body, also called a kinetosome or centriole, characteristically
arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets. Flagella also may have hairs or
mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes and internal rods. Their interior is
continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.

Centrioles
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They
generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids that give rise to various
microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are
often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from
the parent and the other derived from it. Centrioles may also be associated in the formation
of a spindle during nuclear division.

Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles. These include the
radiolaria and heliozoa, which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and
the haptophytes, which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

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Bacteria Sampling
Water samples for Bacteria tests process must always be collected in a sterile
container.

Iron bacteria forms an obvious slime on the inside of pipes and fixtures. A water test is
not needed for identification. Check for a reddish-brown slime inside a toilet tank or
where water stands for several days.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally not harmful, but the
presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result of a problem with the
treatment system or the pipes which distribute water, and indicates that the water may
be contaminated with germs that can cause disease.

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Wastewater Treatment Biology Basics
Four groups of bugs do most of the “eating” in the activated sludge process. The first
group is the bacteria which eat the dissolved organic compounds. The second and third
groups of bugs are microorganisms known as the free-swimming and stalked
ciliates. These larger bugs eat the bacteria and are heavy enough to settle by gravity. The
fourth group is a microorganism, known as Suctoria, which feed on the larger bugs and
assist with settling.

The interesting thing about the bacteria that eat the dissolved organics is that they have
no mouth. The bacteria have an interesting property. Their “fat reserve” is stored on the
outside of their body. This fat layer is sticky and is what the organics adhere to.

Once the bacteria have “contacted” their food, they start the digestion process. A
chemical enzyme is sent out through the cell wall to break up the organic
compounds. This enzyme, known as hydrolytic enzyme, breaks the organic molecules
into small units which are able to pass through the cell wall of the bacteria.

In wastewater treatment, this process of using bacteria-eating-bugs in the presence of

oxygen to reduce the organics in water is called activated sludge.

The first step in the process, the contact of the

bacteria with the organic compounds, takes about 20
minutes. The second step is the breaking up,
ingestion and digestion processes, which takes 4 to
24 hours.

The fat storage property of the bacteria is also an

asset in settling. As the bugs “bump” into each other,
the fat on each of them sticks together and causes
flocculation of the non-organic solids and biomass.

From the aeration tank, the wastewater, now called

mixed liquor, flows to a secondary clarification basin
to allow the flocculated biomass of solids to settle
out of the water.

The solids biomass, which is the activated sludge

and contains millions of bacteria and other
microorganisms, is used again by returning it to the
influent of the aeration tank for mixing with the
primary effluent and ample amounts of air.

Urostyla or Euplotes

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Wastewater Treatment Microlife
Euglypha sp.
Euglypha (70-100 æm) is a shelled (testate) amoeba. Amoebas have jelly-like bodies.
Motion occurs by extending a portion of the body
(pseudopodia) outward. Shelled amoebas have a
rigid covering which is either secreted or built
from sand grains or other extraneous materials.
The secreted shell of this Euglypha sp. consists
of about 150 oval plates. Its spines project
backward from the lower half of the shell.

Euglypha spines may be single or in groups of

two or three. The shell has an opening
surrounded by 8-11 plates that resemble shark
teeth under very high magnification.

The shell of Euglypha is often transparent,

allowing the hyaline (watery) body to be seen
inside the shell. The pseudopodia extend outward
in long, thin rays when feeding or moving.
Euglypha primarily eats bacteria.

Indicator: Shelled amoebas are common in soil, treatment plants, and stream bottoms
where decaying organic matter is present. They adapt to a wide range of conditions and
therefore are not good indicator organisms.

Euchlanis sp.
This microscopic animal is a typical rotifer. Euchlanis is a swimmer, using its foot and
cilia for locomotion. In common with other rotifers, it has a head rimmed with cilia, a
transparent body, and a foot with two strong swimming toes.
The head area, called the "corona," has cilia that
beat rhythmically, producing a strong current for
feeding or swimming.

Euchlanis is an omnivore, meaning that its varied

diet includes detritus, bacteria, and small protozoa.
Euchlanis has a glassy shell secreted by its outer
skin. The transparent body reveals the brain,
stomach, intestines, bladder, and reproductive
organs.

A characteristic of rotifers is their mastax, which is a

jaw-like device that grinds food as it enters the
stomach. At times, the action of the mastax resembles the pulsing action of a heart.
Rotifers, however, have no circulatory system.

Indicator: Euchlanis is commonly found in activated sludge when effluent quality is

good. It requires a continual supply of dissolved oxygen, evidence that aerobic
conditions have been sustained.

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References

Bick, H. 1972. Ciliated protozoa. An illustrated guide to the species used as biological
indicators in freshwater biology. World Health Organization, Geneva. 198 pp.
Cairns, J., G.R. Lanza, and B.C. Parker. 1972. Pollution related structural and functional
changes in aquatic communities with emphasis on freshwater algae and protozoa.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 124:79-127.
Cairns, J., and J.A. Ruthven. 1972. A test of the cosmopolitan distribution of fresh-water
protozoans. Hydrobiologia 39:405-427.
Cairns, J., and W.H. Yongue. 1977. Factors affecting the number of species of freshwater
protozoan communities. Pages 257-303 in J. Cairns, ed. Aquatic microbial communities.
Garland, New York.
Curds, C.R. 1992. Protozoa and the water industry. Cambridge University Press, MA. 122
pp.
Fenchel, T. 1974. Intrinsic rate increase: the relationship with body size. Oecologia
14:317-326.
Fenchel, T., T. Perry, and A. Thane. 1977. Anaerobiosis and symbiosis with bacteria in
free-living ciliates. Journal of Protozoology 24:154-163.
Foissner, W. 1987. Soil protozoa: fundamental problems, ecological significance,
adaptations in ciliates and testaceans, bioindicators, and guide to the literature. Progress
in Protistology 2:69-212.
Foissner, W. 1988. Taxonomic and nomenclatural revision of Stádecek's list of ciliates
(Protozoa: Ciliophora) as indicators of water quality. Hydrobiologia 166:1-64.
Giese, A.C. 1973. Blepharisma. Stanford University Press, CA. 366 pp.
Kreier, J.P., and J.R. Baker. 1987. Parasitic protozoa. Allen and Unwin, Boston, MA. 241
pp.
Laybourn, J., and B.J. Finlay. 1976. Respiratory energy losses related to cell weight and
temperature in ciliated protozoa. Oecologia 44:165-174.
Lee, C.C., and T. Fenchel. 1972. Studies on ciliates associated with sea ice from
Antarctica. II. Temperature responses and tolerances in ciliates from Antarctica,
temperate and tropical habitats. Archive für Protistenkunde 114:237-244.
Montagnes, D.J.S., D.H. Lynn, J.C. Roff, and W.D. Taylor. 1988. The annual cycle of
heterotrophic planktonic ciliates in the
waters surrounding the Isles of Shoals,
Gulf of Maine: an assessment of their
trophic role. Marine Biology 99:21-30.
Niederlehner, B.R., K.W. Pontasch, J.R.
Pratt, and J. Cairns. 1990. Field
evaluation of predictions of
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microcosm toxicity test. Archives of
Environmental Contamination and
Toxicology 19:62-71.
Taylor, W., and R. Sanders. 1991.
Protozoa. Pages 37-93 in J.H. Thorp
and A.P. Covich, eds. Ecology and
classification of North American
freshwater invertebrates. Academic
Press, New York.

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Microorganisms
MCL Sources of
MCLG1 Potential Health Effects from
Contaminant or TT1 Contaminant in
(mg/L)2 Ingestion of Water
(mg/L)2 Drinking Water

Cryptosporidium zero TT 3 Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., Human and animal

diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) fecal waste

Giardia lamblia zero TT3 Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., Human and animal
diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) fecal waste

Heterotrophic n/a TT3 HPC has no health effects; it is HPC measures a

plate count an analytic method used to range of bacteria
measure the variety of that are naturally
bacteria that are common in present in the
water. The lower the environment
concentration of bacteria in
drinking water, the better
maintained the water system
is.

Legionella zero TT3 Legionnaire's Disease, a type Found naturally in

of pneumonia water; multiplies in
heating systems

Total Coliforms zero 5.0%4 Not a health threat in itself; it is Coliforms are
(including fecal used to indicate whether other naturally present in
coliform and E. potentially harmful bacteria the environment; as
Coli) may be present5 well as feces; fecal
coliforms and E. coli
only come from
human and animal
fecal waste.

Turbidity n/a TT3 Turbidity is a measure of the Soil runoff

cloudiness of water. It is used
to indicate water quality and
filtration effectiveness (e.g.,
whether disease-causing
organisms are present).
Higher turbidity levels are
often associated with higher
levels of disease-causing
microorganisms such as
viruses, parasites and some
bacteria. These organisms can
cause symptoms such as
nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and
associated headaches.

Viruses (enteric) zero TT3 Gastrointestinal illness (e.g., Human and animal
diarrhea, vomiting, cramps) fecal waste

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Giardiasis Giardia lamblia Chapter 2
Giardia lamblia (intestinalis) is a single celled animal, i.e., a protozoon, that moves with
the aid of five flagella. In Europe, it is sometimes referred to as Lamblia intestinalis.

Giardiasis is the most frequent cause of non-bacterial diarrhea in North America. Giardia
duodenalis, cause of giardiasis (GEE-are-DYE-uh-sis), is a one-celled, microscopic
parasite that can live in the intestines of animals and
people. It is found in every region throughout the
world and has become recognized as one of the
most common causes of waterborne (and
occasionally foodborne) illness often referred to as
"Beaver Fever." It is commonly known as "traveler's
diarrhea", and referred to as "Montezuma's Revenge"
by those who travel to third world countries in the
Western Hemisphere.

Approximately one week after ingestion of the

Giardia cysts, prolonged, greasy diarrhea, gas,
stomach cramps, fatigue, and weight loss begin.

It is possible to experience some, not all, of the symptoms, yet still shed cysts and pass
the parasite onto others. Typically, the disease runs its course in a week or two, although
in some cases, the disease may linger for months, causing severe illness and weight loss.
Nonetheless, the basic biology of this parasite--including how it ravages the digestive
tract--is poorly understood.

The organism exists in two different forms--a hardy, dormant cyst that contaminates water
or food and an active, disease-causing form that emerges after the parasite is ingested.
National Institute of General Medical Sciences grantee Dr. Frances Gillin of the University
of California, San Diego and her colleagues cultivated the entire life cycle of this parasite
in the lab and identified biochemical cues in the host's digestive system that trigger
Giardia's life cycle transformations. They also uncovered several tricks the parasite uses
to evade the defenses of the infected organism. One of Giardia's techniques is to alter the
proteins on its surface, which confounds the ability of the infected animal's immune system
to detect and combat the parasite. This work reveals why Giardia infections are extremely
persistent and prone to recur. In addition, these insights into Giardia's biology and survival
techniques may enable scientists to develop better strategies to understand, prevent, and
treat Giardia infections.

Recently, Giardia has been

found to possess
mitochondrial remnants
known as 'mitosomes', that
the condition of
amitochondrialism is not
primitive to eukaryotes.

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The microaerophilic Giardia uses these mitosomes in the maturation of iron-sulfur proteins
rather than in ATP synthesis as is the case in mitochondria-possessing eukaryotes.

Nature of Disease
Organisms that appear identical to those that cause human illness have been isolated
from domestic animals (dogs and cats) and wild animals (beavers and bears). A related
but morphologically distinct organism infects rodents, although rodents may be infected
with human isolates in the laboratory. Human giardiasis may involve diarrhea within 1
week of ingestion of the cyst, which is the environmental survival form and infective stage
of the organism.

Normally illness lasts for 1 to 2 weeks, but there are cases of chronic infections lasting
months to years. Chronic cases, both those with defined immune deficiencies and those
without, are difficult to treat.

The disease mechanism is unknown, with some investigators reporting that the organism
produces a toxin while others are unable to confirm its existence. The organism has been
demonstrated inside host cells in the duodenum, but most investigators think this is such
an infrequent occurrence that it is not responsible for disease symptoms. Mechanical
obstruction of the absorptive surface of the intestine has been proposed as a possible
pathogenic mechanism, as has a synergistic relationship with some of the intestinal flora.

Giardia can be excysted, cultured and encysted in vitro; new isolates have bacterial,
fungal, and viral symbionts. Classically, the disease was diagnosed by demonstration of
the organism in stained fecal smears.

Several strains of G. lamblia have been isolated and described through analysis of their
proteins and DNA; type of strain, however, is not consistently associated with disease
severity. Different individuals show various degrees of symptoms when infected with the
same strain, and the symptoms of an individual may vary during the course of the disease.

Diagnosis of Human Illness

Giardia lamblia is frequently diagnosed by visualizing the organism, either the trophozoite
(active reproducing form) or the cyst (the resting stage that is resistant to adverse
environmental conditions) in stained preparations or unstained wet mounts with the aid of
a microscope.

A commercial fluorescent antibody kit is available to stain the organism. Organisms may
be concentrated by sedimentation or flotation; however, these procedures reduce the
number of recognizable organisms in the sample. An enzyme linked immunosorbant
assay (ELISA) that detects excretory secretory products of the organism is also available.
So far, the increased sensitivity of indirect serological detection has not been consistently
demonstrated.

Giardiasis is most frequently associated with the consumption of contaminated water. Five
outbreaks have been traced to food contamination by infected or infested food handlers,
and the possibility of infections from contaminated vegetables that are eaten raw cannot
be excluded. Cool moist conditions favor the survival of the organism.

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Relative Frequency of Disease
Giardiasis is more prevalent in children than in adults, possibly because many individuals
seem to have a lasting immunity after infection. This organism is implicated in 25% of the
cases of gastrointestinal disease and may be present asymptomatically. The overall
incidence of infection in the United States is estimated at 2% of the population. This
disease afflicts many homosexual men, both HIV-positive and HIV-negative individuals.
This is presumed to be due to sexual transmission. The disease is also common in child
day care centers, especially those in which diapering is done.

Acute outbreaks appear to be common with infants and is not usually associated with
water but is related to child care and diaper changing hygiene procedures. When I worked
for a major water provider, I would receive 2-3 calls a week about infants diagnosed with
Giardiasis. The problem lies with the water provider in that we are obligated to investigate
and analyze all water customer complaints and make sure that our water is safe.

This is an example of infectious diarrhea due to Giardia lamblia infection of the small
intestine. The small pear-shaped trophozoites live in the duodenum and become infective
cysts that are excreted. They produce a watery diarrhea. A useful test for diagnosis of
infectious diarrheas is stool examination for ova and parasites.

Course of Disease and Complications

About 40% of those who are diagnosed with giardiasis demonstrate disaccharide
intolerance during detectable infection and up to 6 months after the infection can no longer
be detected. Lactose (i.e., milk sugar) intolerance is most frequently observed. Some
individuals (less than 4%) remain symptomatic more than 2 weeks; chronic infections lead
to a malabsorption syndrome and severe weight loss.

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Chronic cases of giardiasis in immunodeficient and normal individuals are frequently
refractile to drug treatment. Flagyl is normally quite effective in terminating infections. In
some immune deficient individuals, giardiasis may contribute to a shortening of the life
span.

Target Populations
Giardiasis occurs throughout the population, although the prevalence is higher in children
than adults. Chronic symptomatic giardiasis is more common in adults than children.

Major Outbreaks
Major outbreaks are associated with contaminated water systems that do not use sand
filtration or have a defect in the filtration system.

In April 1988, the Albuquerque Environmental Health Department and the New Mexico
Health and Environment Department investigated reports of giardiasis among members
of a church youth group in Albuquerque. The first two members to be affected had onset
of diarrhea on March 3 and 4, respectively; stool specimens from both were positive for
Giardia lamblia cysts. These two persons had only church youth group activities in
common.

On August 8, 1983, the Utah Department of Health was notified by the Tooele County
Health Department (TCHD) of an outbreak of diarrheal illness in Tooele, Utah, possibly
associated with a contaminated public water supply that resulted from flooding during
Utah's spring thaw.

References
 Hetsko ML, McCaffery JM, Svard SG, Meng TC, Que X, Gillin FD. Cellular
and transcriptional changes during excystation of Giardia lamblia in vitro. Exp.
Parasitol. 1998;88(3):172-83.

 Svard SG, Meng TC, Hetsko ML, McCaffery JM, Gillin FD. Differentiation-
driven surface antigen variation in the ancient eukaryote. Molec. Microbiol.
1998;30:979-89.

 Tovar J, Levila G, Shez LB, Sutak R, Tachezy J, Van Der Giezen

Mitochondrial remnant organelles of Giardia function in iron-sulphur protein
maturation. Nature 2003;426:172-176

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Giardia Images

Photo Credit: H.D.A Lindquist, U.S. EPA

Above: Differential interference contrast (DIC) image of Giardia lamblia cysts, purified from
Mongolian gerbil fecal material. Cysts are ovoidal or elipsoidal objects, usually 11-14
microns in length. Cysts may contain as many as 4 nuclei, and residual structures from
their trophozoite or vegetative form. These residua include central axonemes, remnants
of the striated disk, and remnant median bodies. In some cysts these structures will be
indistinct. Scale bar is 10 microns.

Photo Credit: H.D.A Lindquist, U.S. EPA

Above: Immunofluorescence image of Giardia lamblia cysts, purified from Mongolian

gerbil fecal material. (Same field of view) Cysts were stained with commercially available
immunofluorescent antibodies. Cysts should have an intense apple green fluorescence
on the periphery of their cyst wall, and measure 11-14 microns in length. Scale bar is 10
microns.

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 Photo Credit: H.D.A Lindquist, U.S. EPA

Above: Fluorescence image of Giardia lamblia cysts, purified from Mongolian gerbil fecal
material. (Same field of view) Cysts were stained with 4,6-diamidino 2-phenyl-indole
dihydrochloride (DAPI). DAPI interacts with nucleic acids and stains the nuclei within the
cyst.

There should be 4 nuclei in each cyst. Cysts that appear to have fewer than 4 stained
nuclei, may have 4 nuclei with the others not visible in this plane of focus.

Cysts with no nuclei visible, may be dead, may be resistant to DAPI staining, or may be
organisms other than G. lamblia.

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Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium Chapter 3

Introduction
Until 1993, when over 400,000 people in Milwaukee became ill with diarrhea after drinking
water contaminated with the parasite, few people had heard of Cryptosporidium parvum,
or the disease it causes, cryptosporidiosis. Today, however, public health and water utility
officials are increasingly called on to provide information and make decisions about the
control of this protozoan found in public water supplies, recreational water and other areas.

Cryptosporidiosis is most particularly a danger for the immunocompromised, especially

HIV-positive persons and persons with AIDS. Individuals with CD4 cell counts below 200
are more likely to experience severe complications, including prolonged diarrhea,
dehydration, and possible death. Those with CD4 counts above 200 may recover from the
symptoms of cryptosporidiosis yet maintain the infection asymptomatically, with symptoms
potentially returning if their CD4 count later drops.

Other diseases besides AIDS can cause immunosuppression severe enough to lead to
chronic cryptosporidiosis. Persons with these diseases should also be concerned about
becoming infected. These diseases include congenital agammaglobulinemia, congenital
IgA deficiency and cancer. Persons taking corticosteroids, for cancer and bone marrow or
organ transplants, also need to be concerned about becoming infected. Even though
persons who are taking immunosuppressive drugs may develop chronic and/or severe
cryptosporidiosis, the infection usually resolves when these drugs are decreased or
stopped. Persons taking immunosuppressive drugs need to consult with their healthcare
provider if they believe they have cryptosporidiosis.

Persons at increased risk for contracting cryptosporidiosis include child care workers;
diaper-aged children who attend child care centers; persons exposed to human feces by
sexual contact; and caregivers who might come in direct contact with feces while caring
for a person infected with cryptosporidiosis.

Transmission is by an oral-fecal route, including hand contact with the stool of infected
humans or animals or with objects contaminated with stool. Transmission is also common
from ingestion of food or water contaminated with stool, including water in the recreational
water park and swimming pool settings.

Symptoms of cryptosporidiosis include, most commonly, watery diarrhea and cramps,

sometimes severe. Weight loss, nausea, vomiting, and fever are also possible. The
severity of symptoms varies with the degree of underlying immunosuppression, with
immunocompetent patients commonly experiencing watery diarrhea for a few days to 4 or
more weeks and occasionally having a recurrence of diarrhea after a brief period of
recovery.

AIDS
Patients with AIDS can have a large number of stools per day for months or even years.
There is currently no cure for cryptosporidiosis, though drug research is continuing.
Patients who suspect they may have cryptosporidiosis should drink extra fluids and may
wish to drink oral rehydration therapy liquid, to avoid dehydration.

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HIV-positive Individuals
HIV-positive individuals who suspect they have cryptosporidiosis should contact their
healthcare provider. Infected individuals should be advised to wash their hands frequently,
especially before preparing food and after going to the toilet.

They should also avoid close contact with anyone who has a weakened immune system.
Individuals with diarrhea should not swim in public bathing areas while they have diarrhea
and for at least 2 weeks after each attack of diarrhea.

Prevention
Washing hands is the most effective means of preventing cryptosporidiosis transmission.

For the immunocompromised, sex, including oral sex, that involves possible contact with
stool should be avoided. Immunocompromised individuals should also avoid the stool of
all animals and wash their hands thoroughly after any contact with animals or the living
areas of animals. Immunocompromised persons may also wish to wash, peel, or cook all
vegetables and to take extra measures, such as boiling or filtering their drinking water, to
ensure its safety.

Life cycle of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis.

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Life cycle of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis.
Cryptosporidium stages were reproduced from Juranek DD. Cryptosporidiosis.

In: Strickland GT, editor. Hunter’s Tropical Medicine and Emerging Infectious Diseases,
8th ed. Philadelphia: WB Saunders; 2000. Originally adapted from the life cycle that
appears in Current WL, Garcia LS. Cryptosporidiosis. Clinc Microbiol Rev 1991;4:325-58.

Sporulated oocysts, containing 4 sporozoites, are excreted by the infected host through
feces and possibly other routes such as respiratory secretions.

Transmission of Cryptosporidium parvum and C. hominis occurs mainly through contact

with contaminated water (e.g., drinking or recreational water).

Occasionally food sources, such as chicken salad, may serve as vehicles for transmis-
sion. Many outbreaks in the United States have occurred in waterparks, community
swimming pools, and day care centers. Zoonotic and anthroponotic transmission of C.
parvum and anthroponotic transmission of C. hominis occur through exposure to infected
animals or exposure to water contaminated by feces of infected animals.

Following ingestion (and possibly inhalation) by a suitable host, excystation occurs. The
sporozoites are released and parasitize epithelial cells of the gastrointestinal tract or other
tissues such as the respiratory tract.

In these cells, the parasites undergo asexual multiplication (schizogony or merogony) and
then sexual multiplic-ation (gametogony) producing microgamonts (male) and
macrogamonts (female).

Upon fertilization of the macrogamonts by the microgametes, oocysts develop that

sporulate in the infected host. Two different types of oocysts are produced, the thick-
walled, which is commonly excreted from the host, and the thin-walled oocyst, which is
primarily involved in autoinfection.

Oocysts are infective upon excretion, thus permitting direct and immediate fecal-oral
transmission.

Note that oocysts of Cyclospora cayetanensis, another important coccidian parasite, are
unsporulated at the time of excretion and do not become infective until sporulation is
completed.

Refer to the life cycle of Cyclospora cayentanensis for further details.

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Cryptosporidiosis Oocysts

Cryptosporidium oocysts

Genus Cryptosporidium
Members of the genus Cryptosporidium are parasites of the intestinal tracts of fishes,
reptiles, birds, and mammals. It seems that members of this genus do not display a high
degree of host specificity, so the number of species in this genus remains a matter of
some discussion. Cryptosporidium isolated from humans is now referred to as C. parvum.
Cryptosporidium infections have been reported from a variety of wild and domesticated
animals, and in the last six or seven years literally hundreds of human infections have
been reported, including epidemics in several major urban areas in the United States.
Cryptosporidiosis is now recognized as an important opportunistic infection, especially in
immunocompromised hosts.

Cryptosporidium is a small parasite, measuring about 3-5 µm. It lives on (or just under)
the surface of the cells lining the small intestine, reproduces asexually, and oocysts are
passed in the feces. Transmission of the infection occurs via the oocysts. Many human
infections have been traced to the contamination of drinking water with oocysts from
agricultural "run-off" (i.e., drainage from pastures), so it is considered a zoonosis.

In most patients infected with cryptosporidiosis the infection causes a short term, mild
diarrhea. Since such symptoms are associated with a number of ailments, infected
individuals may not seek medical treatment, and the infection may subside on its
own. Thus, it is difficult to say how many people are infected. On the other hand, in
persons with compromised immune systems, this parasite can cause a pronounced,
chronic diarrhea; in severe cases the infected individual may produce up to 15 liters/day
of stools, and this may go on for weeks or months. Needless to say, such an infection, if
not fatal unto itself, can exacerbate other opportunitistic infections common in
immunocompromised hosts.

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A scanning electron micrograph of a broken meront of Cryptosporidium showing
the merozoites within. (From: Gardiner et al., 1988, An Atlas of Protozoan
Parasites in Animal Tissues, USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 651.)

An electron micrograph showing several stages of Cryptosporidium (two are marked with
asterisks) on the intestinal epithelium of a sheep. (From: Gardiner et al., 1988, An Atlas
of Protozoan Parasites in Animal Tissues, USDA Agriculture Handbook No. 651.)

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A scanning electron micrograph of Cryptosporidium lining the intestinal tract. (From:
Gardiner et al., 1988, An Atlas of Protozoan Parasites in Animal Tissues, USDA
Agriculture Handbook No. 651.)

How is cryptosporidiosis spread?

Cryptosporidium lives in the intestine of infected humans or animals. Millions of crypto
germs can be released in a bowel movement from an infected human or animal.

Consequently, Cryptosporidium is found in soil, food, water, or surfaces that have been
contaminated with infected human or animal feces. If a person swallows the parasite they
become infected. You cannot become infected through contact with blood. The parasite
can be spread by:

 Accidentally putting something into your mouth or swallowing something that has
come into contact with feces of a person or animal infected with Cryptosporidium.

 Swallowing recreational water contaminated with Cryptosporidium (Recreational

water includes water in swimming pools, hot tubs, jacuzzis, fountains, lakes, rivers,
springs, ponds, or streams that can be contaminated with sewage or feces from
humans or animals.)

 Note: Cryptosporidium can survive for days in swimming pools with adequate
chlorine levels.

 Eating uncooked food contaminated with Cryptosporidium. Thoroughly wash with

clean, safe water all vegetables and fruits you plan to eat raw.

 Accidentally swallowing Cryptosporidium picked up from surfaces (such as

bathroom fixtures, changing tables, diaper pails, or toys) contaminated with feces
from an infected person.

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What are the Symptoms of Cryptosporidiosis?
The most common symptom of cryptosporidiosis is watery diarrhea. Other symptoms
include:
 Dehydration
 Weight loss
 Stomach cramps or pain
 Fever
 Nausea
 Vomiting
Some people with crypto will have no symptoms at all. While the small intestine is the site
most commonly affected, Cryptosporidium infections could possibly affect other areas of
the digestive or the respiratory tract.

How long after infection do symptoms appear?

Symptoms of cryptosporidiosis generally begin 2 to 10 days (average 7 days) after
becoming infected with the parasite.

How long will symptoms last?

In persons with healthy immune systems, symptoms usually last about 1 to 2 weeks. The
symptoms may go in cycles in which you may seem to get better for a few days, then feel
worse again before the illness ends.

If I have been diagnosed with Cryptosporidium, should I worry about spreading

the infection to others?
Yes, Cryptosporidium can be very contagious. Follow these guidelines to avoid spreading
the disease to others:
1. Wash your hands with soap and water after using the toilet, changing diapers, and
before eating or preparing food.
2. Do not swim in recreational water (pools, hot tubs, lakes or rivers, the ocean, etc.)
if you have cryptosporidiosis and for at least 2 weeks after diarrhea stops. You can
pass Cryptosporidium in your stool and contaminate water for several weeks after
your symptoms have ended. This has resulted in outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis
among recreational water users.
Note: Cryptosporidium can be spread in a chlorinated pool because it is resistant
to chlorine and, therefore, can live for days in chlorine-treated swimming pools.
3. Avoid fecal exposure during sexual activity.

Who is most at risk for cryptosporidiosis?

People who are most likely to become infected with Cryptosporidium include:
 Children who attend day care centers, including diaper-aged children
 Child care workers
 Parents of infected children
 International travelers
 Backpackers, hikers, and campers who drink unfiltered, untreated water
 Swimmers who swallow water while swimming in swimming pools, lakes, rivers,
ponds, and streams
 People who drink from shallow, unprotected wells
 People who swallow water from contaminated sources

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Contaminated water includes water that has not been boiled or filtered. Several
community-wide outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have been linked to drinking municipal
water or recreational water contaminated with Cryptosporidium.

Who is most at risk for getting seriously ill with cryptosporidiosis?

Although Crypto can infect all people, some groups are more likely to develop more
serious illness.
 Young children and pregnant women may be
If you have a severely
more susceptible to the dehydration resulting
weakened immune system,
from diarrhea and should drink plenty of fluids
talk to your health care
while ill.
provider for additional
 If you have a severely weakened immune
guidance. You can also call
system, you are at risk for more serious
the CDC AIDS HOTLINE toll-
disease. Your symptoms may be more severe
free at 1-800-342-2437. Ask
and could lead to serious or life-threatening
for more information on
illness. Examples of persons with weakened
cryptosporidiosis, or go to the
immune systems include those with HIV/AIDS;
CDC fact sheet Preventing
cancer and transplant patients who are taking
Cryptosporidiosis: A Guide for
certain immunosuppressive drugs; and those
People with Compromised
with inherited diseases that affect the immune
Immune Systems available by
system.
visiting
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/
What should I do if I think I may have
parasites/cryptosporidiosis/
cryptosporidiosis?
factsht_crypto_prevent_ci.htm
If you suspect that you have cryptosporidiosis, see
your health care provider.

How is cryptosporidiosis diagnosed?

Your health care provider will ask you to submit stool samples to see if you are infected.
Because testing for Crypto can be difficult, you may be asked to submit several stool
specimens over several days. Tests for Crypto are not routinely done in most laboratories;
therefore, your health care provider should specifically request testing for the parasite.

What is the treatment for cryptosporidiosis?

Although there is no standard treatment for cryptosporidiosis, the symptoms can be
treated. Most people who have a healthy immune system will recover without treatment.
If you have diarrhea, drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. Rapid loss of fluids from
diarrhea may be especially life threatening to babies; therefore, parents should talk to their
health care provider about fluid replacement therapy options for infants. Antidiarrheal
medicine may help slow down diarrhea, but talk to your health care provider before taking
it. A new drug, nitazoxanide, has been approved for treatment of diarrhea caused by
Cryptosporidium in healthy children less than 12 years old. Consult with your health care
provider for more information. People who are in poor health or who have a weakened
immune system are at higher risk for more severe and more prolonged illness. For persons
with AIDS, anti-retroviral therapy that improves immune status will also decrease or
eliminate symptoms of Crypto.

However, even if symptoms disappear, cryptosporidiosis is usually not curable and the
symptoms may return if the immune status worsens. See your health care provider to
discuss anti-retroviral therapy used to improve your immune status.

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How Can I Prevent Cryptosporidiosis?
Practice good hygiene.
1. Wash hands thoroughly with soap and water.
a. Wash hands after using the toilet and before handling or eating food
(especially for persons with diarrhea).
b. Wash hands after every diaper change, especially if you work with diaper-
aged children, even if you are wearing gloves.
2. Protect others by not swimming if you are experiencing diarrhea (essential for
children in diapers).

Avoid water that might be contaminated.

1. Do not swallow recreational water

For information on recreational
2. Do not drink untreated water from
water-related illnesses, visit CDC's
shallow wells, lakes, rivers, springs,
Healthy Swimming website at
ponds, and streams.
http://www.cdc.gov/healthyswimming.
3. Do not drink untreated water during
community-wide outbreaks of disease
caused by contaminated drinking water.
4. Do not use untreated ice or drinking water when traveling in countries where the
water supply might be unsafe.
For information on choosing safe
In the United States, nationally distributed brands
bottled water, see the CDC fact
of bottled or canned carbonated soft drinks are safe
sheet entitled “Preventing
to drink.
Cryptosporidiosis: A Guide to
Water Filters and Bottled Water,”
Commercially packaged non-carbonated soft
available by visiting
drinks and fruit juices that do not require
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/
refrigeration until after they are opened (those that
parasites/cryptosporidiosis/
are stored un-refrigerated on grocery shelves) also
factsht_crypto_prevent_water.htm.
are safe.

If you are unable to avoid using or drinking water that might be contaminated,
then you can make the water safe to drink by doing one of the following:
 Heat the water to a rolling boil for at least 1 minute.
OR
 Use a filter that has an absolute pore size
For information on choosing a
of at least 1 micron or one that has been
water filter, see the CDC fact
NSF rated for "cyst removal."
sheet entitled "Preventing
Cryptosporidiosis: A Guide to
Do not rely on chemicals to disinfect water and
Water Filters and Bottled Water,"
kill Cryptosporidium. Because it has a thick outer
available by visiting
shell, this particular parasite is highly resistant to
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/
disinfectants such as chlorine and iodine.
parasites/cryptosporidiosis/
factsht_crypto_prevent_water.htm.

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Avoid food that might be contaminated.
1. Wash and/or peel all raw vegetables and fruits before eating.
2. Use safe, uncontaminated water to wash all food that is to be eaten raw.
3. Avoid eating uncooked foods when traveling in countries with minimal water
treatment and sanitation systems.

Take extra care when traveling.

If you travel to developing nations, you may be at a greater risk for Cryptosporidium
infection because of poorer water treatment and food sanitation. Warnings about food,
drinks, and swimming are even more important when visiting developing countries. Avoid
foods and drinks, in particular raw fruits and vegetables, tap water, or ice made from tap
water, unpasteurized milk or dairy products, and items purchased from street vendors.
These items may be contaminated with Cryptosporidium. Steaming-hot foods, fruits you
peel yourself, bottled and canned processed drinks, and hot coffee or hot tea are probably
safe. Talk with your health care provider about other guidelines for travel abroad.

Avoid fecal exposure during sexual activity.

This is another infectious agent that is becoming more frequent in immunocompromised

patients, particularly those with AIDS. The small round blue organisms at the lumenal
border are cryptosporidia. Cryptosporidiosis produces a copious watery diarrhea.

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A Guide to Water Filters and Bottled Water
Filtering tap water
Many, but not all available home water filters remove Cryptosporidium. Some filter designs
are more suitable for removal of Cryptosporidium than others. Filters that have the words
"reverse osmosis" on the label protect against Cryptosporidium. Many other types of filters
that work by micro-straining also work. Look for a filter that will remove particles that are
less than or equal to 1 micron in diameter.

There are two types of these - "absolute 1 micron" filters and "nominal 1 micron" filters.
The absolute 1 micron filter will more consistently remove Cryptosporidium than a nominal
filter. Some nominal 1 micron filters will allow 20% to 30% of 1 micron particles to pass
through.

NSF-International
NSF-International (NSF) does independent testing of filters to determine if they remove
Cryptosporidium. To find out if a particular filter is
certified to remove Cryptosporidium, you can look
for the NSF trademark plus the words "cyst
reduction" or "cyst removal" on the product label
information. You can also contact the NSF at 789
N. Dixboro Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48105 USA, toll
free1-877-867-3435, fax 313-769-0109, email
[email protected], or visit their Web site at
www.nsf.org/certified/DWTU/.

At their Web site, you can enter the model number

of the unit you intend to buy to see if it is on their
certified list, or you can look under the section
entitled "Reduction claims for drinking water
treatment units - Health Effects" and check the box
in front of the words "Cyst Reduction." This will
display a list of filters tested for their ability to
remove Cryptosporidium.

Because NSF testing is expensive and voluntary,

some filters that may work against Cryptosporidium
have not been NSF-tested.

If you choose to use a product not NSF-certified,

select those technologies more likely to reduce
Cryptosporidium; this includes filters with reverse
osmosis and those that have an absolute pore size
of 1 micron or smaller.

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Package and Label information for purchasing water filters:
Filters designed to remove Filters labeled only with
crypto these words may NOT be
(any of the four messages designed to remove crypto
below on a package label
indicate that the filter
should be able to remove
crypto)

Reverse osmosis (with or Nominal pore size of 1 micron

without NSF testing) or smaller

Absolute pore size of 1

micron or smaller One micron filter
(with or without NSF testing)

Tested and certified by NSF

Standard 53 or NSF Standard Effective against Giardia
58 for cyst removal

Tested and certified by NSF

Standard 53 or NSF Standard Effective against parasites
58 for cyst reduction

Carbon filter

Water purifier

EPA approved — Caution:

EPA does not approve or test
filters

EPA registered — Caution:

EPA does not register filters
based on their ability to
remove Cryptosporidium

Activated carbon

Removes chlorine

Ultraviolet light

Pentiodide resins

Water softener

Note: Filters collect germs from water, so someone who is not HIV infected or immune
impaired should change the filter cartridges.

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Anyone changing the cartridges should wear gloves and wash hands afterwards. Filters
may not remove Cryptosporidium as well as boiling does because even good brands of
filters may sometimes have manufacturing flaws that allow small numbers of
Cryptosporidium to get in past the filter. Selection of NSF-Certified filters provides
additional assurance against such flaws. Also, poor filter maintenance or failure to replace
the filter cartridges as recommended by the manufacturer can cause a filter to fail.

If you drink bottled water, read the label and look for this information:
Water so labeled may not
Water so labeled has been
have been processed by
processed by method
method effective against
effective against crypto
crypto

Reverse osmosis treated Filtered

Distilled Micro-filtered

Filtered through an absolute 1

Carbon-filtered
micron or smaller filter

"One micron absolute" Particle-filtered

Multimedia-filtered

Ozonated

Ozone-treated

Ultraviolet light-treated

Activated carbon-treated

Carbon dioxide-treated

Ion exchange-treated

Deionized

Purified

Chlorinated

Bottled water labels reading "well water," "artesian well water," "spring water," or "mineral
water" do not guarantee that the water does not contain crypto. However, water that
comes from protected well or protected spring water sources is less likely to contain crypto
than bottled water or tap water from less protected sources, such as rivers and lakes.

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Home distillers: You can remove crypto and other germs from your water with a home
distiller. If you use one, you need to carefully store your water as recommended for storing
purified water.

Other drinks: Soft drinks and other beverages may or may not contain crypto. You need
to know how they were prepared to know if they might contain crypto.

If you consume prepared beverages, look for drinks from which crypto has been
removed:
Crypto killed or removed in Crypto may not be killed or
preparation removed in preparation

Canned or bottled soda,

Fountain drinks
seltzer, and fruit drinks

Steaming hot (175 degrees F Fruit drinks you mix with tap
or hotter) tea or coffee water from frozen concentrate

Pasteurized drinks Iced tea or coffee

Juices made from fresh fruit can also be contaminated with crypto. Several people became
ill after drinking apple cider made from apples contaminated with crypto. You may wish to
avoid unpasteurized juices or fresh juices if you do not know how they were prepared.

Immunofluorescence image of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, purified from murine

fecal material. (Same field of view) Oocysts were stained with commercially available
immunofluorescent antibodies. Oocysts should have an intense apple green fluorescence
on the periphery of their oocyst wall, and measure 4 to 6 microns in diameter. Scale bar
is 10 microns. Photo Credit: H.D.A Lindquist, U.S. EPA.

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Cholera Vibrio cholerae Chapter 4
Cholera has been very rare in industrialized nations for the last 100 years; however, the
disease is still common today in other parts of the world, including the Indian subcontinent
and sub-Saharan Africa. Although cholera can be life-threatening, it is easily prevented
and treated. In the United States, because of advanced water and sanitation systems,
cholera is not a major threat; however, everyone, especially travelers, should be aware of
how the disease is transmitted and what can be done to prevent it.

Vibrio cholerae
Cholera, which is derived from a Greek term meaning “flow of bile,” is caused by Vibrio
cholerae and is the most feared epidemic diarrheal disease because of its severity.
Dehydration and death can occur within a matter of hours of infection.

In 1883, Robert Koch discovered V cholerae during a cholera outbreak in Egypt. The
organism is a comma-shaped, gram-negative aerobic bacillus whose size varies from 1-3
mm in length by 0.5-0.8 mm in diameter. Its antigenic structure consists of a flagellar H
antigen and a somatic O antigen. The differentiation of the latter allows for separation into
pathogenic and nonpathogenic strains. V cholerae O1 or O139 are associated with
epidemic cholera. V cholerae O1 has 2 major biotypes: classic and El Tor.

Currently, El Tor is the predominant cholera pathogen. Organisms in both biotypes are
subdivided into serotypes according to the structure of the O antigen, as follows:
 Serotype Inaba - O antigens A and C
 Serotype Ogawa - O antigens A and B
 Serotype Hikojima - O antigens A, B, and C

How does a person get cholera?

A person may get cholera by drinking water or eating food contaminated with the cholera
bacterium. In an epidemic, the source of the contamination is usually the feces of an
infected person. The disease can spread rapidly in areas with inadequate treatment of
sewage and drinking water.

The cholera bacterium may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal
waters. Shellfish eaten raw have been a source of cholera, and a few persons in the United
States have contracted cholera after eating raw or undercooked shellfish from the Gulf of
Mexico. The disease is not likely to spread directly from one person to another; therefore,
casual contact with an infected person is not a risk for becoming ill.
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Vibrio Cholerae Bacterium
Cholera (also called Asiatic cholera) is a disease of the gastrointestinal tract caused by
the Vibrio cholerae bacterium. These bacteria are typically ingested by drinking water
contaminated by improper sanitation or by eating improperly cooked fish, especially
shellfish. Symptoms include diarrhea, abdominal cramps, nausea, vomiting, and
dehydration. Death is generally due to the dehydration caused by the illness. When left
untreated, Cholera generally has a high mortality rate. Treatment is typically an aggressive
rehydration regimen usually delivered intravenously, which continues until the diarrhea
ceases.

* About one million Vibrio cholerae bacteria must be ingested to cause cholera in
normally healthy adults, although increased susceptibility may be observed in
those with a weakened immune system, individuals with decreased gastric acidity
(as from the use of antacids), or those who are malnourished.

* 1,099,882 cases and 10,453 deaths were reported in the Western Hemisphere
between January 1991 and July 1995.

* On average, one case of cholera is reported in the United States every week.
Vibrio cholerae causes disease by producing a toxin that disables the GTPase
function of G proteins which are part of G protein-coupled receptors in intestinal
cells. This has the effect that the G proteins are locked in the "on position" binding
GTP (normally, the G proteins quickly return to "off" by hydrolyzing GTP to GDP).
The G proteins then cause adenylate cyclases to produce large amounts of cyclic
AMP (cAMP) which results in the loss of fluid and salts across the lining of the gut.

The resulting diarrhea allows the bacterium to spread to other people under unsanitary
conditions.

What is the risk for cholera in the United States?

In the United States, cholera was prevalent in the 1800s but has been virtually elimin-ated
by modern sewage and water treatment systems. However, as a result of improved
transportation, more persons from the United States travel to parts of Latin America,
Africa, or Asia where epidemic cholera is occurring. U.S. travelers to areas with epide-mic
cholera may be exposed to the cholera bacterium. In addition, travelers may bring
contaminated seafood back to the United States; foodborne outbreaks have been caused
by contaminated seafood brought into this country by travelers.

Although cholera can be life-threatening, it is easily prevented and treated. In the United
States, because of advanced water and sanitation systems, cholera is not a major threat.
The last major outbreak of cholera in the United States was in 1911. However, everyone,
especially travelers, should be aware of how the disease is transmitted and what can be
done to prevent it.

What should travelers do to avoid getting cholera?

The risk for cholera is very low for U.S. travelers visiting areas with epidemic cholera.
When simple precautions are observed, contracting the disease is unlikely.

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All travelers to areas where cholera has occurred should observe the following
recommendations:
 Drink only water that you have boiled or treated with chlorine or iodine. Other
safe beverages include tea and coffee made with boiled water and carbonated,
bottled beverages with no ice.
 Eat only foods that have been thoroughly cooked and are still hot, or fruit that you
have peeled yourself.
 Avoid undercooked or raw fish or shellfish, including ceviche.
 Make sure all vegetables are cooked, avoid salads.
 Avoid foods and beverages from street vendors.
 Do not bring perishable seafood back to the United States.

A simple rule of thumb is "Boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget it."

Treatment
The objective of treatment is to replace fluid and electrolytes lost through diarrhea.
Depending on the condition of the person, oral or intravenous fluid will be given.
Tetracycline and other antibiotics may shorten the duration of the symptoms.
Note: Tetracycline is usually not prescribed for children until after all the permanent teeth
have come in, because it can permanently discolor teeth that are still forming.

The World Health Organization (WHO) has developed an oral rehydration solution that is
cheaper and easier to use than the typical intravenous fluid. This solution of sugar and
electrolytes is now being used internationally.

Expectations (prognosis)
Severe dehydration can cause death. Given adequate fluids, most people will make a full
recovery.

Complications
 Severe dehydration.

Calling your health care provider

Call your health care provider if profuse watery diarrhea develops.

Call your health care provider if signs of dehydration occur, including rapid pulse (heart
rate), dry skin, dry mouth, thirst, "glassy" eyes, lethargy, sunken eyes, no tears, reduced
or no urine, and unusual sleepiness or tiredness.

Susceptibility
Recent genetic research has determined that a person's susceptibility to cholera and other
diarrheas) is affected by their blood type. Those with type O blood are the most
susceptible. Those with type AB are the most resistant, virtually immune. Between these
two extremes are the A and B blood types, with type A being more resistant than type B.

Carriers of the cystic fibrosis gene are protected from the severe effects of cholera
because they don't lose water as quickly. This explains the high incidence of cystic fibrosis
among populations which were formerly exposed to cholera.

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Epidemic control and preventive measures
When cholera appears in a community it is essential to ensure three things: hygienic
disposal of human feces, an adequate supply of safe drinking water, and good food
hygiene. Effective food hygiene measures include cooking food thoroughly and eating it
while still hot; preventing cooked foods from being contaminated by contact with raw
foods, including water and ice, contaminated surfaces or flies; and avoiding raw fruits or
vegetables unless they are first peeled. Washing hands after defecation, and particularly
before contact with food or drinking water, is equally important.

Routine treatment of a community with antibiotics, or "mass chemoprophylaxis", has no

effect on the spread of cholera, nor does restricting travel and trade between countries or
between different regions of a country. Setting up a cordon sanitaire at frontiers uses
personnel and resources that should be devoted to effective control measures, and
hampers collaboration between institutions and countries that should unite their efforts to
combat cholera.

Limited stocks of two oral cholera vaccines that provide high-level protection for several
months against cholera caused by V. cholerae O1 have recently become available in a
few countries. Both are suitable for use by travelers but they have not yet been used on a
large scale for public health purposes. Use of this vaccine to prevent or control cholera
outbreaks is not recommended because it may give a false sense of security to vaccinated
subjects and to health authorities, who may then neglect more effective measures.

Is a vaccine available to prevent cholera?

At the present time, the manufacture and sale of the only licensed cholera vaccine in the
United States (Wyeth-Ayerst) has been discontinued. It has not been recommended for
travelers because of the brief and incomplete immunity it offers. No cholera vaccination
requirements exist for entry or exit in any country.

Two recently developed vaccines for cholera are licensed and available in other countries
(Dukoral®, Biotec AB and Mutacol®, Berna). Both vaccines appear to provide a somewhat
better immunity and fewer side-effects than the previously available vaccine. However,
neither of these two vaccines are recommended for travelers nor are they available in the
United States.

History and spread of epidemic cholera

Cholera has smoldered in an endemic fashion on the Indian subcontinent for centuries.
There are references to deaths due to dehydrating diarrhea dating back to Hippocrates
and Sanskrit writings. Epidemic cholera was described in 1563 by Garcia del Huerto, a
Portuguese physician at Goa, India. The mode of transmission of cholera by water was
proven in 1849 by John Snow, a London physician. In 1883, Robert Koch successfully
isolated the cholera vibrio from the intestinal discharges of cholera patients and proved
conclusively that it was the agent of the disease.

The first long-distance spread of cholera to Europe and the Americas began in 1817 and
by the early 20th century, six waves of cholera had spread across the world in devastating
epidemic fashion. Since then, until the 1960s, the disease contracted, remaining present
only in southern Asia.

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El Tor
In 1961, the "El Tor" biotype (distinguished from classic biotypes by the production of
hemolysins) reemerged to produce a major epidemic in the Philippines and to initiate a
seventh global pandemic. Since then this biotype has spread across Asia, the Middle East,
Africa, and more recently, parts of Europe.

There are several characteristics of the El Tor strain that confer upon it a high degree of
"epidemic virulence" allowing it to spread across the world as previous strains have done.
First, the ratio of cases to carriers is much less than in cholera due to classic biotypes (1:
30-100 for El Tor vs. 1: 2 - 4 for "classic" biotypes). Second, the duration of carriage after
infection is longer for the El Tor strain than the classic strains. Third, the El Tor strain
survives for longer periods in the extraintestinal environment. Between 1969 and 1974, El
Tor replaced the classic strains in the heartland of endemic cholera, the Ganges River
Delta of India.

El Tor broke out explosively in Peru in 1991 (after an absence of cholera there for 100
years), and spread rapidly in Central and South America, with recurrent epidemics in 1992
and 1993. From the onset of the epidemic in January 1991 through September 1, 1994, a
total of 1,041,422 cases and 9,642 deaths (overall case-fatality rate: 0.9%) were reported
from countries in the Western Hemisphere to the Pan American Health Organization. In
1993, the numbers of reported cases and deaths were 204,543 and 2362, respectively.

So far, the United States has been spared except for imported cases, or clusters of
infections from imported food. In the United States during 1993 and 1994, 22 and 47
cholera cases were reported to CDC, respectively. Of these, 65 (94%) were associated
with foreign travel.

In 1982, in Bangladesh, a classic biotype resurfaced with a new capacity to produce more
severe illness, and it rapidly replaced the El Tor strain which was thought to be well-
entrenched. This classic strain has not yet produced a major outbreak in any other country.

In December, 1992, a large epidemic of cholera began in Bangladesh, and large numbers
of people have been involved. The organism has been characterized as V. cholerae O139
"Bengal". It is derived genetically from the El Tor pandemic strain but it has changed its
antigenic structure such that there is no existing immunity and all ages, even in endemic
areas, are susceptible. The epidemic has continued to spread. and V. cholerae O139 has
affected at least 11 countries in southern Asia. Specific totals for numbers of V. cholerae
O139 cases are unknown because affected countries do not report infections caused by
O1 and O139 separately.

Antigenic Variation and LPS Structure in Vibrio cholerae

Antigenic variation plays an important role in the epidemiology and virulence of cholera.
The emergence of the Bengal strain, mentioned above, is an example. The flagellar
antigens of V. cholerae are shared with many water vibrios and therefore are of no use in
distinguishing strains causing epidemic cholera. O antigens, however, do distinguish
strains of V. cholerae into 139 known serotypes. Almost all of these strains of V. cholerae
are nonvirulent. Until the emergence of the Bengal strain (which is "non-O1") a single
serotype, designated O1, has been responsible for epidemic cholera.

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However, there are three distinct O1 biotypes, named Ogawa, Inaba and Hikojima, and
each biotype may display the "classical" or El Tor phenotype. The Bengal strain is a new
serological strain with a unique O-antigen which partly explains the lack of residual
immunity.

Antigenic Determinants of Vibrio cholerae

Serotype O Antigens
Ogawa A, B
Inaba A, C
Hikojima A, B, C

Endotoxin is present in Vibrio cholerae as in other Gram-negative bacteria. Fewer details

of the chemical structure of Vibrio cholerae LPS are known than in the case of E. coli and
Salmonella typhimurium, but some unique properties have been described. Most
importantly, variations in LPS occur in vivo and in vitro, which may be correlated with
reversion in nature of nonepidemic strains to classic epidemic strains and vice versa.

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Cholera Toxin
Cholera toxin activates the adenylate cyclase enzyme in cells of the intestinal
mucosa leading to increased levels of intracellular cAMP, and the secretion of H20, Na+,
K+, Cl-, and HCO3- into the lumen of the small intestine. The effect is dependent on a
specific receptor, monosialosyl ganglioside (GM1 ganglioside) present on the surface of
intestinal mucosal cells. The bacterium produces an invasin, neuraminidase, during the
colonization stage which has the interesting property of degrading gangliosides to the
monosialosyl form, which is the specific receptor for the toxin.

The toxin has been characterized and contains 5 binding (B) subunits of 11,500 daltons,
an active (A1) subunit of 23,500 daltons, and a bridging piece (A2) of 5,500 daltons that
links A1 to the 5B subunits. Once it has entered the cell, the A1 subunit enzymatically
transfers ADP ribose from NAD to a protein (called Gs or Ns), that regulates the adenylate
cyclase system which is located on the inside of the plasma membrane of mammalian
cells.

Enzymatically, fragment A1 catalyzes the transfer of the ADP-ribosyl moiety of NAD to a

component of the adenylate cyclase system. The process is complex. Adenylate cyclase
(AC) is activated normally by a regulatory protein (GS) and GTP; however, activation is
normally brief because another regulatory protein (Gi), hydrolyzes GTP.

The normal situation is described as follows.

The A1 fragment catalyzes the attachment of ADP-Ribose (ADPR) to the regulatory

protein forming Gs-ADPR from which GTP cannot be hydrolyzed. Since GTP hydrolysis
is the event that inactivates the adenylate cyclase, the enzyme remains continually
activated. This situation can be illustrated as follows.

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Thus, the net effect of the toxin is to cause cAMP to be produced at an abnormally high
rate which stimulates mucosal cells to pump large amounts of Cl- into the intestinal
contents. H2O, Na+ and other electrolytes follow due to the osmotic and electrical gradients
caused by the loss of Cl-.

The lost H2O and electrolytes in mucosal cells are replaced from the blood. Thus, the
toxin-damaged cells become pumps for water and electrolytes, causing the diarrhea, loss
of electrolytes, and dehydration that are characteristic of cholera.

Last Word
E. coli produces a toxin, heat labile toxin (LT) that is very similar to the cholera toxin in
structure and mode of action. The DNA that encodes the LT toxin is on a plasmid that can
be transferred to other E. coli strains and probably to other enteric bacteria, as well. Close
relationships between the genetic code for LT toxin and the cholera toxin un-doubtedly
exist but have not been documented as yet.

The genetic information for the toxin in V. cholerae is located on the bacterial chromo-
some. Other bacterial enterotoxins related to cholera toxin have been reported in non-
group O Vibrio strains and a strain of Salmonella.

Enterotoxins, toxins which act in the GI tract, are produced by a wide variety of bacteria.

The family of heat-stable (ST) enterotoxins of E. coli, which activate guanylate cyclase,
are unrelated to LT toxin or cholera toxin. Other enterotoxins, which elicit cytotoxic effects
on intestinal epithelial cells, have been described from Escherichia, Klebsiella,
Enterobacter, Citrobacter, Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Shigella, V. parahaemolyticus,
Campylobacter, Yersinia enterocolitica, Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, C.
difficile, and Staphylococcus aureus.
.

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Legionnaires' Disease Legionella Chapter 5
Introduction Genus: Legionella Species: pneumophila
The first discovery of bacteria from genus Legionella came in 1976 when an outbreak of
pneumonia at an American Legion convention led to 29 deaths. The causative agent, what
would come to be known as Legionella pneumophila, was isolated and given its own
genus. The organisms classified in this genus are Gram-negative bacteria that are
considered intracellular parasites. The disease has two
distinct forms:
 Legionnaires' disease, the more severe form of
infection which includes pneumonia, and
 Pontiac fever, a milder illness.

What have been the water sources for

Legionnaires' disease?
The major source is water distribution systems of large
buildings, including hotels and hospitals. Cooling
towers have long been thought to be a major source for
Legionella, but new data suggest that this is an overemphasized mode of
transmission. Other sources include mist machines, humidifiers, whirlpool spas, and hot
springs. Air conditioners are not a source for Legionnaires' disease. They were
suspected to be the source in the original American Legion outbreak in a Philadelphia
hotel, but new data now suggests that the water in the hotel was the actual culprit.

Legionnaire’s disease is caused most commonly by the inhalation of small droplets of

water or fine aerosol containing Legionella bacteria. Legionella bacteria are naturally
found in environmental water sources such as rivers, lakes and ponds and may colonize
man-made water systems that include air conditioning systems, humidifiers, cooling tower
waters, hot water systems, spas and pools.

How do people contract Legionella?

The most popular theory is that the organism is
aerosolized in water and people inhale the droplets
containing Legionella. However, new evidence
suggests that another way of contracting Legionella is
more common. "Aspiration" is the most common way
that bacteria enter into the lungs to cause
pneumonia. Aspiration means choking such that
secretions in the mouth get past the choking reflexes
and instead of going into the esophagus and stomach,
mistakenly, enter the lung.

The protective mechanisms to prevent aspiration is

defective in patients who smoke or have lung disease. Aspiration now appears to be the
most common mode of transmission.

Legionella may multiply to high numbers in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, air
washers, humidifiers, hot water heaters, spas, fountains, and plumbing fixtures.

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Within one month, Legionella can multiply, in warm water-containing systems, from less
than 10 per milliliter to over 1,000 per milliliter of water.

Once high numbers of Legionella have been found, a relatively simple procedure for
disinfecting water systems with chlorine and detergent is available. This procedure is not
part of a routine maintenance program because equipment may become corroded.

Property owners have been sued for the spread of Legionella, resulting in expensive
settlements. Regular monitoring with a battery of DFA monoclonal antibodies for several
serogroups and species of Legionella morphologically intact bacteria provides a means
for exercising 'reasonable care' to deter potential litigation.

Currently, there are no United States government regulations concerning permissible

numbers of legionella in water systems and there are no federal or state certification
programs for laboratories that perform legionella testing of environmental samples.

Epifluorescence Microscopy DFA Method

The epifluorescence microscopy DFA method that most labs use was published in the
British Journal, Water Research 19:839-848, 1985 "Disinfection of circulating water
systems by ultraviolet light and halogenation", R. Gilpin, et al. so we can count viable-but-
nonculturable (VBNC) legionella.

Most labs will provide a quantitative epifluorescence microscopic analysis of your cooling
tower and potable water samples for 14 serogroups of Legionella pneumophila and 15
other Legionella species (listed below).

Legionella anisa Legionella bozemanii sg 1 & 2

Legionella dumoffi Legionella feeleii sg 1 & 2
Legionella gormanii Legionella hackeliae sg 1 & 2
Legionella jordanis Legionella longbeachae sg 1& 2
Legionella maceachernii Legionella micdadei
Legionella oakridgensis Legionella parisiensis
Legionella pneumophila sg 1-14 Legionella sainthelensi
Legionella santicrucis Legionella wadsworthii

Heterotrophic bacterial CFU are often inversely proportional to numbers of Legionella in

cooling tower samples, in our experience. Routine biocide treatments will not eradicate
Legionella bacteria in the environment, only in laboratory studies.

Culture methods are good during outbreaks for biotyping; but culture methods lack
sensitivity for routine, quantitative monitoring. Many factors will inhibit growth or
identification of legionella on BCYE with or without antimicrobial agents, heat or acid
treatment.

Culture methods will not identify non-culturable legionella that can still cause outbreaks
(non-culturable, viable legionella have been reported in several peer-reviewed
journals). Only DFA tests performed by trained laboratory personnel can identify these
legionella.

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Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests using a battery of monoclonal antibodies provide
more useful routine monitoring information than culture methods.

Legionella species of bacteria cause Legionnaire's disease. They are gram negative (but
stain poorly), strictly aerobic rods.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration recommend routine maintenance of water-containing equipment. Most
State health departments recommend monthly testing for Legionella as part of a routine
maintenance program.

As far as we know, there are no federal or state certification programs for laboratories that
perform Legionella testing of environmental samples. Therefore, care must be taken
when selecting a testing laboratory.

More on Legionnaires’ Disease Medical Aspects

Legionnaires’ disease is caused by bacteria that belong to the family Legionellaceae. This
family now includes 48 species and over 70 serogroups. Approximately half of these
species have been implicated in human disease. Legionella pneumophila is responsible
for approximately 90% of infections.

Most cases are caused by L. pneumophila, serogroup 1. Legionella species are small (0.3
to 0.9 μm in width and approximately 2 μm in length) faintly staining Gram-negative rods
with polar flagella (except L. oakridgensis).

They generally appear as small coccobacilli in infected tissue or secretions. They are
distinguished from other saccharolytic bacteria by their requirement for L-cysteine and iron
salts for primary isolation on solid media and by their unique cellular fatty acids and
ubiquinones.

They grow well on buffered charcoal yeast extract agar, but it takes about five days to get
sufficient growth. When grown on this medium, Legionella colonies appear off-white in
color and circular in shape.

Laboratory identification can also include microscopic examination in conjunction with a

direct flourescent antibody (DFA) test. Since the initial discovery, many species have been
added to the Legionella genus, but only two are within the scope of our discussion.

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L. pneumophila and L. micdadei

L. pneumophila
L. pneumophila is the bacterium associated with Legionnaires' disease and Pontiac fever.
Respiratory transmission of this organism can lead to infection, which is usually
characterized by a gradual onset of flu-like symptoms.

Patients may experience fever, chills, and a dry cough as part of the early symptoms.
Patients can develop severe pneumonia which is not responsive to penicillins or
aminoglycosides. Legionnaires' disease also has the potential to spread into other organ-
systems of the body such as the gastrointestinal tract and the central nervous system.
Accordingly, patients with advanced infections may experience diarrhea, nausea,
disorientation, and confusion.

The 1200 or so cases of Legionnaires' disease per year in the United States usually
involve middle-aged or immunosuppressed individuals. Pontiac fever is also caused by L.
pneumophila but does not produce the severity of the symptoms found in Legionnaires'
disease.

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The flu-like symptoms are still seen in Pontiac fever patients but pneumonia does not
develop and infection does not spread beyond the lungs. Most L. pneomophila infections
are easily treated with erythromycin.

Laboratory Indications
 Beta-lactamase +
 Hippurate hydrolysis +

L. micdadei
L. micdadei is the second most commonly isolated member of Legionella. This bacterium
can cause the same flu-like symptoms and pneomonia which characterize an L.
pneumophila infection. Unlike its relative, L. micdadei is sensitive to the penicillins
because it does not produce beta-lactamase.

Laboratory Indications
 Beta-lactamase -
 Hippurate hydrolysis -
 Acid fast

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Escherichia Coli Chapter 6
Fecal Coliform Bacteria. More information in the Appendix.
Fecal coliform bacteria are microscopic organisms that live in the intestines of warm-
blooded animals. They also live in the waste material, or feces, excreted from the intestinal
tract. When fecal coliform bacteria are present in high numbers in a water sample, it means
that the water has received fecal matter from one source or another. Although not
necessarily agents of disease, fecal coliform bacteria may indicate the presence of
disease-carrying organisms, which live in the same environment as the fecal coliform
bacteria.

Reasons for Natural Variation

Unlike the other conventional water quality parameters, fecal coliform bacteria are living
organisms. They do not simply mix with the water and float straight downstream. Instead
they multiply quickly when conditions are favorable for growth, or die in large numbers
when conditions are not. Because bacterial concentrations are dependent on specific
conditions for growth, and these conditions change quickly, fecal coliform bacteria counts
are not easy to predict. For example, although winter rains may wash more fecal matter
from urban areas into a stream, cool water temperatures may cause a major die-off.
Exposure to sunlight (with its ultraviolet disinfection properties) may have the same effect,
even in the warmer water of summertime.

Expected Impact of Pollution

The primary sources of fecal coliform bacteria to
fresh water are wastewater treatment plant
discharges, failing septic systems, and animal
waste. Bacteria levels do not necessarily
decrease as a watershed develops from rural to
urban. Instead, urbanization usually generates
new sources of bacteria. Farm animal manure
and septic systems are replaced by domestic
pets and leaking sanitary sewers. In fact,
stormwater runoff in urbanized areas has been
found to be surprisingly high in fecal coliform
bacteria concentrations.

The presence of old, disintegrating storm and

sanitary sewers, misplaced sewer pipes, and
good breeding conditions are common
explanations for the high levels measured.

Coliform Standards ( in colonies/100ml )

Drinking water..................................................................1FC
Total body contact (swimming).............................................200FC
Partial body contact (boating)..............................................1000FC
Threatened sewage effluent ................................not to exceed 200 FC
*Total coliform (TC) includes bacteria from cold-blooded animals and various soil
organisms. According to recent literature, total coliform counts are normally about 10
times higher than fecal coliform (FC) counts.

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Indicator Connection Varies
General coliforms, E. Coli, and Enterococcus bacteria are the "indicator" organisms
generally measured to assess microbiological quality of water. However, these aren't
generally what get people sick. Other bacteria, viruses, and parasites are what we are
actually worried about.

Because it is so much more expensive and tedious to do so, actual pathogens are virtually
never tested for. Over the course of a professional lifetime pouring over indicator tests, in
a context where all standards are based on indicators, water workers tend to forget that
the indicators are not the things we actually care about.

What are these indicators? More information in the Laboratory section.

 General coliforms indicate that the water has come in contact with plant or animal
life. General coliforms are universally present, including in pristine spring water.
They are of little concern at low levels, except to indicate the effectiveness of
disinfection. Chlorinated water and water from perfectly sealed tube wells is the
only water I've tested which had zero general coliforms. At very high levels they
indicate there is what amounts to a lot of compost in the water, which could easily
include pathogens (Ten thousand general coliform bacteria will get you a beach
closure, compared to two or four hundred fecal coliforms, or fifty enterococcus).
 Fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, indicate that there are mammal or bird feces
in the water.
 Enterococcus bacteria also indicate that there are feces from warm-blooded
animals in the water. Enterococcus are a type of fecal streptococci. They are
another valuable indicator for determining the amount of fecal contamination of
water. According to studies conducted by the EPA, enterococci have a greater
correlation with swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness in both marine and
fresh waters than other bacterial indicator organisms, and are less likely to "die off"
in saltwater.

The more closely related the animal, the more likely pathogens excreted with their feces
can infect us.

Human feces are the biggest concern, because anything which infects one human could
infect another. There isn't currently a quantitative method for measuring specifically
human fecal bacteria (expensive genetic studies can give a presence/absence result).

Ingesting a human stranger's feces via contaminated water supply is a classic means for
infections to spread rapidly. The more pathogens an individual carries, the more
hazardous their feces. Ingesting feces from someone who is not carrying any pathogens
may gross you out, but it can't infect you. Infection rates are around 5% in the US, and
approach 100% in areas with poor hygiene and contaminated water supplies.

Keep in the back of your mind that the ratio of indicators to actual pathogens is not
fixed. It will always be different, sometimes very different. Whenever you are trying to form
a mental map of reality based on water tests, you should include in the application of your
water intuition an adjustment factor for your best guess of the ratio between indicators and
actual pathogens.

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Pathogenic Escherichia coli MLST Database –
Clonal Group Definition

Clonal Reference
Class Comments
Group Strain
0 N/A TW08017 Undefined Clonal Group
atypical
1 TW08889 cluster within E. coli with Boydii 13 (B13 ) antigen
B13
2 STEC 13 TW08045 includes STEC R:H18 strain
3 EPEC 3 TW06584 O86:H34 strains from infant diarrhea
4 H51 TW08260 cluster with H51 antigen
5 NT-1 TW08997 no common traits
6 EPEC 1 TW06375 Classical EPEC with H6
7 EPEC 4 TW03173 O119:H6 strains, basal to EPEC 1
8 NT-2 TW08983 no common traits
9 NT-3 TW08990 no common traits
Shigella Reeves Shigella Group 3 including serotypes F1a,
10 TW08837
3 F2a, F3a, F3b, F4, F5a FY
O157:H7 and relatives including atypical EPEC
11 EHEC 1 TW08264
O55:H7
12 STEC 12 TW00964 STEC O145 strains
13 ETEC P TW00601 ETEC from pigs including O157:H43 clone
14 EHEC 2 TW00970 O26:H11 and O111:H8 and relatives including RDEC
15 NT-4 TW09177 no common traits
16 EIEC 2 TW01095 Invasive strains with O type 29, 124, 152, 164
17 EPEC 2 TW01120 Classical EPEC with H2 antigen
Serotype O104:H21, includes Montana outbreak strain
18 STEC 8 TW04909
G5506
19 STEC 9 TW08580 Serotype O174:H8
20 STEC 10 TW07618 Various serotypes
21 STEC 11 TW07613 Serotype O111:H28
22 EIEC 1 TW01116 Invasive strains with O types 29, 124, 152, 164
23 ECOR A TW00073 Includes atypical EPEC O111:H12
24 STEC 3 TW08023 Serotype O121:H19
Reeves Shigella Group 1 including serotypes F6, D3,
Shigella
25 TW07572 D6, D7, D9, D11, D12, B1, B2, B3, B4, B8, B10, B14,
1
B15, B18
Shigella Reeves Shigella Group 2 including serotypes D2, D4,
26 TW02615
2a B9, B15
Shigella Reeves Shigella Group 2 including serotypes B5, B11,
27 TW01151
2b B17
Atypical EPEC with serotype O111:H9, includes
28 EPEC 5 TW04892
Finland outbreak strain 921
29 Sonnei TW01150 Shigella sonnei
30 STEC 2 TW01391 Includes serotype O113:H21 and ECOR 30
31 NT-5 TW00676 no common traits
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32 NT-6 TW07795 no common traits
33 NT-13 TW09011 no common traits
34 STEC 1 TW01393 STEC with H21 antigen including B2F1
35 SMEC 1 TW02268 Extraintestinal strains including RS218
36 NT-7 TW07608 no common traits
37 Sand 2 TW09237 Environmental E. coli clone
38 UTI 1 TW08018 Uropathogens including CFT073
Mix of serotypes O121, O116, also includes an EIEC
39 STEC 4 TW07995
1758-70
40 NT-8 TW09214 no common traits
41 STEC 14 TW08574 Serotype O174:H2
42 NT-7 TW07612 no common traits
43 STEC TW01670 serotype O8:H19
44 NT-10 TW10091 no comment traits
45 NT-11 TW08942 no comment traits
46 NT-12 TW09069 no comment traits

Quebec Colony Counter

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References
Buchanan, Robert L. and M. P. Doyle. 1997. Foodborne Disease Significance of
Escherichia coli 0157:H7 and other Entrohemorrhagic E. coli. Food Technology 51: 69-
75.

Collins, Janet E. 1997. Impact of Changing Consumer Lifestyles on the Emergence

/Reemergence of Foodborne Pathogens. Emerging Infectious Diseases 3(4): n. pag.
Online. Internet. 23 Feb. 1998. Available:
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/EID/vol3no4/collins.html.

FSIS: USDA Advises Consumers to Use a Thermometer when Cooking Hamburger.

1997. n. pag. Online. Internet. 26 Feb. 1998. Available:
http://www/usda.gov/agency/fsis/thermopr.html.

Kendrick, Kathleen E. and E. A. Wrobel-Woerner. 1997. Identification of Enteric Bacteria

by Using Metabolic Characteristics: An Excerpt from a Bulletin Published by the Centers
for Disease Control. Microbiology 520 AU '97 Laboratory Manual.

Reed, Craig A. and B. Kaplan. 1996. S.O.S. ... HELP prevent E. coli 0157:H7 ... et al!
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 209:1213.

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Related Diseases and Associated Illnesses Chapter 7
Water providers should be alert to illness patterns and diagnostic clues that might indicate
an unusual infectious disease outbreak associated with intentional release of a biologic
agent and should report any clusters or findings to their local or state health department.

The covert release of a biologic agent may not have an immediate impact because of the
delay between exposure and illness onset, and outbreaks associated with intentional
releases might closely resemble naturally occurring outbreaks. Indications of intentional
release of a biologic agent include 1) an unusual temporal or geographic clustering of
illness (e.g., persons who attended the same public event or gathering) or patients
presenting with clinical signs and symptoms that suggest an infectious disease outbreak
(e.g., >2 patients presenting with an unexplained febrile illness associated with sepsis,
pneumonia, respiratory failure, or rash or a botulism-like syndrome with flaccid muscle
paralysis, especially if occurring in otherwise healthy persons); 2) an unusual age
distribution for common diseases (e.g., an increase in what appears to be a chickenpox-
like illness among adult patients, but which might be smallpox); and 3) a large number of
cases of acute flaccid paralysis with prominent bulbar palsies, suggestive of a release of
botulinum toxin.

CDC defines three categories of biologic agents with potential to be used as weapons,
based on ease of dissemination or transmission, potential for major public health impact
(e.g., high mortality), potential for public panic and social disruption, and requirements for
public health preparedness.

Agents of highest concern are Bacillus anthracis (anthrax), Yersinia pestis (plague),
variola major (smallpox), Clostridium botulinum toxin (botulism), Francisella tularensis
(tularemia), filoviruses (Ebola hemorrhagic fever, Marburg hemorrhagic fever); and
arenaviruses (Lassa [Lassa fever], Junin [Argentine hemorrhagic fever], and related
viruses). The following summarizes the clinical features of these agents.

Anthrax
A nonspecific prodrome (i.e., fever, dyspnea, cough, and chest discomfort) follows
inhalation of infectious spores. Approximately 2--4 days after initial symptoms, sometimes
after a brief period of improvement, respiratory failure and hemodynamic collapse ensue.
Inhalational anthrax also might include thoracic edema and a widened mediastinum on
chest radiograph.

Gram-positive bacilli can grow on blood culture, usually 2--3 days after onset of illness.
Cutaneous anthrax follows deposition of the organism onto the skin, occurring particularly
on exposed areas of the hands, arms, or face. An area of local edema becomes a pruritic
macule or papule, which enlarges and ulcerates after 1--2 days. Small, 1--3 mm vesicles
may surround the ulcer. A painless, depressed, black eschar, usually with surrounding
local edema, subsequently develops. The syndrome also may include lymphangitis and
painful lymphadenopathy.

Plague
Clinical features of pneumonic plague include fever, cough with muco-purulent sputum
(gram-negative rods may be seen on gram stain), hemoptysis, and chest pain. A chest
radiograph will show evidence of bronchopneumonia.
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Botulism
Clinical features include symmetric cranial neuropathies (i.e., drooping eyelids, weakened
jaw clench, and difficulty swallowing or speaking), blurred vision or diplopia, symmetric
descending weakness in a proximal to distal pattern, and respiratory dysfunction from
respiratory muscle paralysis or upper airway obstruction without sensory deficits.
Inhalational botulism would have a similar clinical presentation as foodborne botulism;
however, the gastrointestinal symptoms that accompany foodborne botulism may be
absent.

Smallpox (variola)
The acute clinical symptoms of smallpox resemble other acute viral illnesses, such as
influenza, beginning with a 2--4 day nonspecific prodrome of fever and myalgias before
rash onset. Several clinical features can help clinicians differentiate varicella (chickenpox)
from smallpox.

The rash of varicella is most prominent on the trunk and develops in successive groups of
lesions over several days, resulting in lesions in various stages of development and
resolution. In comparison, the vesicular/pustular rash of smallpox is typically most
prominent on the face and extremities, and lesions develop at the same time.

Inhalational tularemia
Inhalation of F. tularensis causes an abrupt onset of an acute, nonspecific febrile illness
beginning 3--5 days after exposure, with pleuropneumonitis developing in a substantial
proportion of cases during subsequent days.

Hemorrhagic fever (such as would be caused by Ebola or Marburg viruses).

After an incubation period of usually 5--10 days (range: 2--19 days), illness is
characterized by abrupt onset of fever, myalgia, and headache. Other signs and
symptoms include nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, chest pain, cough, and
pharyngitis. A maculopapular rash, prominent on the trunk, develops in most patients
approximately 5 days after onset of illness. Bleeding manifestations, such as petechiae,
ecchymoses, and hemorrhages, occur as the disease progresses (8).

Laboratory Personnel
Although unidentified gram-positive bacilli growing on agar may be considered as
contaminants and discarded, CDC recommends that these bacilli be treated as a "finding"
when they occur in a suspicious clinical setting (e.g., febrile illness in a previously healthy
person).

The laboratory should attempt to characterize the organism, such as motility testing,
inhibition by penicillin, absence of hemolysis on sheep blood agar, and further biochemical
testing or species determination.

An unusually high number of samples, particularly from the same biologic medium (e.g.,
blood and stool cultures), may alert laboratory personnel to an outbreak. In addition,
central laboratories that receive clinical specimens from several sources should be alert
to increases in demand or unusual requests for culturing (e.g., uncommon biologic
specimens such as cerebrospinal fluid or pulmonary aspirates).

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Collection of Samples
When collecting or handling specimens, laboratory personnel should:
1) use Biological Safety Level II (BSL-2) or Level III (BSL-3) facilities and practices when
working with clinical samples considered potentially infectious;
2) handle all specimens in a BSL-2 laminar flow hood with protective eyewear (e.g., safety
glasses or eye shields), use closed-front laboratory coats with cuffed sleeves, and stretch
the gloves over the cuffed sleeves;
3) avoid any activity that places persons at risk for infectious exposure, especially activities
that might create aerosols or droplet dispersal;
4) decontaminate laboratory benches after each use and dispose of supplies and
equipment in proper receptacles;
5) avoid touching mucosal surfaces with their hands (gloved or ungloved), and never eat
or drink in the laboratory; and 6) remove and reverse their gloves before leaving the
laboratory and dispose of them in a biohazard container, and wash their hands and
remove their laboratory coat.

When a laboratory is unable to identify an organism in a clinical specimen, it should be

sent to a laboratory where the agent can be characterized, such as the state public health
laboratory or, in some large metropolitan areas, the local health department laboratory.
Any clinical specimens suspected to contain variola (smallpox) should be reported to local
and state health authorities and then transported to CDC.

All variola diagnostics should be conducted at CDC laboratories. Clinical laboratories

should report any clusters or findings that could indicate intentional release of a biologic
agent to their state and local health departments.

After the terrorist attacks of September 11, state and local health departments initiated
various activities to improve surveillance and response, ranging from enhancing
communications (between state and local health departments and between public health
agencies and health-care providers) to conducting special surveillance projects.

These special projects have included active surveillance for changes in the number of
hospital admissions, emergency department visits, and occurrence of specific syndromes.

Activities in bioterrorism preparedness and emerging infections over the past few years
have better positioned public health agencies to detect and respond to the intentional
release of a biologic agent. Immediate review of these activities to identify the most useful
and practical approaches will help refine syndrome surveillance efforts in various clinical
situations.

Additional information about responding to bioterrorism is available from CDC at

<http://www.bt.cdc.gov>; the U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases
at <http://www.usamriid.army.mil/education/bluebook.html>; the Association for Infection
Control Practitioners at <http://www.apic.org>; and the Johns Hopkins Center for Civilian
Biodefense at <http://www.hopkins-biodefense.org>.

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References
1. CDC. Update: investigation of anthrax associated with intentional exposure and
interim public health guidelines, October 2001. MMWR 2001;50:889--93.
2. CDC. Biological and chemical terrorism: strategic plan for preparedness and
response. MMWR 2000;49(no. RR-4).
3. Arnon SS, Schechter R, Inglesby TV, et al. Botulinum toxin as a biological
weapon: medical and public health management. JAMA 2001;285:1059--70.
4. Inglesby TV, Dennis DT, Henderson DA, et al. Plague as a biological weapon:
medical and public health management. JAMA 2000;283:2281--90.
5. Henderson DA, Inglesby TV, Bartlett JG, et al. Smallpox as a biological weapon:
medical and public health management. JAMA 1999;281:2127--37.
6. Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, Bartlett JG, et al. Anthrax as a biological weapon:
medical and public health management. JAMA 1999;281:1735--963.
7. Dennis DT, Inglesby TV, Henderson DA, et al. Tularemia as a biological weapon:
medical and public health management. JAMA 2001;285:2763--73.
8. Peters CJ. Marburg and Ebola virus hemorrhagic fevers. In: Mandell GL, Bennett
JE, Dolin R, eds. Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 5th ed. New
York, New York: Churchill Livingstone 2000;2:1821--3.
9. APIC Bioterrorism Task Force and CDC Hospital Infections Program Bioterrorism
Working Group. Bioterrorism readiness plan: a template for healthcare facilities.
Available at <http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/hip/Bio/bio.htm>. Accessed October
2001.

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Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Section
The life cycle of Entamoeba histolytica involves trophozoites (the feeding stage of the
parasite) that live in the host's large intestine and cysts that are passed in the host's
feces. Humans are infected by ingesting cysts, most often via food or water contaminated
with human fecal material (view diagram of the life cycle). The trophozoites can destroy
the tissues that line the host's large intestine, so of the amoebae infecting the human
gastrointestinal tract, E. histolytica is potentially the most pathogenic.

Entamoeba histolytica trophozoite

Entamoeba histolytica immature cyst

Entamoeba histolytica mature cyst

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Entamoeba histolytica is an amoeboid protozoan parasite of the intestinal tract, and in
some cases other visceral organs especially the liver. There are several species in this
genus, distinguished by their number of nuclei in the cyst and position of the endosome,
whether or not they form a cyst, and whether they invade tissues or remain in the intestinal
lumen. Entamoeba histolytica has four nuclei in the cyst, a central endosome, forms a
cyst, and can be a tissue invader. The amoeboid trophozoites can live in the intestinal
crypts, feeding on intestinal contents and host tissue, and multiplying by fission.

Trophozoites
The trophozoites can be carried out in the feces. As the feces pass through the colon they
dehydrate. The dehydration of the feces causes the trophozoites to begin the process of
encystment. Undigested food is discharged, and the trophozoite condenses and forms a
spherical shape to form what is called the pre-cyst, and the cyst wall is secreted. Within
the cyst there are two nuclear divisions resulting in 2 nuclei in the immature cyst and 4
nuclei within the mature cyst.

The cyst can resist desiccation for 1-2 weeks. When the cyst is ingested by another host
the parasite excysts in the intestine and undergoes cytoplasmic division to produce 4
trophozoites. In some cases the trophozoites secrete proteolytic enzymes which destroy
the intestinal epithelium allowing the trophozoiute to enter the host tissue.

Extensive Tissue Destruction

These can form large abscesses that may allow the parasite to enter the blood stream
and be carried to the liver and other organs. In these extra-intestinal sites the trophozoites
also can cause extensive tissue destruction. If the intestinal tissue has been invaded the
feces can be bloody and diarrheic.

Trophoziotes in diarrheic feces are not stimulated to encyst because the feces are not
dehydrating. If they are not encysted they cannot long survive in the external environment.
Secondary bacterial infection can complicate an already severe pathology.

Accurate diagnosis of this parasite is important to prevent unnecessary treatment of a

non-pathogenic strain, and to ensure treating a pathogenic strain. Definitive diagnosis is
based on morphological characteristics of the trophozoites and cysts, the presence of
erythrocytes in the trophozoites, and clinical symptoms.

Symptoms of Amoebiasis
In most infected humans the symptoms of "amoebiasis" (or "amebiasis") are intermittent
and mild (various gastrointestinal upsets, including colitis and diarrhea). In more severe
cases the gastrointestinal tract hemorrhages, resulting in dysentery. In some cases the
trophozoites will enter the circulatory system and infect other organs, most often the liver
(hepatic amoebiasis), or they may penetrate the gastrointestinal tract resulting in acute
peritonitis; such cases are often fatal.

As with most of the amoebae, infections of E. histolytica are often diagnosed by

demonstrating cysts or trophozoites in a stool sample.

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Amebic Meningoencephalitis PAM Naegleria fowleri
What is primary amebic meningoencephalitis (PAM)?
Primary Amebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) is a rare and usually deadly disease caused
by infection with the ameba (a single-celled organism that constantly changes shape)
Naegleria fowleri. [Naegleria fowleri] [Acanthamoeba spp.] [Balamuthia mandrillaris]

Naegleria fowleri trophozoite in spinal fluid. Trichrome stain. Note the typically large
karyosome and the monopodial locomotion. Image contributed by Texas SHD.

What are the symptoms of PAM? What does PAM cause?

Following an incubation period of 2-15 days, there is a relatively sudden start of severe
meningitis-like symptoms, which begin with fever and headache. These are rapidly
followed by sensitivity to light, nausea, projectile vomiting, stiff neck, and, in many cases,
disturbances to taste and smell. Changes in behavior and seizures may also be present.
As conditions worsen the patient falls into a coma. Death usually occurs 3-7 days after the
onset of symptoms.

How common is PAM?

The ameba that causes the infection lives in soil and in freshwater ponds, lakes, rivers,
poorly or non-chlorinated pools, discharge or holding basins, and hot springs throughout
the world. Naegleria thrives in warm, stagnant bodies of fresh water when temperatures
are high, usually above 80 degrees.

Although the ameba is commonly found in the environment, PAM is very rare. In the last
30 years, only a few hundred cases have been reported worldwide.

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Who should be especially careful about PAM?
Cases are usually reported in children and young adults who have had recent exposure
to freshwater lakes or streams.

How is PAM spread? How do people get Naegleria infection?

The ameba is believed to enter the body through the nose and travel to the brain via the
olfactory (smell) nerve. The disease is not spread from person to person.

How do I protect myself from PAM?

To protect yourself against Naegleria or any harmful organism that is present in the water:
 Never swim in stagnant or polluted water.
 Do not swim in areas posted as "No Swimming."
 Hold your nose or use nose plugs when jumping or diving into water.
 Avoid swallowing water from rivers, lakes, streams, or stock ponds.
 Use earplugs, swim goggles, or masks if you tend to get ear or eye infections.
 Swim only in properly maintained pools.
 Keep wading pools clean and change the water daily.
 Wash open skin cuts and scrapes with clean water and soap.

What do I do if I think I have PAM?

Seek immediate medical attention and mention any recent fresh water exposure.

How is PAM diagnosed?

The disease is initially suspected based on patient history. The diagnosis is made through
the examination of the fluid in the patient's spinal chord or frequently after death through
the examination of brain tissue.

How are Naegleria infections treated?

PAM is a severe illness that does not respond to routine treatments. Aggressive use of
some antifungal medications has been successful only in a handful of cases. Intensive
supportive care is necessary along with the medication.

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Recent Outbreak Information
Health Stream Article - Issue 28 December 2002
Naegleria Deaths in Arizona

Residents of the Arizona towns of Peoria and Glendale have been shocked by the deaths
of two five-year old boys from amoebic meningitis caused by Naegleria fowleri. The source
of the infections has not been positively established but suspicion has fallen on a small
unchlorinated ground water supply operated by a private company.

This supply was taken off-line on 3 November, a boil water notice was issued and 6,000
consumers were warned not to use unboiled tap water for drinking, cooking or bathing.
Schools and restaurants in the suspect area were also closed, and residents were advised
to drain and clean spas and hyperchlorinate swimming pools.

Supply to the affected area was switched to a chlorinated surface water source, and a
flushing program with hyperchlorinated water was carried out to remove possible
contamination from the water distribution system.

One of the victims lived in Peoria and the other in the neighboring town of Glendale, some
four miles away. They attended separate schools, however the Glendale boy frequently
visited his grandparents' home a few blocks from the other boy's residence in Peoria. Both
boys became ill on 9 October and died a few days later on 12 and 13 October respectively.
Health authorities then began investigating possible common sources of Naegleria
exposure including drinking water, pools, bathtubs, spas and fountains.

About 100,000 of Peoria's 120,000 residents receive chlorinated drinking water from the
municipal supply. This supply is predominantly drawn from surface water sources but is
supplemented by groundwater in times of high demand. As Arizona state law prevents
counties from supplying water to areas outside the incorporated municipal zones, the
remaining 20,000 residents in the rapidly growing town are served by private water
companies which mainly rely on groundwater sources. Some of these companies
chlorinate their groundwater supplies and some do not.

The suspect water supply is drawn from a deep aquifer and is not routinely chlorinated,
although periodic chlorination has been used after new connections, line breaks or
incidents that might allow ingress of microbial contamination.

Tests by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have detected N. fowleri
in three samples:

ꞏ one pre-chlorination water sample from a municipal well that was routinely chlorinated.
ꞏ one tank water sample from the suspect unchlorinated groundwater system.
ꞏ the refrigerator filter from the home of the grandparents of one of the boys.

The chlorinated well is believed unlikely to be the source of infection as chlorination is

effective in killing N. fowleri.

Naegleria fowleri is a free living amoeba which is common in the environment and grows
optimally at temperatures of 35 to 45 degrees C. Exposure to the organism is believed to
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be relatively common but infections resulting in illness are rare. The disease was first
described in 1965 by Dr Malcolm Fowler, an Australian pathologist, who identified the
amoeba in a patient who had died from meningitis.

Most reported cases of N. fowleri meningitis are associated with swimming in natural
surface freshwater bodies, and infection occurs through introduction of the organism into
the nasal cavities. Cases are often reported to be associated with jumping or falling into
the water, providing conditions where water is forced into the nose at pressure. The
amoeba may then penetrate the cribiform plate, a semiporous barrier, and spread to the
meninges (the membrane surrounding the brain) and often to the brain tissue itself. The
cribiform plate is more permeable in children, making them more susceptible to infection
than adults. People with immune deficiencies may also be more prone to infection.

The incubation period is usually 2 to 5 days, and the infection cannot be transmitted from
person to person. In early studies, transmission by contaminated dust was suspected as
an infection route but this has since been discounted as the organism does not survive
desiccation.

N. fowleri meningitis causes non-specific symptoms such as fever, drowsiness, confusion,

vomiting, irritability, high pitched crying and convulsions. Similar symptoms also occur in
viral and bacterial forms of meningitis which are much more common than the amoebic
form. Most cases of N. fowleri meningitis are fatal, with only four survivors known among
about 100 cases in the US since 1965.

Cases of disease have also been associated with swimming pools where disinfection
levels were inadequate, and inhalation of tap water from surface water supplies that have
been subject to high temperatures.

The involvement of tap water supplies was first documented in South Australia, where a
number of cases occurred in the 1960s and 70s in several towns served by unchlorinated
surface water delivered through long above-ground pipelines. About half of the cases in
the state did not have a recent history of freshwater swimming, but had intra-nasal
exposure to tap water through inhaling or squirting water into the nose.

Investigators found N. fowleri in the water supply pipelines, and concluded that the high
water temperatures reached in summer provided a suitable environment for growth of the
organism. Tap water may also have been the primary source of infections attributed to
swimming pools in these towns. The incidence of disease was greatly reduced by
introduction of reliable chlorination facilities along the above-ground pipelines and
introduction of chloramination in the 1980s led to virtual elimination of N. fowleri from the
water supplies. Cases of disease have also been recorded in Western Australia,
Queensland and New South Wales, and N. fowleri has been detected in water supplies in
each of these states as well as the Northern Territory.

Warm water conditions and the absence of free chlorine may then allow it to proliferate in
the system. Local health authorities in Arizona are continuing their investigation into the
two deaths with assistance from CDC personnel. Plans are also underway to install a
continuous chlorination plant on the groundwater supply, and some residents have called
for the municipality to purchase the private water company and take over its operations.

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Calicivirus
See Gastroenteritis section, Norovirus Infection (aka Norwalk virus, calicivirus,
viral gastroenteritis)

Note the 'Star of David' image exhibited by individual virus particles. This is distinct from
the star-like images exhibited by astrovirus particles. Bar = 50 nanometers.
Source: Stool sample from an individual with gastroenteritis.
Method: Negative-stain Transmission Electron Microscopy

Rotovirus
Note the wheel-like appearance of some of the rotavirus particles. The observance of such
particles gave the virus its name ('rota' being the Latin word meaning wheel). Bar = 100
nanometers.
Source: Cell culture.
Method: Negative-stain Transmission Electron Microscopy

Photographs and information courtesy from the U.S. EPA and F.P. Williams, U.S.
EPA

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Schistosomes and Other Trematodes
Schistosomiasis, also called snail fever or bilharziasis, is thought to cause more illness
and disability than any other parasitic disease, except malaria. Almost unknown in
industrialized countries, schistosomiasis infects 200 million people in 76 countries of the
tropical developing world.

A Flatworm that spends part of its life in a freshwater snail host causes schistosomiasis.
Multiplying in the snail, a microscopic infective larval stage is released that can penetrate
human skin painlessly in 30 to 60 seconds. The larvae grow to adulthood and migrate to
the veins around the intestines or bladder, where mating occurs. The eggs produced may
lodge in these tissues and cause disease, or they are passed out in urine or feces, where
they reach fresh water and hatch to infect snails.

Multiplication and Life Cycle

Free-swimming larvae (cercariae) are given off by infected snails. These either penetrate
the skin of the human definitive host (schistosomes) or are ingested after encysting as
metacercariae in or on various edible plants or animals (all other trematodes). After
entering a human the larvae develop into adult males and females (schistosomes) or
hermaphrodites (other flukes), which produce eggs that pass out of the host in excreta.
These eggs hatch in fresh water into miracidia which infect snails.

Cercariae

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Pathogenesis
In schistosomiasis, eggs trapped in the tissues produce granulomatous inflammatory
reactions, fibrosis, and obstruction. The hermaphroditic flukes of the liver, lungs, and
intestines induce inflammatory and toxic reactions.

Host Defenses
Host defenses against schistosomiasis include antibody or complement-dependent
cellular cytotoxicity and modulation of granulomatous hypersensitivity. The defenses
against hermaphroditic flukes are unknown.

Epidemiology
Most infected individuals show no overt disease. In a relatively small proportion of
individuals, heavy infections due to repeated exposure to parasitic larvae will lead to the
development of clinical manifestations. The distribution of flukes is limited by the
distribution of their snail intermediate host. Larvae from snails infect a human by
penetrating the skin (schistosomes) or by being eaten (encysted larvae of other
trematodes).

Diagnosis
Diagnosis is suggested by clinical manifestations, geographic history, and exposure to
infective larvae. The diagnosis is confirmed by the presence of parasite eggs in excreta.

Control
As a control measure, exposure to parasite larvae in water and food should be prevented.
Treatment with praziquantel is effective.

Clinical Manifestations
Signs and symptoms are related largely to the location of the adult worms. Infections with
Schistosoma mansoni and S japonicum (mesenteric venules) result in eosinophilia,
hepatomegaly, splenomegaly, and hematemesis. Schistosoma haematobium (vesical
venules) causes dysuria, hema turia, and uremia.

Fasciola hepatica, Clonorchis sinensis, and Opisthorchis viverrini (bile ducts) cause fever,
hepatomegaly, abdominal pain, and jaundice. Infections with Paragonimus westermani
(lungs, brain) result in cough, hemoptysis, chest pain, and epilepsy. Fasciolopsis buski
(intestines) causes abdominal pain, diarrhea, and edema.

Structure
Trematodes are multicellular eukaryotic helminths.

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Gastroenteritis
What is viral gastroenteritis?
Gastroenteritis means inflammation of the stomach and small and large intestines. Viral
gastroenteritis is an infection caused by a variety of viruses that results in vomiting or
diarrhea. It is often called the "stomach flu," although it is not caused by the influenza
viruses.

What causes viral gastroenteritis?

Many different viruses can cause gastroenteritis, including rotaviruses, adenoviruses,
caliciviruses, astroviruses, Norwalk virus, and a group of Noroviruses. Viral gastroenteritis
is not caused by bacteria (such as Salmonella or Escherichia coli) or parasites (such as
Giardia), or by medications or other medical conditions, although the symptoms may be
similar. Your doctor can determine if the diarrhea is caused by a virus or by something
else.

What are the symptoms of viral gastroenteritis?

The main symptoms of viral gastroenteritis are watery diarrhea and vomiting. The affected
person may also have headache, fever, and abdominal cramps ("stomach ache"). In
general, the symptoms begin 1 to 2 days following infection with a virus that causes
gastroenteritis and may last for 1 to 10 days, depending on which virus causes the illness.

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Is viral gastroenteritis a serious illness?
For most people, it is not. People who get viral gastroenteritis almost always recover
completely without any long-term problems. Gastroenteritis is a serious illness, however,
for persons who are unable to drink enough fluids to replace what they lose through
vomiting or diarrhea. Infants, young children, and persons who are unable to care for
themselves, such as the disabled or elderly, are at risk for dehydration from loss of fluids.
Immune compromised persons are at risk for dehydration because they may get a more
serious illness, with greater vomiting or diarrhea. They may need to be hospitalized for
treatment to correct or prevent dehydration.

Is the illness contagious? How are these viruses spread?

Yes, viral gastroenteritis is contagious. The viruses that cause gastroenteritis are spread
through close contact with infected persons (for example, by sharing food, water, or eating
utensils). Individuals may also become infected by eating or drinking contaminated foods
or beverages.

How does food get contaminated by gastroenteritis viruses?

Food may be contaminated by food preparers or handlers who have viral gastroenteritis,
especially if they do not wash their hands regularly after using the bathroom. Shellfish may
be contaminated by sewage, and persons who eat raw or undercooked shellfish harvested
from contaminated waters may get diarrhea. Drinking water can also be contaminated by
sewage and be a source of spread of these viruses.

Where and when does viral gastroenteritis occur?

Viral gastroenteritis affects people in all parts of the world. Each virus has its own seasonal
activity. For example, in the United States, rotavirus and astrovirus infections occur during
the cooler months of the year (October to April), whereas adenovirus infections occur
throughout the year. Viral gastroenteritis outbreaks can occur in institutional settings, such
as schools, child care facilities, and nursing homes, and can occur in other group settings,
such as banquet halls, cruise ships, dormitories, and campgrounds.

Who gets viral gastroenteritis?

Anyone can get it. Viral gastroenteritis occurs in people of all ages and backgrounds.
However, some viruses tend to cause diarrheal disease primarily among people in specific
age groups. Rotavirus infection is the most common cause of diarrhea in infants and young
children under 5 years old. Adenoviruses and astroviruses cause diarrhea mostly in young
children, but older children and adults can also be affected. Norwalk and Noroviruses are
more likely to cause diarrhea in older children and adults.

How is viral gastroenteritis diagnosed?

Generally, viral gastroenteritis is diagnosed by a physician on the basis of the symptoms
and medical examination of the patient. Rotavirus infection can be diagnosed by
laboratory testing of a stool specimen. Tests to detect other viruses that cause
gastroenteritis are not in routine use.

How is viral gastroenteritis treated?

The most important of treating viral gastroenteritis in children and adults is to prevent
severe loss of fluids (dehydration). This treatment should begin at home. Your physician
may give you specific instructions about what kinds of fluid to give.

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CDC recommends that families with infants and young children keep a supply of oral
rehydration solution (ORS) at home at all times and use the solution when diarrhea first
occurs in the child. ORS is available at pharmacies without a prescription.

Follow the written directions on the ORS package, and use clean or boiled water.
Medications, including antibiotics (which have no effect on viruses) and other treatments,
should be avoided unless specifically recommended by a physician.

Can viral gastroenteritis be prevented?

Yes, persons can reduce their chance of getting infected by frequent handwashing, prompt
disinfection of contaminated surfaces with household chlorine bleach-based cleaners, and
prompt washing of soiled articles of clothing. If food or water is thought to be contaminated,
it should be avoided.

Is there a vaccine for viral gastroenteritis?

There is no vaccine or medicine currently available that prevents viral gastroenteritis. A
vaccine is being developed, however, that protects against severe diarrhea from rotavirus
infection in infants and young children.

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Rotovirus Information
Clinical Features
Rotavirus is the most common cause of severe diarrhea among children, resulting in the
hospitalization of approximately 55,000 children each year in the United States and the
death of over 600,000 children annually worldwide. The incubation period for rotavirus
disease is approximately 2 days. The disease is characterized by vomiting and watery
diarrhea for 3 - 8 days, and fever and abdominal pain occur frequently. Immunity after
infection is incomplete, but repeat infections tend to be less severe than the original
infection.

The Virus
A rotavirus has a characteristic wheel-like appearance when viewed by electron
microscopy (the name rotavirus is derived from the Latin rota, meaning "wheel").
Rotaviruses are nonenveloped, double-shelled viruses. The genome is composed of 11
segments of double-stranded RNA, which code for six structural and five nonstructural
proteins. The virus is stable in the environment.

Epidemiologic Features
The primary mode of transmission is fecal-oral, although some have reported low titers of
virus in respiratory tract secretions and other body fluids. Because the virus is stable in
the environment, transmission can occur through ingestion of contaminated water or food
and contact with contaminated surfaces. In the United States and other countries with a
temperate climate, the disease has a winter seasonal pattern, with annual epidemics
occurring from November to April. The highest rates of illness occur among infants and
young children, and most children in the United States are infected by 2 years of age.
Adults can also be infected, though disease tends to be mild.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis may be made by rapid antigen detection of rotavirus in stool specimens. Strains
may be further characterized by enzyme immunoassay or reverse transcriptase
polymerase chain reaction, but such testing is not commonly done.

Treatment
For persons with healthy immune systems, rotavirus gastroenteritis is a self-limited illness,
lasting for only a few days. Treatment is nonspecific and consists of oral rehydration
therapy to prevent dehydration. About one in 40 children with rotavirus gastroenteritis will
require hospitalization for intravenous fluids.

Prevention
In 1998, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration approved a live virus vaccine (Rotashield)
for use in children. However, the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP)
recommended that Rotashield no longer be recommended for infants in the United States
because of data that indicated a strong association between Rotashield and
intussusception (bowel obstruction) among some infants during the first 1-2 weeks
following vaccination.

More information about rotavirus vaccine is available from the National Immunization
Program.

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Recent Newspaper Article

Norwalk Virus
The Gila County Department of Health is currently investigating an outbreak of viral gastroenteritis
in the Globe / Miami area. The outbreak has been laboratory confirmed by the Arizona State
Laboratory as Norwalk virus. Please be aware of the following symptoms and recommendations.

Norwalk Symptoms
Usually a mild to moderate infection that often occurs in outbreaks with clinical symptoms of
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain, low grade fever, or any combination of these
symptoms. Gastrointestinal symptoms will characteristically last 24 to 48 hours, resolving on their
own.

Mode of Transmission and Communicability

Fecal to oral route is the most likely mode of transmission. This virus is easily transmitted. Patients
are communicable during the acute phase of the illness and up to 48 hours after the symptoms
resolve.

If you are experiencing symptoms consistent with this disease, please exclude yourself from school,
work, or any group activity. Hand washing and disinfection are essential to stop the spread of this
virus. Anyone experiencing severe complications from this ailment should seek medical attention.

Please report all suspected group outbreaks to the Gila County Department of Health by phone
immediately. (928) 425-3189

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Noroviruses

Noroviruses (genus Norovirus, family Caliciviridae) are a group of related, single-

stranded RNA, nonenveloped viruses that cause acute gastroenteritis in humans.
Norovirus was recently approved as the official genus name for the group of viruses
provisionally described as “Norwalk-like viruses” (NLV).

What are the symptoms of illness caused by noroviruses?

The symptoms of norovirus illness usually include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and some
stomach cramping. Sometimes people additionally have a low-grade fever, chills,
headache, muscle aches, and a general sense of tiredness. The illness often begins
suddenly, and the infected person may feel very sick. The illness is usually brief, with
symptoms lasting only about 1 or 2 days. In general, children experience more vomiting
than adults. Most people with norovirus illness have both of these symptoms.

What is the name of the illness caused by noroviruses?

Illness caused by norovirus infection has several names, including:
 Stomach flu – this “stomach flu” is not related to the flu (or influenza), which is a
respiratory illness caused by influenza virus.
 Viral gastroenteritis – the most common name for illness caused by norovirus.
Gastroenteritis refers to an inflammation of the stomach and intestines.
 Acute gastroenteritis.
 Non-bacterial gastroenteritis.
 Food poisoning (although there are other causes of food poisoning).
 Calicivirus infection.

How serious is norovirus disease?

Norovirus disease is usually not serious, although people may feel very sick and vomit
many times a day. Most people get better within 1 or 2 days, and they have no long-term
health effects related to their illness. However, sometimes people are unable to drink
enough liquids to replace the liquids they lost because of vomiting and diarrhea. These
persons can become dehydrated and may need special medical attention. This problem
with dehydration is usually only seen among the very young, the elderly, and persons with
weakened immune systems. There is no evidence to suggest that an infected person can
become a long-term carrier of norovirus.

How do people become infected with noroviruses?

Noroviruses are found in the stool or vomit of infected people. People can become infected
with the virus in several ways, including:
 eating food or drinking liquids that are contaminated with norovirus;
 touching surfaces or objects contaminated with norovirus, and then placing their
hand in their mouth;
 having direct contact with another person who is infected and showing symptoms
(for example, when caring for someone with illness, or sharing foods or eating
utensils with someone who is ill).

Persons working in day-care centers or nursing homes should pay special attention to
children or residents who have norovirus illness. This virus is very contagious and can
spread rapidly throughout such environments.

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When do symptoms appear?
Symptoms of norovirus illness usually begin about 24 to 48 hours after ingestion of the
virus, but they can appear as early as 12 hours after exposure.

Are noroviruses contagious?

Noroviruses are very contagious and can spread easily from person to person. Both stool
and vomit are infectious. Particular care should be taken with young children in diapers
who may have diarrhea.

How long are people contagious?

People infected with norovirus are contagious from the moment they begin feeling ill to at
least 3 days after recovery. Some people may be contagious for as long as 2 weeks after
recovery. Therefore, it is particularly important for people to use good handwashing and
other hygienic practices after they have recently recovered from norovirus illness.

Who gets norovirus infection?

Anyone can become infected with these viruses. There are many different strains of
norovirus, which makes it difficult for a person’s body to develop long-lasting immunity.
Therefore, norovirus illness can recur throughout a person’s lifetime. In addition, because
of differences in genetic factors, some people are more likely to become infected and
develop more severe illness than others.

What treatment is available for people with norovirus infection?

Currently, there is no antiviral medication that works against norovirus and there is no
vaccine to prevent infection. Norovirus infection cannot be treated with antibiotics. This is
because antibiotics work to fight bacteria and not viruses.

Norovirus illness is usually brief in healthy individuals. When people are ill with vomiting
and diarrhea, they should drink plenty of fluids to prevent dehydration. Dehydration among
young children, the elderly, and the sick can be common, and it is the most serious health
effect that can result from norovirus infection. By drinking oral rehydration fluids (ORF),
juice, or water, people can reduce their chance of becoming dehydrated. Sports drinks do
not replace the nutrients and minerals lost during this illness.

Can norovirus infections be prevented?

Yes. You can decrease your chance of coming in contact with noroviruses by following
these preventive steps:
 Frequently wash your hands, especially after toilet visits and changing diapers and
before eating or preparing food.
 Carefully wash fruits and vegetables, and steam oysters before eating them.
 Thoroughly clean and disinfect contaminated surfaces immediately after an
episode of illness by using a bleach-based household cleaner.
 Immediately remove and wash clothing or linens that may be contaminated with
virus after an episode of illness (use hot water and soap).
 Flush or discard any vomitus and/or stool in the toilet and make sure that the
surrounding area is kept clean.

Persons who are infected with norovirus should not prepare food while they have
symptoms and for 3 days after they recover from their illness. Food that may have been
contaminated by an ill person should be disposed of properly.

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Hepatitis Section More detailed information in Appendix
Viral hepatitis is a group of diseases of the liver that can be caused by consuming
contaminated water or food, using dirty needles or syringes, or practicing unsafe sex.

Scientists have identified six hepatitis viruses, but three - known as A, B and C - cause
about 90 percent of acute hepatitis cases in the United States. People infected with
hepatitis can experience effects ranging from mild illness to serious liver damage. Many
recover completely from an infection, while others become carriers of the disease and can
spread it to others unknowingly. It is especially important for women who are pregnant or
are trying to become pregnant to get tested for hepatitis.

Typical symptoms of acute hepatitis are:

 fever
 appetite loss
 nausea
 abdominal pain
 jaundice (yellowish color on the skin and eyeballs)

Hepatitis A virus found in human feces; shellfish grown in polluted waters. Yellowed skin,
enlarged liver, fever, vomiting, weight loss, and abdominal pain — low mortality, lasts up
to four months.

Hepatitis A is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis A virus (HAV). Hepatitis A can affect
anyone. In the United States, hepatitis A can occur in situations ranging from isolated
cases of disease to widespread epidemics.

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Each year, an estimated 100 persons die as a result of acute liver failure in the United
States due to Hepatitis A. Approximately 30 - 50,000 cases occur yearly in the United
States and the direct and
indirect costs of these cases
exceed $300 million.
The unfortunate aspect of
these statistics is that with
21st century medicine,
Hepatitis A is totally
preventable, and isolated
cases, especially outbreaks
relegated to food
consumption, need not occur.

Viral Hepatitis is a major

public health concern in the
United States, and a source
of significant morbidity and
mortality. The Hepatitis A
virus or “HAV” is heat stable and will survive for up to a month at ambient temperatures
in the environment.

Hepatitis A is a communicable (or contagious) disease that spreads from person to

person. (It is not acquired from animals, insects, or other means.) It is transmitted by the
“fecal – oral route.” This does not mean, or course, that Hepatitis A transmission requires
that fecal material from an infectious individual must come in contact directly with the
mouth of a susceptible individual. It is almost always true that the virus infects a
susceptible individual when he or she ingests it, but it gets to the mouth by an indirect
route.

Where and how does hepatitis A virus get into drinking water?
Hepatitis A is found in every part of the United States and throughout the world. When
water sources such as private wells are contaminated with feces from infected humans,
the water will spread the hepatitis A virus. The virus can enter the water through various
ways, including sewage overflows or broken sewage systems.

How do I remove hepatitis A from my drinking water?

Heating water at a full boil for 1 minute (3 minutes if you live in a high altitude) will kill or
inactivate the hepatitis A virus. Water should then be stored in a clean container with a
lid and refrigerated. Because of the small size of the virus, using a point-of-use filter will
not remove it from water.

Most Common Method of Transmission

Food contaminated with the virus is the most common vehicle transmitting Hepatitis A.

The food preparer or cook is the individual most often contaminating the food. He or she
is generally not ill: the peak time of infectivity (i.e., when the most virus is present in the
stool of an infectious individual) is during the 2 weeks before illness begins.

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Hepatitis A is spread almost exclusively through fecal-oral contact, generally from person-
to-person, or via contaminated food or water. Outbreaks associated with food have been
increasingly implicated as a significant source of Hepatitis A infection.

Such “outbreaks are usually associated with contamination of food during preparation by
an HAV-infected food handler.”

Indeed, “[v]iral gastroenteritis was reported as the most common food-borne illness in
Minnesota from 1984 to 1991, predominantly associated with poor personal hygiene of
infected food handlers.”

Although ingestion of contaminated food is the most common means of spread for
Hepatitis A, it may also commonly be spread by household contact among families or
roommates, sexual contact, by the ingestion of contaminated water, by the ingestion of
raw or undercooked fruits and vegetables or shellfish (like oysters), and by direct
inoculation from persons sharing illicit drugs. Children often have asymptomatic or
unrecognized infections and can pass the virus through ordinary play, unknown to their
parents, who may later become infected from contact with their children.

Hepatitis A: is much more common in countries with under-developed sanitation

systems. This includes most of the world: an increased transmission rate is seen in all
countries other than the United States, Canada, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and the
countries of Western Europe. Within the United States, Native American reservations also
experience a greatly increased rate of disease.

Hepatitis B: is a serious disease caused by a virus that attacks the liver. The virus, which
is called hepatitis B virus (HBV), can cause lifelong infection, cirrhosis (scarring) of the
liver, liver cancer, liver failure, and death.

Hepatitis C: is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis C virus (HCV), which is found in the
blood of persons who have the disease. HCV is spread by contact with the blood of an
infected person.

Hepatitis D: is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis D virus (HDV), a defective virus that
needs the hepatitis B virus to exist. Hepatitis D virus (HDV) is found in the blood of persons
infected with the virus.

Hepatitis E: is a liver disease caused by the hepatitis E virus (HEV) transmitted in much
the same way as hepatitis A virus. Hepatitis E, however, does not occur often in the United
States.

Medical Testing
Hepatitis virus tests require a blood sample. It is not necessary for the patient to withhold
food or fluids before any of these tests, unless requested to do so by the physician.

Risks
Risks for these tests are minimal for the patient, but may include slight bleeding from the
blood-drawing site, fainting or feeling lightheaded after venipuncture, or hematoma (blood
accumulating under the puncture site).

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Normal Medical Results
Reference ranges for the antigen/antibody tests are as follows:
 Hepatitis A antibody, IgM: Negative
 Hepatitis B core antibody: Negative
 Hepatitis B e antibody: Negative
 Hepatitis B e-antigen: Negative
 Hepatitis B surface antibody: Varies with clinical circumstance
 (Note: As the presence of anti-HBs indicates past infection with resolution of
previous hepatitis B infection, or vaccination against hepatitis B, additional
patient history may be necessary for diagnosis.)
 Hepatitis B surface antigen: Negative
 Hepatitis C serology: Negative
 Hepatitis D serology: Negative.

Abnormal Medical Results

Hepatitis A: A single positive anti-HAV test may indicate previous exposure to the virus,
but due to the antibody persisting so long in the bloodstream, only evidence of a rising
anti-HAV titer confirms hepatitis A. Determining recent infection rests on identifying the
antibody as IgM (associated with recent infection). A negative anti-HAV test rules out
hepatitis A.

Hepatitis B: High levels of HBsAg that continue for three or more months after onset of
acute infection suggest development of chronic hepatitis or carrier status. Detection of
anti-HBs signals late convalescence or recovery from infection. This antibody remains in
the blood to provide immunity to re-infection.

Hepatitis C (non-A, non-B hepatitis): Anti-HBc develops after exposure to hepatitis B. As

an early indicator of acute infection, antibody (IgM) to core antigen (anti-HBc IgM) is rarely
detected in chronic infection, so it is useful in distinguishing acute from chronic infection,
and hepatitis B from non-A, non-B.

References
Cahill, Mathew. Handbook of Diagnostic Tests. Springhouse, PA: Springhouse
Corporation, 1995.

Jacobs, David S. Laboratory Test Handbook, 4th ed. Hudson, OH: Lexi-Comp Inc.,
1996.

Pagana, Kathleen Deska. Mosby's Manual of Diagnostic and Laboratory Tests. St.
Louis: Mosby, Inc., 1998.

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Leptospirosis Leptospira Section
Leptospirosis is a bacterial disease that affects humans and animals. It is caused by
bacteria of the genus Leptospira. In humans it causes a wide range of symptoms, and
some infected persons may have no symptoms at all. Symptoms of leptospirosis include
high fever, severe headache, chills, muscle aches, and vomiting, and may include
jaundice (yellow skin and eyes), red eyes, abdominal pain, diarrhea, or a rash. If the
disease is not treated, the patient could develop kidney damage, meningitis (inflammation
of the membrane around the brain and spinal cord), liver failure, and respiratory distress.
In rare cases death occurs. Leptospira interrogans causes leptospirosis, a usually mild
febrile illness that may result in liver or kidney failure.

Structure, Classification, and Antigenic Types

Leptospira is a flexible, spiral-shaped, Gram-negative spirochete with internal flagella.
Leptospira interrogans has many serovars based on cell surface antigens.

How do people get Leptospirosis?

Outbreaks of leptospirosis are usually caused by exposure to water contaminated with the
urine of infected animals. Many different kinds of animals carry the bacterium; they may
become sick but sometimes have no symptoms. Leptospira organisms have been found
in cattle, pigs, horses, dogs, rodents, and wild animals. Humans become infected through
contact with water, food, or soil containing urine from these infected animals. This may
happen by swallowing contaminated food or water or through skin contact, especially with
mucosal surfaces, such as the eyes or nose, or with broken skin. The disease is not known
to be spread from person to person.

Pathogenesis
Leptospira enters the host through mucosa and broken skin, resulting in bacteremia. The
spirochetes multiply in organs, most commonly the central nervous system, kidneys, and
liver. They are cleared by the immune response from the blood and most tissues but
persist and multiply for some time in the kidney tubules. Infective bacteria are shed in the
urine. The mechanism of tissue damage is not known.

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Host Defenses
Serum antibodies are responsible for host resistance.

Epidemiology
Leptospirosis is a worldwide zoonosis affecting many wild and domestic animals. Humans
acquire the infection by contact with the urine of infected animals. Human-to-human
transmission is extremely rare.

Diagnosis
Clinical diagnosis is usually confirmed by serology. Isolation of spirochetes is possible, but
it is time-consuming and requires special media.

Control
Animal vaccination and eradication of rodents are important. Treatment with tetracycline
and penicillin G is effective. No human vaccine is available.

Can Leptospirosis be prevented?

The risk of acquiring leptospirosis can be greatly reduced by not swimming or wading in
water that might be contaminated with animal urine. Protective clothing or footwear should
be worn by those exposed to contaminated water or soil because of their job or
recreational activities.

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Meningoencephalitis
Refer to amoebic meningoencephalitis (PAM), Naegleria fowleri and granulomatious
amoebic encephalitis (GAE), acanthamoebic keratitis or acanthamoebic uveitis. These
organisms are ubiquitous in the environment, in soil, water, and air. Infections in humans
are rare and are acquired through water entering the nasal passages (usually during
swimming) and by inhalation.

Granulomatous Amoebic Encephalitis due to Acanthamoeba Castellanii

With immunofluorescent antibody techniques, the amoebae showed distinct fluorescence

with anti-A. castellanii at 1:20 and 1:50 dilutions, but they were negative or weakly positive
with anti-A. culbertsoni, A. polyphaga, A. rhysodes, and A. astronyxis sera. Protozoa were
also seen in autopsy lung tissue, and identified as A. castellanii.

There was also necrotizing amoebic panniculitis in subcutaneous, peripancreatic,

mesenteric and peri-aortic tissue. There were occasional amoebae in the liver, but not
enough to account for all of the patient's liver disease, so part of his liver disease was
most likely due to sepsis due to his disseminated amoebiasis.

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Pseudomonas aeruginosa Section
Pseudomonas aeruginosa is the epitome of an opportunistic pathogen of humans. The
bacterium almost never infects uncompromised tissues, yet there is hardly any tissue that
it cannot infect if the tissue defenses are compromised in some manner.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen, meaning that it exploits some

break in the host defenses to initiate an infection. It causes urinary tract infections,
respiratory system infections, dermatitis, soft tissue infections, bacteremia, bone and joint
infections, gastrointestinal infections and a variety of systemic infections, particularly in
patients with severe burns and in cancer and AIDS patients who are immunosuppressed.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection is a serious problem in patients hospitalized with
cancer, cystic fibrosis, and burns. The case fatality rate in these patients is 50 percent.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is primarily a nosocomial pathogen. According to the CDC, the

overall incidence of P. aeruginosa infections in US hospitals averages about 0.4 percent
(4 per 1000 discharges), and the bacterium is the fourth most commonly-isolated
nosocomial pathogen accounting for 10.1 percent of all hospital-acquired infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative bacterium that is noted for its environmental

versatility, ability to cause disease in particular susceptible individuals, and its resistance
to antibiotics. The most serious complication of cystic fibrosis is respiratory tract infection
by the ubiquitous bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Cancer and burn patients also
commonly suffer serious infections by this organism, as do certain other individuals with
immune system deficiencies.

Unlike many environmental bacteria, P. aeruginosa has a remarkable capacity to cause

disease in susceptible hosts. It has the ability to adapt to and thrive in many ecological
niches, from water and soil to plant and animal tissues. The bacterium is capable of
utilizing a wide range of organic compounds as food sources, thus giving it an exceptional
ability to colonize ecological niches where nutrients are limited. P. aeruginosa can produce
a number of toxic proteins which not only cause extensive tissue damage, but also
interfere with the human immune system's defense mechanisms. These proteins range
from potent toxins that enter and kill host cells at or near the site of colonization to
degradative enzymes that permanently disrupt the cell membranes and connective tissues
in various organs. This bacterium is also noted for its resistance to many antibiotics.

P. aeruginosa is widely studied by scientists who are interested in not only its ability to
cause disease and resist antibiotics, but also its metabolic capability and environmental
versatility. Analysis of its genome sequence has identified genes involved in locomotion,
attachment, transport and utilization of nutrients, antibiotic efflux, and systems involved in
sensing and responding to environmental changes.

The typical Pseudomonas bacterium in nature might be found in a biofilm, attached to

some surface or substrate, or in a planktonic form, as a unicellular organism, actively
swimming by means of its flagellum. Pseudomonas is one of the most vigorous, fast-
swimming bacteria seen in hay infusions and pond water samples.

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In its natural habitat Pseudomonas aeruginosa is not particularly distinctive as a
pseudomonad, but it does have a combination of physiological traits that are noteworthy
and may relate to its pathogenesis.

--Pseudomonas aeruginosa has very simple nutritional requirements. It is often observed

"growing in distilled water" which is evidence of its minimal nutritional needs. In the
laboratory, the simplest medium for growth of Pseudomonas aeruginosa consists of
acetate for carbon and ammonium sulfate for nitrogen.

--P. aeruginosa possesses the metabolic versatility for which pseudomonads are so
renowned. Organic growth factors are not required, and it can use more than seventy-five
organic compounds for growth.

--Its optimum temperature for growth is 37°C, and it is able to grow at temperatures as
high as 42°C.

--It is tolerant to a wide variety of physical conditions, including temperature. It is resistant

to high concentrations of salts and dyes, weak antiseptics, and many commonly used
antibiotics.

--Pseudomonas aeruginosa has a predilection for growth in moist environments, which is

probably a reflection of its natural existence in soil and water.

These natural properties of the bacterium undoubtedly contribute to its ecological success
as an opportunistic pathogen. They also help explain the ubiquitous nature of the organism
and its prominance as a nosocomial pathogen.

P. aeruginosa isolates may produce three colony types. Natural isolates from soil or water
typically produce a small, rough colony. Clinical samples, in general, yield one or another
of two smooth colony types. One type has a fried-egg appearance which is large and
smooth, with flat edges and an elevated appearance. Another type, frequently obtained
from respiratory and urinary tract secretions, has a mucoid appearance, which is attributed
to the production of alginate slime. The smooth and mucoid colonies are presumed to play
a role in colonization and virulence.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa colonies on agar.

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Pyoverdin and the blue pigment Pyocyanin
P. aeruginosa strains produce two types of soluble pigments, the fluorescent pigment
pyoverdin and the blue pigment pyocyanin. The latter is produced abundantly in media
of low-iron content and functions in iron metabolism in the bacterium. Pyocyanin (from
"pyocyaneus") refers to "blue pus" which is a characteristic of suppurative infections
caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The soluble blue pigment pyocyanin is produced by many,

but not all, strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is notorious for its resistance to antibiotics and is, therefore, a
particularly dangerous and dreaded pathogen. The bacterium is naturally resistant to
many antibiotics due to the permeability barrier afforded by its outer membrane LPS. Also,
its tendency to colonize surfaces in a biofilm form makes the cells impervious to
therapeutic concentrations antibiotics. Since its natural habitat is the soil, living in
association with the bacilli, actinomycetes and molds, it has developed resistance to a
variety of their naturally-occurring antibiotics. Moreover, Pseudomonas maintains
antibiotic resistance plasmids, both R-factors and RTFs, and it is able to transfer these
genes by means of the bacterial processes of transduction and conjugation.

Only a few antibiotics are effective against Pseudomonas, including fluoroquinolones,

gentamicin and imipenem, and even these antibiotics are not effective against all strains.
The futility of treating Pseudomonas infections with antibiotics is most dramatically
illustrated in cystic fibrosis patients, virtually all of whom eventually become infected with
a strain that is so resistant that it cannot be treated.

Diagnosis
Diagnosis of P. aeruginosa infection depends upon isolation and laboratory identification
of the bacterium. It grows well on most laboratory media and commonly is isolated on
blood agar or eosin-methylthionine blue agar. It is identified on the basis of its Gram
morphology, inability to ferment lactose, a positive oxidase reaction, its fruity odor, and its
ability to grow at 42° C. Fluorescence under ultraviolet light is helpful in early identification
of P. aeruginosa colonies. Fluorescence is also used to suggest the presence of P.
aeruginosa in wounds.

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Pathogenesis
For an opportunistic pathogen such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the disease process
begins with some alteration or circumvention of normal host defenses. The pathogenesis
of Pseudomonas infections is multifactorial, as suggested by the number and wide array
of virulence determinants possessed by the bacterium. Multiple and diverse determinants
of virulence are expected in the wide range of diseases caused, which include septicemia,
urinary tract infections, pneumonia, chronic lung infections, endocarditis, dermatitis, and
osteochondritis.

Most Pseudomonas infections are both invasive and toxinogenic. The ultimate
Pseudomonas infection may be seen as composed of three distinct stages: (1) bacterial
attachment and colonization; (2) local invasion; (3) disseminated systemic disease.
However, the disease process may stop at any stage. Particular bacterial determinants of
virulence mediate each of these stages and are ultimately responsible for the
characteristic syndromes that accompany the disease.

Colonization
Although colonization usually precedes infections by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, the exact
source and mode of transmission of the pathogen are often unclear because of its
ubiquitous presence in the environment. It is sometimes present as part of the normal flora
of humans, although the prevalence of colonization of healthy individuals outside the
hospital is relatively low (estimates range from 0 to 24 percent depending on the
anatomical locale).

The fimbriae of Pseudomonas will adhere to the epithelial cells of the upper respiratory
tract and, by inference, to other epithelial cells as well. These adhesions appear to bind to
specific galactose, mannose, or sialic acid receptors on epithelial cells. Colonization of the
respiratory tract by Pseudomonas requires fimbrial adherence and may be aided by
production of a protease enzyme that degrades fibronectin in order to expose the
underlying fimbrial receptors on the epithelial cell surface. Tissue injury may also play a
role in colonization of the respiratory tract since P. aeruginosa will adhere to tracheal
epithelial cells of mice infected with Influenza virus but not to normal tracheal epithelium.

This has been called opportunistic adherence, and it may be an important step in
Pseudomonas keratitis and urinary tract infections, as well as infections of the respiratory
tract. The receptor on tracheal epithelial cells for Pseudomonas pili is probably sialic acid
(N-acetylneuraminic acid). Mucoid strains, which produce an exopolysaccharide (alginate)
have an additional or alternative adhesion which attaches to the tracheobronchial mucin
(N-acetylglucosamine). Besides pili and the mucoid polysaccharide, there are possibly two
other cell surface adhesions utilized by Pseudomonas to colonize the respiratory
epithelium or mucin. Also, it is likely that surface-bound exoenzyme S could serve as an
adhesion for glycolipids on respiratory cells. The mucoid exopolysaccharide produced by
P. aeruginosa is a repeating polymer of mannuronic and glucuronic acid referred to as
alginate. Alginate slime forms the matrix of the Pseudomonas biofilm which anchors the
cells to their environment and, in medical situations; it protects the bacteria from the host
defenses such as lymphocytes, phagocytes, the ciliary action of the respiratory tract,
antibodies and complement. Biofilm mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa are also less
susceptible to antibiotics than their planktonic counterparts. Mucoid strains of P.
aeruginosa are most often isolated from patients with cystic fibrosis and they are usually
found in post mortem lung tissues from such individuals.

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Shigellosis Shigella Section

Shigella dysenteriae type 1(or bacillary dysentery) is the only cause of epidemic
dysentery. This organism is generally found in the stool of infected individuals, as well as
in contaminated water supplies. It is known to be able to survive on soiled linens for up to
seven weeks, in water supplies for 5-11 days, and in kitchen waste for 1-4 days. Shigella
can even survive in dust particles for six weeks at room temperature.

Infected humans act as host for this particular organism, as well as primates. The
infections caused by this organism are generally seen in developing countries and areas
of poor sanitation. Transmission occurs via direct or indirect contact with individuals who
are infected by ingesting contaminated water or food, as well as contact with fecal material.

What sort of germ is Shigella?

The Shigella germ is actually a family of bacteria that can cause diarrhea in humans. They
are microscopic living creatures that pass from person to person. Shigella were discovered
over 100 years ago by a Japanese scientist named Shiga, for whom they are named.
There are several different kinds of Shigella bacteria: Shigella sonnei, also known as
"Group D" Shigella, accounts for over two-thirds of the shigellosis in the United States.
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A second type, Shigella flexneri, or "group B" Shigella, accounts for almost all of the rest.
Other types of Shigella are rare in this country, though they continue to be important
causes of disease in the developing world. One type found in the developing world,
Shigella dysenteriae type 1, causes deadly epidemics there.

Microbial Characteristics
Shigella dysenteriae is a Gram (-), non-spore forming bacillus that survives as a facultative
anaerobe. It is part of the family Enterobacteriaceae. When testing for it in the laboratory,
you can help identify it by the fact that it is non-motile, and lactose and lysine (-). This
organism, unlike some enterics, does not produce gas when breaking down
carbohydrates.

Shigella dysenteriae is the organism responsible for bacillary dysentery. This disease is
most often associated with areas of overcrowding and poor sanitation (developing
countries). Illness does, however, tend to be seasonal, happening when it is hot, and wet.
Symptoms of dysentery due to this organism include mild to severe diarrhea, which is
sometimes bloody or watery.

There is also fever and nausea that accompany the diarrhea. Some people, however, also
suffer from vomiting and cramping, and some show no symptoms at all. The symptoms of
the disease will generally show between 12-96 hours (1-3 days) after becoming infected.

During this incubation period, the organism will penetrate the mucosal epithelial cells of
the intestine through use of an intestinal adherence factor. This penetration causes severe
irritation, which is responsible for the cramps and watery, bloody diarrhea. Dehydration
can become a complication.

Micrograph of intra-epithelial membrane-enclosed Shigella

(from Microbiology: Fundamentals and Applications by R. M. Atlas, p. 609)

How can Shigella infections be diagnosed?

Many different kinds of diseases can cause diarrhea and bloody diarrhea, and the
treatment depends on which germ is causing the diarrhea. Determining that Shigella is the
cause of the illness depends on laboratory tests that identify Shigella in the stools of an
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infected person. These tests are sometimes not performed unless the laboratory is
instructed specifically to look for the organism. The laboratory can also do special tests to
tell which type of Shigella the person has and which antibiotics, if any, would be best to
treat it.

How can Shigella infections be treated?

Shigellosis can usually be treated with antibiotics. The antibiotics commonly used for
treatment are ampicillin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (also known as Bactrim* or
Septra*), nalidixic acid, or ciprofloxacin. Appropriate treatment kills the Shigella bacteria
that might be present in the patient's stools, and shortens the illness. Unfortunately, some
Shigella bacteria have become resistant to antibiotics and using antibiotics to treat
shigellosis can actually make the germs more resistant in the future.

Persons with mild infections will usually recover quickly without antibiotic treatment.
Therefore, when many persons in a community are affected by shigellosis, antibiotics are
sometimes used selectively to treat only the more severe cases. Antidiarrheal agents such
as loperamide (Imodium*) or diphenoxylate with atropine (Lomotil*) are likely to make the
illness worse and should be avoided.

Are there long term consequences to a Shigella infection?

Persons with diarrhea usually recover completely, although it may be several months
before their bowel habits are entirely normal. About 3% of persons who are infected with
one type of Shigella, Shigella flexneri, will later develop pains in their joints, irritation of the
eyes, and painful urination. This is called Reiter's syndrome. It can last for months or
years, and can lead to chronic arthritis which is difficult to treat. Reiter's syndrome is
caused by a reaction to Shigella infection that happens only in people who are genetically
predisposed to it.

Once someone has had shigellosis, they are not likely to get infected with that specific
type again for at least several years. However, they can still get infected with other types
of Shigella.

How do people catch Shigella?

The Shigella bacteria pass from one infected person to the next. Shigella are present in
the diarrheal stools of infected persons while they are sick and for a week or two
afterwards. Most Shigella infections are the result of the bacterium passing from stools or
soiled fingers of one person to the mouth of another person.

This happens when basic hygiene and handwashing habits are inadequate. It is
particularly likely to occur among toddlers who are not fully toilet-trained. Family members
and playmates of such children are at high risk of becoming infected.

Shigella infections may be acquired from eating contaminated food. Contaminated food
may look and smell normal. Food may become contaminated by infected food handlers
who forget to wash their hands with soap after using the bathroom. Vegetables can
become contaminated if they are harvested from a field with sewage in it. Flies can breed
in infected feces and then contaminate food. Shigella infections can also be acquired by
drinking or swimming in contaminated water. Water may become contaminated if sewage
runs into it, or if someone with shigellosis swims in it.

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What can a person do to prevent this illness?
There is no vaccine to prevent shigellosis. However, the spread of Shigella from an
infected person to other persons can be stopped by frequent and careful handwashing
with soap. Frequent and careful handwashing is important among all age groups.
Frequent, supervised handwashing of all children should be followed in day care centers
and in homes with children who are not completely toilet-trained (including children in
diapers). When possible, young children with a Shigella infection who are still in diapers
should not be in contact with uninfected children.

People who have shigellosis should not prepare food or pour water for others until they
have been shown to no longer be carrying the Shigella bacterium.

If a child in diapers has shigellosis, everyone who changes the child's diapers should be
sure the diapers are disposed of properly in a closed-lid garbage can, and should wash
his or her hands carefully with soap and warm water immediately after changing the
diapers. After use, the diaper changing area should be wiped down with a disinfectant
such as household bleach, Lysol* or bactericidal wipes.

Basic food safety precautions and regular drinking water treatment prevents shigellosis.
At swimming beaches, having enough bathrooms near the swimming area helps keep the
water from becoming contaminated.

Simple precautions taken while traveling to the developing world can prevent getting
shigellosis. Drink only treated or boiled water, and eat only cooked hot foods or fruits you
peel yourself. The same precautions prevent traveler's diarrhea in general.

How common is shigellosis?

Every year, about 18,000 cases of shigellosis are reported in the United States. Because
many milder cases are not diagnosed or reported, the actual number of infections may be
twenty times greater.

Shigellosis is particularly common and causes recurrent problems in settings where

hygiene is poor and can sometimes sweep through entire communities. Shigellosis is
more common in summer than winter.

Children, especially toddlers aged 2 to 4, are the most likely to get shigellosis. Many cases
are related to the spread of illness in child-care settings, and many more are the result of
the spread of the illness in families with small children.

In the developing world, shigellosis is far more common and is present in most
communities most of the time. Chinese scientists have sequenced the genome of a
bacterium that is a leading cause of infant mortality in developing countries.

About one million people die of Shigella infections every year, most of them children. The
bacterium Shigella flexneri causes sudden and severe diarrhea in humans, known as
shigellosis.

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New treatments are needed for this highly infectious
microbe because antibiotics are often inadequate and drug-
resistant strains are on the rise. Currently, no vaccines exist
and the World Health Organization considers the
development of a vaccine a priority.

The publication of the genome sequence is an important

step achieving this goal. The researchers identified regions
of DNA linked to the virulence of the organism; these are
promising targets for vaccines.

The sequenced S. flexneri strain was isolated from a patient

with severe acute shigellosis in Beijing in 1984. The
bacterium is commonly found in water polluted with human
feces. It is transmitted in contaminated food or water and
through contact between people. Upon infection, humans
develop severe abdominal cramps, fever, and frequent Highly infectious microbe
passage of bloody stools. Shigella flexneri.
Courtesy P. Sansonetti,
The bacterium has about 4,700 genes. The S. flexneri Institut Pasteur, Paris,
genome consists of a chromosome and a smaller DNA France
structure called a virulence plasmid, which contains genes
important in causing disease. The plasmid includes regions that are densely populated
with genes called pathogenicity islands.

What else can be done to prevent shigellosis?

It is important for the public health department to know about cases of shigellosis. It is
important for clinical laboratories to send isolates of Shigella to the City, County or State
Public Health Laboratory so the specific type can be determined and compared to other
Shigella. If many cases occur at the same time, it may mean that a restaurant, food or
water supply has a problem which needs correction by the public health department. If a
number of cases occur in a day-care center, the public health department may need to
coordinate efforts to improve handwashing among the staff, children, and their families.

When a community-wide outbreak occurs, a community-wide approach to promote

handwashing and basic hygiene among children can stop the outbreak. Improvements in
hygiene for vegetables and fruit picking and packing may prevent shigellosis caused by
contaminated produce.

Some prevention steps occur every day, without thinking about it. Making municipal water
supplies safe and treating sewage are highly effective prevention measures that have
been in place for many years.

What is the government doing about shigellosis?

The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) monitors the frequency of Shigella
infections in the country, and assists local and State health departments to investigate
outbreaks, determine means of transmission and devise control measures. CDC also
conducts research to better understand how to identify and treat shigellosis.

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Typhoid Fever Salmonella typhi Section

Typhoid fever is a life-threatening illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella Typhi. In

the United States about 400 cases occur each year, and 70% of these are acquired
while traveling internationally. Typhoid fever is still common in the developing world,
where it affects about 12.5 million persons each year.

Typhoid fever can be prevented and can usually be treated with antibiotics. If you are
planning to travel outside the United States, you should know about typhoid fever and
what steps you can take to protect yourself.

Salmonella typhi

Salmonella Typhi lives only in humans. Persons with typhoid fever carry the bacteria in
their bloodstream and intestinal tract. In addition, a small number of persons, called
carriers, recover from typhoid fever but continue to carry the bacteria. Both ill persons and
carriers shed S. Typhi in their feces (stool).

You can get typhoid fever if you eat food or drink beverages that have been handled by a
person who is shedding S. Typhi or if sewage contaminated with S. Typhi bacteria gets
into the water you use for drinking or washing food. Therefore, typhoid fever is more
common in areas of the world where handwashing is less frequent and water is likely to
be contaminated with sewage. Once S. Typhi bacteria are eaten or drunk, they multiply
and spread into the blood-stream. The body reacts with fever and other signs and
symptoms.

In 1885, pioneering American veterinary scientist, Daniel E. Salmon, discovered the first
strain of Salmonella from the intestine of a pig. This strain was called Salmonella
choleraesuis, the designation that is still used to describe the genus and species of this
common human pathogen. Salmonella is a type of bacteria that causes typhoid fever and
many other infections of intestinal origin. Typhoid fever, rare in the U.S., is caused by a
particular strain designated Salmonella typhi. But illness due to other Salmonella strains,
just called "salmonellosis," is common in the U.S. Today, the number of known strains
(technically termed "serotypes" or "serovars") of this bacteria total over 2300.
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Serotypes
Salmonella serotypes typhimurium and enteritidis are the most common serotypes in the
United States. In recent years, concerns have been raised because many strains of
Salmonella have become resistant to several of the antibiotics traditionally used to treat it,
in both animals and humans.

Getting vaccinated
If you are traveling to a country where typhoid is common, you should consider being
vaccinated against typhoid. Visit a doctor or travel clinic to discuss your vaccination
options.

Remember that you will need to complete your vaccination at least 1 week before you
travel so that the vaccine has time to take effect. Typhoid vaccines lose effectiveness after
several years; if you were vaccinated in the past, check with your doctor to see if it is time
for a booster vaccination. Taking antibiotics will not prevent typhoid fever; they only help
treat it.

The chart below provides basic information on typhoid vaccines that are available in the
United States.
Total time
Number Time needed to Minimum Booster
Vaccine How
of doses between set aside age for needed
Name given
necessary doses for vaccination every...
vaccination
Ty21a
(Vivotif
Berna,
1 capsule
Swiss 4 2 days 2 weeks 6 years 5 years
by mouth
Serum and
Vaccine
Institute)
ViCPS
(Typhim
Injection 1 N/A 1 week 2 years 2 years
Vi, Pasteur
Merieux)

The parenteral heat-phenol-inactivated vaccine (manufactured by Wyeth-Ayerst) has

been discontinued.

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Tularemia Francisella tularensis Section
What is Tularemia?
Tularemia is a potentially serious illness that occurs naturally in the United States. It is
caused by the bacterium Francisella tularensis found in animals (especially rodents,
rabbits, and hares).

What are the Symptoms of Tularemia?

Symptoms of tularemia could include:
 sudden fever
 chills
 headaches
 diarrhea
 muscle aches
 joint pain
 dry cough
 progressive weakness
People can also catch pneumonia and develop chest pain,
bloody sputum, and can have trouble breathing, even sometimes stop breathing.

Other symptoms of tularemia depend on how a person was exposed to the tularemia
bacteria. These symptoms can include ulcers on the skin or mouth, swollen and painful
lymph glands, swollen and painful eyes, and a sore throat.

How Does Tularemia Spread?

People can get tularemia many different ways:
 being bitten by an infected tick, deerfly, or other insect
 handling infected animal carcasses
 eating or drinking contaminated food or water
 breathing in the bacteria, F. tularensis
Tularemia is not known to be spread from person to person. People who have tularemia
do not need to be isolated. People who have been exposed to the tularemia bacteria
should be treated as soon as possible. The disease can be fatal if it is not treated with
the right antibiotics.

F. tularensis
Gram stain
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How Soon Do Infected People Get Sick?
Symptoms usually appear 3 to 5 days after exposure to the bacteria, but can take as
long as 14 days.

What Should I Do if I Think I Have Tularemia?

Consult your doctor at the first sign of illness. Be sure to let the doctor know if you are
pregnant or have a weakened immune system.

How Is Tularemia Treated?

Your doctor will most likely prescribe antibiotics, which must be taken according to the
directions supplied with your prescription to ensure the best possible result. Let your
doctor know if you have any allergy to antibiotics. A vaccine for tularemia is under review
by the Food and Drug Administration and is not currently available in the United States.

What Can I Do To Prevent Becoming Infected with Tularemia?

Tularemia occurs naturally in many parts of the United States. Use insect repellent
containing DEET on your skin, or treat clothing with repellent containing permethrin, to
prevent insect bites. Wash your hands often, using soap and warm water, especially after
handling animal carcasses. Be sure to cook your food thoroughly and that your water is
from a safe source.

Note any change in the behavior of your pets (especially rodents, rabbits, and hares) or
livestock, and consult a veterinarian if they develop unusual symptoms.

Can Tularemia Be Used As a Weapon?

Francisella tularensis is very infectious. A small number (10-50 or so organisms) can
cause disease. If F. tularensis were used as a weapon, the bacteria would likely be made
airborne for exposure by inhalation. People who inhale an infectious aerosol would
generally experience severe respiratory illness, including life-threatening pneumonia and
systemic infection, if they are not treated. The bacteria that cause tularemia occur widely
in nature and could be isolated and grown in quantity in a laboratory, although
manufacturing an effective aerosol weapon would require considerable sophistication.

F. tularensis is a small Gram-negative aerobic bacillus with two main serotypes: Jellison
Type A and Type B. Type A is the more virulent form. The causative agent of the disease
was named after Dr. Edward Francis and the location where the organism was discovered,
Tulare County, California. Tularemia is frequently spread by direct contact with rabbits,
leading to the term "rabbit fever." However, the disease can also be spread by other
animals, typically rodents, and by arthropods. It is a primarily rural disease that is found in
all 50 states, except Hawaii.

Pathogenesis
Historical commentaries reference the virulence of the disease, indicating that people
have been aware of pathogenicity of Francisella for thousands of years. However, there
is still much to be learned about this extremely virulent organism. The disease can be
contracted by ingestion, inhalation, or by direct skin contact. Tularemia occurs in six
different forms: typhoidal, pneumonic, oculoglandular, oropharyngeal, ulceroglandular,
and glandular. Clinical diagnosis can be difficult since the disease mimics a slough of other
illnesses. Pathogenesis varies greatly depending on mode of infection.

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Manifestations
The incubation period is about 3-5 days but it can take as long as two weeks for symptoms
to appear. Symptoms vary based on mode of infection, but generally include fever, chills,
joint and muscle pain, headache, weakness, and sometimes pneumonia. People who
develop pneumonic tularemia experience chest pain, bloody sputum, and difficultly
breathing. The disease is easily cured by antibiotic treatment.

Treatment
If infection is suspected, diagnosis can be made based on serological assays since F.
tularensis is difficult to culture on standard media. Agglutination titers can be performed
following the first week of infection and reach a peak during the 4-8 weeks. Infected
individuals are normally placed on a regimen of streptomycin or gentamycin for 10-14
days. Beta-lactams are generally ineffective due to beta-lactamase activity.

What is CDC Doing About Tularemia?

The CDC operates a national program for bioterrorism preparedness and response that
incorporates a broad range of public health partnerships. Other things CDC is doing
include:
 Stockpiling antibiotics to treat infected people.
 Coordinating a nation-wide program where states share information about
tularemia.
 Creating new education tools and programs for health professionals, the public,
and the media.

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MIB and Geosmin Section
Aesthetics only and not a disease concern
While I was working in the water quality laboratory, we would be overwhelmed by
customers calling in and worrying about tastes and odors. While this small section is not
really about a waterborne disease, water customers will react to this as if was a disease.

Be prepared
Seasonal occurrences of musty/moldy or earthy tastes and odors may be detected in the
system water. Research by laboratories dedicated to this subject, has determined the
culprits are naturally occurring algal and fungal (microbiological) by-products. As algae in
the canals die, compounds known as Methyl-Isoborneol (MIB) and Geosmin are released
into the water.

These stable complex compounds, present in parts per trillion, are difficult to remove with
current technology. The detection of these compounds is dependent upon an individual's
olfactory sensitivity. Many people may never detect them, while others who are sensitive
may detect the musty/moldy taste and smell at levels below instrument detection levels.
Most water providers use activated carbon to adsorb the MIB and Geosmin, thus
alleviating the taste and odor.

Earthy-musty tastes and odors are produced by certain cyanobacteria (blue-green algae),
actinomycetes, and a few fungi. The substances are produced by actinomycetes and
cyanobacteria that cause tastes and odors in drinking-water include geosmin, methyl-
isoborneol (MIB), and cardin-4-ene-1-ol. Growing algae produce numerous volatile and
nonvolatile organic substances, including aliphatic alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters,
thioesters, and sulfides.

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Occasionally, taste and odor problems in water are caused by other bacteria, fungi,
zooplankton, and nemathelminthes. Ferrobacteria in water-distribution systems may
produce tastes and odors, and some species of Pseudomonas can cause a swampy odor,
whereas others can convert sulfur-containing amino acids into hydrogen sulfide,
methylthiol, and dimethylpolysulfide.

Oscillatoria chalybea

Blooms
Blooms will produce the noxious substances 2-methyl isoborneol (MIB) and geosmin,
compounds that are responsible for causing an off-flavor in catfish. MIB and geosmin are
often described as smelling like "sweaty socks."

Microcystis aeruginosa

Commonly found in lakes and ponds. In the spring, large numbers floating on the water
surface produce a blue-tinge. Blooms of this cyanobacterium are also notorious for
producing a liver toxin that in large amount can kill fish and livestock.

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Chemical Related Diseases

Arsenic
Arsenic is a naturally occurring element used since ancient times and has long been
known to be toxic to humans. Arsenic in ground water is largely the result of minerals
dissolving from weathered rocks and soils. Several types of cancer have been linked to
arsenic in water. In 2001 the US Environmental Protection Agency lowered the maximum
level of arsenic permitted in drinking water from 50 micrograms per liter (ug/L) to 10 ug/L.

Gastrointestinal and nervous system effects are common and the ingestion of relatively
small amounts can result in death. A recent study indicates that arsenic disrupts the
activity of glucocorticoids, compounds that have a variety of functions, including the
regulation of blood sugar.

Interestingly, this same study suggested that arsenic at high levels inhibits those
mechanisms that normally suppress tumor production. This finding led to the suggestion
that instead of causing cancer, arsenic promotes the
growth of tumors triggered by other carcinogens. And by
the way, arsenic-induced effects appeared at
concentrations as low as 2 micrograms per liter.

Keep in mind, the new EPA regulation calls for 10

micrograms per liter and the average person ingests 10-
15 micrograms per day. These numbers suggest we’re
getting our minimal daily requirement.

Other epidemiological studies suggest an association

between drinking arsenic-tainted water and skin, lung,
liver and bladder cancers. A 1999 report by the National
Academy of Sciences estimated that daily ingestion of
water containing 50 micrograms of arsenic per liter would
add about 1 percent to a person's lifetime risk of dying
from cancer.

Some studies also found that arsenic harms the central and peripheral nervous systems
as well as heart and blood vessels. Arsenic has been associated with birth defects and
reproductive problems.

Conservative estimates based on all these data suggest that more than 34 million
Americans drink tap water supplied by systems containing average levels of arsenic that
pose unacceptable cancer risks. In October 2001, the Environmental Protection Agency
implemented new standards for arsenic in drinking water, lowering the maximum
acceptable level in parts per billion from 50ppb to 10ppb.

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Exposure to higher than average levels of arsenic occurs mostly in the workplace, near
hazardous waste sites, or in areas with high natural levels. At high levels, inorganic
arsenic can cause death. Exposure to lower levels for a long time can cause a
discoloration of the skin and the appearance of small corns or warts.

Arsenic has been found at 1,014 of the 1,598 National Priority List sites identified by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).

Keratosis of the feet Blackfoot disease

What happens to arsenic when it enters the environment?

 Arsenic cannot be destroyed in the environment. It can only change its form.
 Arsenic in air will settle to the ground or is washed out of the air by rain.
 Many arsenic compounds can dissolve in water.
 Fish and shellfish can accumulate arsenic, but the arsenic in fish is mostly in a
form that is not harmful.

Is there a medical test to show whether I've been exposed to arsenic?

There are tests to measure the level of arsenic in blood, urine, hair, or fingernails. The
urine test is the most reliable test for arsenic exposure within the last few days. Tests on
hair and fingernails can measure exposure to high levels or arsenic over the past 6-12
months.

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Blue Baby Syndrome (Methemoglobinemia) Section
Methemoglobin is an abnormal form of hemoglobin which is unable to transport oxygen.
Methemoglobinemia can be an inherited disorder, but it also can be acquired through
exposure to chemicals such as nitrates (nitrate-contaminated water), aniline dyes, and
potassium chlorate.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors

There are two forms of inheritable methemoglobinemia, Type I and Type II. Most
hereditary cases are Type II, and result from a deficiency in the enzyme cytochrome b5
reductase. The other inheritable type, called hemoglobin M disease (Type I), is an
autosomal dominant condition (you only need one affected parent to inherit it)
characterized by an inability to convert methemoglobin back to hemoglobin. This usually
causes few problems.

Acquired by Drinking Water and Other Causes

Exposure to certain chemicals may also cause an increase in the production of
methemoglobin. These chemicals include nitrites (used commonly to prevent spoilage of
meat), xylocaine, and benzene.

Nitrates and nitrites are nitrogen-oxygen chemical units which combine with various
organic and inorganic compounds. The greatest use of nitrates is as a fertilizer.

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Most nitrogenous materials in natural waters tend to be converted to nitrate, so all sources
of combined nitrogen, particularly organic nitrogen and ammonia, should be considered
as potential nitrate sources. Primary sources of organic nitrates include human sewage
and livestock manure, especially from feedlots.

What happens to nitrates/nitrites when they are released to the environment?

Since they are very soluble and do not bind to soils, nitrates have a high potential to
migrate to ground water. Because they do not evaporate, nitrates/nitrites are likely to
remain in water until consumed by plants or other organisms.

Short-term
Excessive levels of nitrate in drinking water have caused serious illness and sometimes
death. The serious illness in infants is due to the conversion of nitrate to nitrite by the body,
which can interfere with the oxygen-carrying capacity of the child's blood. This can be an
acute condition in which health deteriorates rapidly over a period of days. Symptoms
include shortness of breath and blueness of the skin. Long-term: Nitrates and nitrites have
the potential to cause the following effects from a lifetime exposure at levels above the
MCL: diuresis, increased starchy deposits and hemorrhaging of the spleen.

Follow-up
Retest regularly. Nitrate levels greater than 5 mg/L indicate the possibility that agricultural
chemicals may be reaching the water source, and pesticide testing is recommended.

Point of Use Water Filtration

Nitrates cannot be removed from water by such treatments as UV lights, chlorinators,
carbon filters, water softeners, iron filters, and neutralizers. Nitrates can be removed by
properly designed distillers, RO systems, and anion exchange systems.

Whereas distillers and RO systems are only suitable for point of use (i.e., one or two
faucets in the home), anion exchange systems remove nitrates from the whole house.

Nitrate specific resin should be used with anion exchange systems to prevent the
possibility of a maladjusted or malfunctioning anion exchange system from increasing the
nitrate level due to sulfate exchange. We recommend that persons shopping for nitrate
removal systems shop carefully and purchase only from a dealer experienced in nitrate
removal.

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References
1. Craun GF, ed. Waterborne diseases in the United States. Boca Raton, FL: CRC
Press, Inc., 1986.
2. Barwick RS, Levy DA, Craun GF, Beach MJ, Calderon RL. Surveillance for
waterborne disease outbreaks---United States, 1997--1998. In: CDC Surveillance
Summaries, May 26, 2000. MMWR 2000;49(No. SS-4):1--35.
3. Levy DA, Bens MS, Craun GF, Calderon RL, Herwaldt BL. Surveillance for
waterborne-disease outbreaks---United States, 1995--1996. In: CDC Surveillance
Summaries, December 11, 1998. MMWR 1998;47(No. SS-5):1--34.
4. Kramer MH, Herwaldt BL, Craun GF, Calderon RL, Juranek DD. Surveillance for
waterborne-disease outbreaks---United States, 1993--1994. In: CDC Surveillance
Summaries, April 12, 1996. MMWR 1996;45(No. SS-1):1--33.
5. Moore AC, Herwaldt BL, Craun GF, Calderon RL, Highsmith AK, Juranek DD.
Surveillance for waterborne disease outbreaks---United States, 1991--1992. In:
CDC Surveillance Summaries, November 19, 1993. MMWR 1993:42(No. SS-5):1-
-22.
6. Herwaldt BL, Craun GF, Stokes SL, Juranek DD. Waterborne-disease outbreaks,
1989--1990. In: CDC Surveillance Summaries, December 1991. MMWR
1991;40(No. SS-3):1--21.
7. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Part 141. Water programs: national
interim primary drinking water regulations. Federal Register 1975;40:59566--74.
8. Pontius FW, Roberson JA. Current regulatory agenda: an update. Journal of the
American Water Works Association 1994;86:54--63.
9. Pontius FW. Implementing the 1996 SDWA amendments. Journal of the American
Water Works Association 1997;89:18--36.
10. Environmental Protection Agency. Announcement of the drinking water
contaminant candidate list; notice. Federal Register 1998;63:10274--87.
11. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142. Drinking water;
national primary drinking water regulations; filtration, disinfection; turbidity, Giardia
lamblia, viruses, Legionella, and heterotrophic bacteria; final rule. Federal Register
1989;54:27486--541.
12. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142. Drinking water;
national primary drinking water regulations; total coliforms (including fecal
coliforms and E. coli); final rule. Federal Register 1989;54:27544--68.
13. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 141 and 142. Drinking water;
national primary drinking water regulations; total coliforms; corrections and
technical amendments; final rule. Federal Register 1990;55:25064--5.
14. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142. National primary
drinking water regulations: interim enhanced surface water treatment; final rule.
Federal Register 1998;63:69477--521.
15. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142. National primary
drinking water regulations: long term 1 enhanced surface water treatment rule; final
rule. Federal Register 2002;67:1812--44.
16. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142. National primary
drinking water regulations: long term 1 enhanced surface water treatment and filter
backwash rule; proposed rule. Federal Register 2000;67:19046--150.
17. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142, National primary
drinking water regulations: filter backwash recycling rule; final rule. Federal
Register 2001;66:31085--105.
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 18. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 141 and 141. National primary
drinking water regulations: ground water rule; proposed rules. Federal Register
2000;65:30193--274.
19. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Parts 9, 144, 145, and 146.
Underground injection control regulations for class V injection wells, revision; final
rule. Federal Register 1999;64:68545--73.
20. Environmental Protection Agency. 40 CFR Part 141. National primary drinking
water regulations: monitoring requirements for public drinking water supplies; final
rule. Federal Register 1996;61:24353--88.
21. Environmental Protection Agency, 40 CFR Parts 9, 141, and 142. National primary
drinking water regulations for lead and copper. Final rule. Federal Register
2000;65:1949--2015.
22. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. Ambient water quality
criteria for bacteria---1986. Cincinnati, OH: National Service Center for
Environmental Publications, 1986. EPA publication no. 440584002.
23. Dufour AP. Health effects criteria for fresh recreational waters. Research Triangle
Park, NC: US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and
Development, Health Effects Research Laboratory, 1984; EPA publication no.
600184004.
24. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water. Factoids: drinking water
and ground water statistics for 2000. Washington, DC: US Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Water, 2001. EPA publication no. 816K01004.
Available at http://www.epa.gov/cgi-bin/claritgw.
25. US Environmental Protection Agency. EPA safe drinking water information
system factoids: FY 1999 inventory data. Washington, DC: US Environmental
Protection Agency, 2002. Available at
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/data/99factoids.pdf.
26. Anonymous. Blastocystis hominis: a new pathogen in day-care centers? Can
Commun Dis Rep 2001;27:76--84.
27. CDC. Protracted outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis associated with swimming pool
use---Ohio and Nebraska, 2000. MMWR 2000;50:406--10.
28. CDC. Outbreak of gastroenteritis associated with an interactive water fountain at
a beachside park---Florida, 1999. MMWR 2000;49:565--8.
29. CDC. Pseudomonas dermatitis/folliculitis associated with pools and hot tubs---
Colorado and Maine, 1999--2000. MMWR 2000;49:1087--91.
30. CDC. Methemoglobinemia attributable to nitrite contamination of potable water
through boiler fluid additives---New Jersey, 1992 and 1996. MMWR 1997;46):202-
-4.
31. Jones JL, Lopez A, Wahlquist SP, Nadle J, Wilson M. Survey of clinical laboratory
practices, parasitic diseases. Clinical Infectious Diseases (in press).
32. US General Accounting Office. Drinking water: information on the quality of water
found at community water systems and private wells. Washington, DC: US General
Accounting Office, 1997. GAO publication no. GAO/RCED-97-123.
33. CDC. Foodborne & waterborne disease outbreaks [Annual summary 1973].
Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, CDC, 1974.
Publication no. 76-8185.
34. CDC. Water-related outbreaks [Annual summary 1980]. Atlanta, GA: US
Department of Health and Human Services, CDC, 1981. Publication no. 82-8385.
35. CDC. "Norwalk-like viruses:" public health consequences and outbreak
management. MMWR 2001;50(No. RR-9):1--18.

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 36. Calderon RL, Mood EW, Dufour AP. Health effects of swimmers and nonpoint
sources of contaminated water. International Journal of Environmental Health
Research 1991;1:21--31.
37. Seyfried PL, Tobin RS, Brown NE, Ness PF. Prospective study of swimming-
related illness. I. Swimming-associated health risk. Am J Public Health
1985;75:1068--70.
38. Berrouane YF, McNutt LA, Buschelman BJ, et al. Outbreak of severe
Pseudomonas aeruginosa infections caused by a contaminated drain in a whirlpool
bathtub. Clin Infect Dis 2000;31:1331--7.
39. Fiorillo LM, Zucker M, Sawyer D, Lin AN. Pseudomonas hot-foot syndrome. N Engl
J Med 2001;345:335--8.
40. CDC. Sustained transmission of nosocomial Legionnaires disease---Arizona and
Ohio. MMWR 1997;46:416--21.
41. CDC. Legionnaires disease associated with a whirlpool spa display---Virginia,
September--October, 1996. MMWR 1997;46:83--6.
42. CDC. Responding to fecal accidents in disinfected swimming venues [Notice to
readers]. MMWR 2001;50:416--7.

* Total coliforms are considered indicator organisms that typically do not cause disease
but might be associated with the presence of other disease-causing organisms.
Additional information regarding total coliforms is available at
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/dwa/electronic/tcr.pdf.
† Additional information is available at http://www.cleanwater.gov.
§ Additional terms are defined in the glossary.
¶ Additional information is available at http://www.nsf.org.

** Additional information is available at http://www.epa.gov/safewater/gwr.html.

†† Although EPA does not regulate private wells and will not regulate them as part of the

proposed GWR, EPA lists recommendations for protecting private water supplies at
http://www.epa.gov/safewater/pwells1.html and provides links to other sources of
information.
§§ Guidelines for pool operators and other information related to recreational water

illnesses is available at http://www.cdc.gov/healthyswimming.

¶¶ Additional information is available at http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/beaches.

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Symbols and Characters
These symbols and characters are specific to water sampling methods, but have been
conformed to common usage as much as possible.

Units of weight and measure and their abbreviations

Symbols
o
C degrees Celsius
µL microliter
< less than
> greater than
% percent

Alphabetical characters
ACUK: Acid chrome violet K
AECL: Alternate enhanced coagulant level
AOC: Assimilable organic carbon
ASDWA: Association of State Drinking Water Administrators
AWWA: American Water Works Association
AWWARF: AWWA Research Foundation
BAC: Biologically active carbon
BAF: Biologically active filtration
BAT: Best Available Technology
BCAA: Bromochloroacetic acid
BDOC: Biodegradable organic carbon
BMP: Best management practice
BOM: Biodegradable Organic Matter (=BDOC + AOC)
Br-: Bromide ion
BrO2-: Bromite ion
BrO3-: Bromate ion
CI: Confidence interval
Cl2: Chlorine
ClO2: Chlorine Dioxide
cm: centimeter
CT: Concentration-Time
CWS: Community Water System
D/DBP: Disinfectants/disinfection byproducts
DBP: Disinfection byproduct
DBPFP: Disinfection byproduct formation potential
DBPP: Disinfection byproduct precursors
DBPR: Disinfectants/disinfection byproducts rule
DBPRAM: DBP Regulatory Assessment Model
DBPs: Disinfection byproducts
DOC: Dissolved organic carbon
DPD: N,N-diethyl-p-phenylenediamine
DWEL: Drinking Water Equivalent Level
EBCT: Empty bed contact time
EMSL: EPA Environmental Monitoring and Support Laboratory (Cincinnati)
EPA: United States Environmental Protection Agency
ESWTR: Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
FBR: Filter Backwash Rule
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FY: Fiscal year
G: acceleration due to gravity
g: gram
GAC: Granular activated carbon
GWR: Ground Water Rule
GWSS: Ground Water Supply Survey
H2O2: Hydrogen Peroxide
HAA5: Haloacetic acids (five)
HOBr: Hypobromous acid
HOCl: Hypochlorous acid
hr: hour
IC: Ion chromotography
ICR: Information Collection Rule
ID: inside diameter
IESWTR: Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
in.: inch
IOA: International Ozone Association
IOC: Inorganic chemical
KMnO4: Potassium permanganate
L: liter
LOAEL: Lowest observed adverse effect level
LOQ: Limit of quantitation
LT1ESWTR: Long Term Stage 1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule
m meter
MCL: Maximum Contaminant Level
MCLG: Maximum Contaminant Level Goal
M-DBP: Microbial and disinfection byproducts
MDL: Method Detection Limit
mg: milligram
mg/L: Milligrams per liter
mgd: Million gallons per day
MIB: Methylisoborneol
mL: milliliter
mm: millimeter
mM: millimolar
MRDL: Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level (as mg/l)
MRDLG: Maximum Residual Disinfectant Level Goal
MRL: Minimum Reporting Level
MX: 3-chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxyl-2(5H)-furanone
N: normal; gram molecular weight of solute divided by hydrogen equivalent of solute, per
liter of solution
NaCl: Sodium chloride
NCI: National Cancer Institute
ND: Not detected
NH2Cl: Monochloramine
NIOSH: National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
NIPDWR: National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulation
NOAEL: No Observed Adverse Effect Level
NOM: Natural Organic Matter
NOMS: National Organic Monitoring Survey

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NORS: National Organics Reconnaissance Survey for Halogenated Organics
NPDWR: National Primary Drinking Water Regulation
NTNCWS: Nontransient noncommunity water system
NTP: Normal Temperature and Pressure
O2: Oxygen
O3: Ozone
OBr-: Hypobromite ion
OCl-: Hypochlorite ion
PCE: Perchloroethylene
PE: Performance evaluation
POE: Point-of-Entry Technologies
POU: Point-of-Use Technologies
Ppb: Parts per billion
ppm: Parts per million
PQL: Practical Quantitation Level
PTA: Packed Tower Aeration
PWS: Public water system
RIA: Regulatory Impact Analysis
RMCL: Recommended Maximum Contaminant Level
RNDB: Regulations Negotiation Data Base
RSC: Relative Source Contribution
RSD: relative standard deviation
SDWA: Safe Drinking Water Act, or the “Act,” as amended in 1996
SM: Standard Method
SMCL: Secondary Maximum Contaminant Level
SMR: Standardized mortality ratios
SOC: Synthetic Organic Chemical
sr: standard deviation of recovery
SWTR: Surface Water Treatment Rule
TCE: Trichloroethylene
THM: Trihalomethane
THMFP: Trihalomethane formation potential
TMV: Tobacco mosaic virus
TOC: Total organic carbon
TTHM: Total trihalomethanes
TWG: Technologies Working Group
UV: Ultraviolet
VOC: Volatile Organic Chemical
WIDB: Water Industry Data Base
WS: Water supply
X: average percent recovery
XDBPs: Halogenated DBPs

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What are the symptoms of viral gastroenteritis?
The main symptoms of viral gastroenteritis are watery diarrhea and vomiting. The
affected person may also have headache, fever, and abdominal cramps ("stomach
ache"). In general, the symptoms begin 1 to 2 days following infection with a virus
that causes gastroenteritis and may last for 1 to 10 days, depending on which virus
causes the illness.

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Glossary
A
ABIOGENESIS: The concept of spontaneous generation (that life can come from non-life). This
idea was refuted by Pasteur.
ABIOTIC: The non-living components of an organism's environment. The term abiotic is also used
to denote a process which is not facilitated by living organisms.
ABORAL: Pertaining to the region of the body opposite that of the mouth. Normally used to
describe radially symmetrical animals.
ABSCISIC ACID (ABA): A plant hormone that generally acts to inhibit growth, promote dormancy,
and help the plant withstand stressful conditions.
ABSENCE OF OXYGEN: The complete absence of oxygen in water described as Anaerobic.
ABSOLUTE ZERO: A theoretical condition concerning a system at zero Kelvin where a system
does not emit or absorb energy (all atoms are at rest).
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM: The range of a material's ability to absorb various wavelengths of
light. The absorption spectrum is studied to evaluate the function of photosynthetic pigments.
ACCESSORY PIGMENT: A photosynthetic pigment which absorbs light and transfers energy to
chlorophylls during photosynthesis. Because accessory pigments have different absorption optima
than chlorophylls, presence of accessory pigments allows photosynthetic systems to absorb light
more efficiently than would be possible otherwise.
ACCURACY: How close a value is to the actual or true value; also see precision. How closely an
instrument measures the true or actual value.
ACELLULAR: Not within cells. Sometimes used as a synonym for unicellular (but multinucleate).
Unicellular also pertains to single: celled organisms.
ACETYL COA: Acetyl CoenzymeA is the entry compound for the Krebs cycle in cellular respiration;
formed from a fragment of pyruvic acid attached to a coenzyme.
ACETYLCHOLINE: A neurotransmitter substance that carries information across vertebrate
neuromuscular junctions and some other synapses.
ACID AND BASE ARE MIXED: When an acid and a base are mixed, an explosive reaction occurs
and decomposition products are created under certain conditions.
ACID ANHYDRIDE: A compound with two acyl groups bound to a single oxygen atom.
ACID DISSOCIATION CONSTANT: An equilibrium constant for the dissociation of a weak acid.
ACID RAIN: Rain that is excessively acidic due to the presence of acid: causing pollutants in the
atmosphere. Pollutants include nitrogen and sulfur oxides due to burning of coal and oil.
ACID: Slowly add the acid to water while stirring. An operator should not mix acid and water or acid
to a strong base.
ACIDOSIS: A condition whereby the hydrogen ion concentration of the tissues is increased (and
pH decreased). Respiratory acidosis is due to the retention of CO2; metabolic acidosis by retention
of acids due either to kidney failure or diarrhea.
ACOELOMATE: Lacking a coelom.
ACQUIRED IMMUNITY: Results from exposure to foreign substances or microbes (also called
natural immunity).
ACROSOME: An organelle at the tip of a sperm cell that helps the sperm penetrate the egg.
ACTH (adrenocorticotrophic hormone): A proteineinaceous hormone from the anterior pituitary
that stimulates the adrenal cortex. Used to stimulate the production of cortisol.
ACTIN: A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other,
forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.
ACTINIDES: The fifteen chemical elements that are between actinium (89) and lawrencium (103).
ACTION POTENTIAL: The stimulus- triggered change in the membrane potential of an excitable
cell, caused by selective opening and closing of ion channels.
ACTION SPECTRUM: A graph which illustrates the relationship between some biological activity
and wavelength of light.
ACTIVATED CARBON FILTRATION: Can remove organic chemicals that produce off-taste and
odor. These compounds are not dangerous to health but can make the water unpleasant to drink.
Carbon filtration comes in several forms, from small filters that attach to sink faucets to large
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tanks that contain removable cartridges. Activated carbon filters require regular maintenance or
they can become a health hazard.
ACTIVATED CHARCOAL (GAC or PAC): Granular Activated Charcoal or Powered Activated
Charcoal. Used for taste and odor removal. A treatment technique that is not included in the
grading of a water facility.
ACTIVATED COMPLEX: A structure that forms because of a collision between molecules while
new bonds are formed.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE PROCESS: A biological wastewater treatment process in which a mixture
of wastewater and biologically enriched sludge is mixed and aerated to facilitate aerobic
decomposition by microbes.
ACTIVATED SLUDGE: The biologically active solids in an activated sludge process wastewater
treatment plant.
ACTIVATING ENZYME: An enzyme that couples a low-energy compound with ATP to yield a high-
energy derivative.
ACTIVATION ENERGY: In a chemical reaction, the initial investment required to energize the
bonds of the reactants to an unstable transition state that precedes the formation of the products.
The minimum energy that must be input to a chemical system.
ACTIVE SITE: That specific portion of an enzyme that attaches to the substrate by means of weak
chemical bonds.
ACTIVE TRANSPORT: The movement of a substance across a biological membrane against its
concentration or electrochemical gradient with the help of energy input and specific transport
proteins.
ADAPTATION: Any genetically controlled characteristic that increases an organism's fitness,
usually by helping the organism to survive and reproduce in the environment it inhabits.
ADAPTIVE RADIATION: This refers to the rapid evolution of one or a few forms into many different
species that occupy different habitats within a new geographical area.
ADDITION REACTION: Within organic chemistry, when two or more molecules combine to make
a larger one.
ADHESION: In chemistry, the phenomenon whereby one substance tends to cling to another
substance. Water molecules exhibit adhesion, especially toward charged surfaces.
ADP (Adenosine diphosphate): A doubly phosphorylated organic compound that can be further
phosphorylated to form ATP.
ADRENAL GLAND: An endocrine gland located adjacent to the kidney in mammals. It is composed
of an outer cortex, and a central medulla, each involved in different hormone: mediated
phenomena.
ADRENALIN: A hormone produced by the pituitary that stimulates the adrenal cortex.
ADSORB: Hold on a surface.
ADSORPTION CLARIFIERS: The concept of the adsorption clarifier package plant was
developed in the early 1980s. This technology uses an up-flow clarifier with low-density plastic
bead media, usually held in place by a screen. This adsorption media is designed to enhance the
sedimentation/clarification process by combining flocculation and sedimentation into one step. In
this step, turbidity is reduced by adsorption of the coagulated and flocculated solids onto the
adsorption media and onto the solids already adsorbed onto the media. Air scouring cleans
adsorption clarifiers followed by water flushing. Cleaning of this type of clarifier is initiated more
often than filter backwashing because the clarifier removes more solids. As with the tube-settler
type of package plant, the sedimentation/ clarification process is followed by mixed-media
filtration and disinfection to complete the water treatment.
ADSORPTION: Not to be confused with absorption. Adsorption is a process that occurs when a
gas or liquid solute accumulates on the surface of a solid or a liquid (adsorbent), forming a film of
molecules or atoms (the adsorbate). It is different from absorption, in which a substance diffuses
into a liquid or solid to form a solution. The term sorption encompasses both processes, while
desorption is the reverse process. Adsorption is present in many natural physical, biological, and
chemical systems, and is widely used in industrial applications such as activated charcoal, synthetic
resins, and water purification. Adsorption, ion exchange, and chromatography are sorption
processes in which certain adsorbates are selectively transferred from the fluid phase to the surface

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of insoluble, rigid particles suspended in a vessel or packed in a column. Similar to surface tension,
adsorption is a consequence of surface energy. In a bulk material, all the bonding requirements
(be they ionic, covalent, or metallic) of the constituent atoms of the material are filled by other atoms
in the material. However, atoms on the surface of the adsorbent are not wholly surrounded by other
adsorbent atoms, and therefore can attract adsorbates. The exact nature of the bonding depends
on the details of the species involved, but the adsorption process is generally classified as
physisorption (characteristic of weak van der Waals forces) or chemisorption (characteristic of
covalent bonding).
ADVANCED: New, unlike the ancestral condition.
AERATION: The addition of air or oxygen to water or wastewater, usually by mechanical means,
to increase dissolved oxygen levels and maintains aerobic conditions. The mixing of air into a liquid
or solid.
AEROBIC DIGESTION: Sludge stabilization process involving direct oxidation of biodegradable
matter and oxidation of microbial cellular material.
AEROBIC: The condition of requiring oxygen; an aerobe is an organism which can live and grow
only in the presence of oxygen.
AGE STRUCTURE: The relative numbers of individuals of each age in a population.
AGGLOMERATION: A jumbled cluster or mass of varied parts. The act or process of
agglomerating.
AGNATHAN: A member of a jawless class of vertebrates represented today by the lampreys and
hagfishes.
AGONISTIC BEHAVIOR: A type of behavior involving a contest of some kind that determines
which competitor gains access to some resource, such as food or mates.
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome): A condition in which the body's helper T
lymphocytes are destroyed, leaving the victim subject to opportunistic diseases.
AIR ENTRAINMENT: The dissolution or inclusion of air bubbles into water.
AIR GAP SEPARATION: A physical separation space that is present between the discharge vessel
and the receiving vessel; for an example, a kitchen faucet.
AIR HOOD: The most suitable protection when working with a chemical that produces dangerous
fumes.
ALCOHOL: Any of a class of organic compounds in which one or more - OH groups are attached
to a carbon compound.
ALDEHYDE: An organic molecule with a carbonyl group located at the end of the carbon skeleton.
ALGAE: Microscopic plants that are free-living and usually live in water. They occur as single cells
floating in water, or as multicellular plants like seaweed or strands of algae that attach to rocks.
ALKALI METALS: The metals of Group 1 on the periodic table.
ALKALINE: Having a pH of more than 7. Alkaline solutions are also said to be basic.
ALKALINITY: Alkalinity or AT is a measure of the ability of a solution to neutralize acids to the
equivalence point of carbonate or bicarbonate. Alkalinity is closely related to the acid neutralizing
capacity (ANC) of a solution and ANC is often incorrectly used to refer to alkalinity. However, the
acid neutralizing capacity refers to the combination of the solution and solids present (e.g.,
suspended matter, or aquifer solids), and the contribution of solids can dominate the ANC (see
carbonate minerals below). The alkalinity is equal to the stoichiometric sum of the bases in solution.
In the natural environment carbonate alkalinity tends to make up most of the total alkalinity due to
the common occurrence and dissolution of carbonate rocks and presence of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere. Other common natural components that can contribute to alkalinity include borate,
hydroxide, phosphate, silicate, nitrate, dissolved ammonia, the conjugate bases of some organic
acids and sulfide. Solutions produced in a laboratory may contain a virtually limitless number of
bases that contribute to alkalinity. Alkalinity is usually given in the unit mEq/L (milliequivalent per
liter). Commercially, as in the pool industry, alkalinity might also be given in the unit ppm or parts
per million. Alkalinity is sometimes incorrectly used interchangeably with basicity. For example, the
pH of a solution can be lowered by the addition of CO2. This will reduce the basicity; however, the
alkalinity will remain unchanged.
ALKANLINE EARTH METALS: The metals of Group 2 on the periodic table.

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ALLANTOIS: One of the four extraembryonic membranes found associated with developing
vertebrates; it serves in gas exchange and as a repository for the embryo's nitrogenous waste. In
humans, the allantois is involved in early blood formation and development of the urinary bladder.
ALLELE: Alternate forms of a gene which may be found at a given location (locus) on members of
a homologous set of chromosomes. Structural variations between alleles may lead to different
phenotypes for a given trait.
ALLOMER: A substance that has different composition than another, but has the same crystalline
structure.
ALLOMETRIC: The variation in the relative rates of growth of various parts of the body, which
helps shape the organism.
ALLOPATRIC SPECIATION: A type of speciation which occurs when a population becomes
segregated into two populations by some sort of geographic barrier (also called geographic
speciation). This phenomenon is presumed to have been the mechanism whereby many species
of organisms evolved.
ALLOPOLYPLOID: A common type of polyploid species resulting from two different species
interbreeding and combining their chromosomes.
ALL-OR-NONE: (event) An action that occurs either completely or not at all, such as the generation
of an action potential by a neuron.
ALLOSTERIC ENZYME: An enzyme that can exist in two or more conformations.
ALLOSTERIC SITE: A receptor on an enzyme molecule which is remote from the active site.
Binding of the appropriate molecule to the allosteric site changes the conformation of the active
site, making it either more or less receptive to the substrate.
ALLOTROPY: Elements that can have different structures (and therefore different forms), such as
Carbon (diamonds, graphite, and fullerene).
ALPHA AND BETA RADIOACTIVITY: Represent two common forms of radioactive decay.
Radioactive elements have atomic nuclei so heavy that the nucleus will break apart, or disintegrate
spontaneously. When decay occurs, high-energy particles are released. These high-energy
particles are called radioactivity. Although radioactivity from refined radioactive elements can be
dangerous, it is rare to find dangerous levels of radioactivity in natural waters. An alpha particle is
a doubly-charged helium nucleus comprised of two protons, two neutrons, and no electrons. A beta
particle is a high-speed electron. Alpha particles do not penetrate matter easily, and are stopped
by a piece of paper. Beta particles are much more penetrating and can pass through a millimeter
of lead.
ALPHA HELIX: A spiral shape constituting one form of the secondary structure of proteins, arising
from a specific hydrogen: bonding structure.
ALTERNATION OF GENERATIONS: Occurrences of a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte,
with a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte.
ALTERNATIVE DISINFECTANTS: Disinfectants - other than chlorination (halogens) - used to
treat water, e.g. ozone, ultraviolet radiation, chlorine dioxide, and chloramine. There is limited
experience and scientific knowledge about the by-products and risks associated with the use of
alternatives.
ALTRUISM: The willingness of an individual to sacrifice its fitness for the benefit of another.
ALUMINUM SULFATE: The chemical name for Alum. The molecular formula of Alum is
Al2(SO4)3~14H2O. It is a cationic polymer.
ALVEOLUS: One of the dead-end, multilobed air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of
the lungs.
AMINO ACID: An organic molecule possessing a carboxyl (COOH) and amino group. Amino acids
serve as the monomers of polypeptides and proteins.
AMINO GROUP: A functional group consisting of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogens; can
act as a base in solution, accepting a hydrogen ion and acquiring a charge of +1.
AMINOACYL: tRNA synthetases- A family of enzymes, at least one for each amino acid, that
catalyze the attachment of an amino acid to its specific tRNA molecule.
AMMONIA: A chemical made with Nitrogen and Hydrogen and used with chlorine to disinfect
water. Most ammonia in water is present as the ammonium ion rather than as ammonia.

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AMMONIA: NH3 A chemical made with Nitrogen and Hydrogen and used with chlorine to
disinfect water. Most ammonia in water is present as the ammonium ion rather than as ammonia.
AMMONIATOR: AA control device which meters gaseous ammonia directly into water under
positive pressure.
AMOEBA: Amoeba (sometimes amœba or ameba, plural amoebae) is a genus of protozoa that
moves by means of pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular organism. The
word amoeba or ameba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now grouped as the
Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids.
(Movement) A streaming locomotion characteristic of Amoeba and other protists, as well as some
individual cells, such as white blood cells, in animals.
AMP (Adenosine monophosphate): A singly phosphorylated organic compound that can be further
phosphorylated to form ADP.
AMYLASE: A starch-digesting enzyme.
ANABOLISM: A metabolic pathway of biosynthesis that consumes energy to build a large molecule
from simpler ones.
ANAEROBIC CONDITIONS: When anaerobic conditions exist in either the metalimnion or
hypolimnion of a stratified lake or reservoir, water quality problems may make the water
unappealing for domestic use without costly water treatment procedures. Most of these problems
are associated with Reduction in the stratified waters.
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION: Sludge stabilization process where the organic material in biological
sludges are converted to methane and carbon dioxide in an airtight reactor.
ANAEROBIC: Without oxygen. An organism which lives in the absence of oxygen is called an
anaerobe. An abnormal condition in which color and odor problems are most likely to occur.
ANAEROBIC: An abnormal condition in which color and odor problems are most likely to occur.
ANAGENESIS: A pattern of evolutionary change involving the transformation of an entire
population, sometimes to a state different enough from the ancestral population to justify renaming
it as a separate species; also called phyletic.
ANALOGOUS: Characteristics of organisms which are similar in function (and often in structure)
but different in embryological and/or evolutionary origins.
ANALYST: The analyst must have at least 2 years of college lecture and laboratory course work
in microbiology or a closely related field. The analyst also must have at least 6 months of continuous
bench experience with environmental protozoa detection techniques and IFA microscopy, and must
have successfully analyzed at least 50 water and/or wastewater samples for Cryptosporidium and
Giardia. Six months of additional experience in the above areas may be substituted for two years
of college.
ANCESTRAL TRAIT: Trait shared by a group of organisms as a result of descent from a common
ancestor.
ANEROID: Using no fluid, as in aneroid barometer.
ANEUPLOIDY: A chromosomal aberration in which certain chromosomes are present in extra
copies or are deficient in number.
ANION: Negatively charge ions.
ANISOGAMOUS: Reproducing by the fusion of gametes that differ only in size, as opposed to
gametes that are produced by oogamous species. Gametes of oogamous species, such as egg
cells and sperm, are highly differentiated.
ANNUAL: A plant that completes its entire life cycle in a single year or growing season.
ANODE: The positive side of a dry cell battery or a cell.
ANOXIC: A biological environment that is deficient in molecular oxygen, but may contain
chemically bound oxygen, such as nitrates and nitrites.
ANTERIOR: Referring to the head end of a bilaterally symmetrical animal.
ANTHROPOMORPHISM: Attributing a human characteristic to an inanimate object or a species
other than a human.
ANTIBIOTIC: A chemical that kills or inhibits the growth of bacteria, often via transcriptional or
translational regulation.
ANTIBODY: A protein, produced by the B lymphocytes of the immune system that binds to a
particular antigen.

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ANTICODON: The specialized base triplet on one end of a tRNA molecule that associates with a
particular complementary codon on an mRNA molecule during protein synthesis.
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE: A hormone important in osmoregulation (it acts to reduce the
elimination of water from the body.
ANTIGEN: A foreign macromolecule that does not belong to the host organism and that elicits an
immune response.
APOMORPHIC CHARACTER: A derived phenotypic character, or homology, that evolved after a
branch diverged from a phylogenetic tree.
APOSEMATIC COLORATION: Serving as a warning, with reference particularly to colors and
structures that signal possession of defensive device.
AQUEOUS SOLUTION: A solution in which water is the solvent.
AQUIFER PARAMETERS: Referring to such attributes as specific capacity, aquifer storage,
transmissivity, hydraulic conductivity, gradient, and water levels. Refers to all of the components
of Darcy’s Law and related parameters.
ARCHAEBACTERIA: A lineage of prokaryotes, represented today by a few groups of bacteria
inhabiting extreme environments. Some taxonomists place archaebacteria in their own kingdom,
separate from the other bacteria.
ARCHENTERON: The endoderm-lined cavity formed during the gastrulation process that develops
into the digestive tract of the animal.
ARISTOTLE: A Greek philosopher often credited as the first to use empirical and deductive
methods in logic.
AROMATICITY: Chemical property of conjugated rings that results in unusual stability. See also
benzene.
ARTIFICIAL SELECTION: The selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to
encourage the occurrence of desirable traits.
AS NITROGEN: An expression that tells how the concentration of a chemical is expressed
mathematically. The chemical formula for the nitrate ion is NO3, with a mass of 62. The
concentration of nitrate can be expressed either in terms of the nitrate ion or in terms of the
principal element, nitrogen. The mass of the nitrogen atom is 14. The ratio of the nitrate ion mass
to the nitrogen atom mass is 4.43. Thus a concentration of 10 mg/L nitrate expressed as nitrogen
would be equivalent to a concentration of 44.3 mg/L nitrate expressed as nitrate ion. When
dealing with nitrate numbers it is very important to know how numeric values are expressed.
AS: The chemical symbol of Arsenic.
ASCUS: The elongate spore sac of a fungus of the Ascomycota group.
ASEPTIC: Free from the living germs of disease, fermentation, or putrefaction.
ASEXUAL: A type of reproduction involving only one parent that produces genetically identical
offspring by budding or division of a single cell or the entire organism into two or more parts.
ASSORTATIVE MATING: A type of nonrandom mating in which mating partners resemble each
other in certain phenotypic characters.
ASYMMETRIC CARBON: A carbon atom covalently bonded to four different atoms or groups of
atoms.
ASYNCHRONOUS: Not occurring at the same time.
ATOM: The general definition of an ion is an atom with a positive or negative charge. Electron is
the name of a negatively charged atomic particle.
ATOMIC NUMBER: The number representing an element which corresponds with the number of
protons within the nucleus.
ATOMIC ORBITAL: The region where the electron of the atom may be found.
ATOMIC THEORY: The physical theory of the structure, properties and behavior of the atom.
ATOMIC WEIGHT: The total atomic mass, which is the mass in grams of one mole of the atom
(relative to that of 12C, which is designated as 12).
ATP (Adenosine triphosphate): A triply phosphorylated organic compound that functions as
"energy currency" for organisms, thus allowing life forms to do work; it can be hydrolyzed in two
steps (first to ADP and then to AMP) to liberate 7.3 Kcal of energy per mole during each hydrolysis.
ATPASE: An enzyme that functions in producing or using ATP.

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AUTOGENOUS MODEL: A hypothesis which suggests that the first eukaryotic cells evolved by
the specialization of internal membranes originally derived from prokaryotic plasma membranes.
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASE: An immunological disorder in which the immune system goes awry and
turns against itself.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM: A subdivision of the motor nervous system of vertebrates that
regulates the internal environment; consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic subdivisions.
AUTOPOLYPLOID: A type of polyploid species resulting from one species doubling its
chromosome number to become tetraploids, which may self-fertilize or mate with other tetraploids.
AUTOSOME: Chromosomes that are not directly involved in determining sex.
AUTOTROPH: An organism which is able to make organic molecules from inorganic ones either
by using energy from the sun or by oxidizing inorganic substances.
AUXIN: One of several hormone compounds in plants that have a variety of effects, such as
phototropic response through stimulation of cell elongation, stimulation of secondary growth, and
development of leaf traces and fruit.
AUXOTROPH: A nutritional mutant that is unable to synthesize and that cannot grow on media
lacking certain essential molecules normally synthesized by wild-type strains of the same species.
AVOGADRO’S NUMBER: Is the number of particles in a mole of a substance ( 6.02x10^23 ).
AXON: A typically long outgrowth, or process, from a neuron that carries nerve impulses away
from the cell body toward target cells.
AXONEME: An internal flagellar structure that occurs in some protozoa, such as Giardia,
Spironucleous, and Trichonmonas.

B
BACKFLOW PREVENTION: To stop or prevent the occurrence of, the unnatural act of reversing
the normal direction of the flow of liquid, gases, or solid substances back in to the public potable
(drinking) water supply. See Cross-connection control.
BACKFLOW: To reverse the natural and normal directional flow of a liquid, gases, or solid
substances back in to the public potable (drinking) water supply. This is normally an undesirable
effect.
BACKSIPHONAGE: A liquid substance that is carried over a higher point. It is the method by which
the liquid substance may be forced by excess pressure over or into a higher point.
BACTERIA: Small, one-celled animals too small to be seen by the naked eye. Bacteria are found
everywhere, including on and in the human body. Humans would be unable to live without the
bacteria that inhabit the intestines and assist in digesting food. Only a small percentage of
bacteria cause disease in normal, healthy humans. Other bacteria can cause infections if they get
into a cut or wound. Bacteria are the principal concern in evaluating the microbiological quality of
drinking water, because some of the bacteria-caused diseases that can be transmitted by
drinking water are potentially life-threatening.
BACTERIOPHAGE: Any of a group of viruses that infect specific bacteria, usually causing their
disintegration or dissolution. A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek phagein, 'to eat') is any
one of a number of viruses that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form,
phage. Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. The
genetic material can be ssRNA (single stranded RNA), dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA between 5 and
500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement. Bacteriophages are much
smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20 and 200 nm in size.
BACTERIUM: A unicellular microorganism of the Kingdom Monera. Bacteria are prokaryotes; their
cells have no true nucleus. Bacteria are classified into two groups based on a difference in cell
walls, as determined by Gram staining.
BALANCED POLYMORPHISM: A type of polymorphism in which the frequencies of the coexisting
forms do not change noticeably over many generations.
BARITE: Processed barium sulfate often used to increase drilling fluid densities in mud rotary.
BAROMETER: A device used to measure the pressure in the atmosphere.
BARR BODY: The dense object that lies along the inside of the nuclear envelope in cells of female
mammals, representing the one inactivated X chromosome.

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BASAL BODY: A cell structure identical to a centriole that organizes and anchors the microtubule
assembly of a cilium or flagellum.
BASE PAIRING: Complementary base pairing refers to the chemical affinities between specific
base pairs in a nucleic acid: adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always pairs with
cytosine. In pairing between DNA and RNA, the uracil of RNA always pairs with adenine.
Complementary base pairing is not only responsible for the DNA double helix, but it is also essential
for various in vitro techniques such as PCR (polymerase chain reaction). Complementary base
pairing is also known as Watson-Crick pairing.
BASE: A substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
BASE: A substance that accepts a proton and has a high pH; a common example is sodium
hydroxide (NaOH).
BASEMENT MEMBRANE: The floor of an epithelial membrane on which the basal cells rest.
BASIDIUM: The spore-bearing structure of Basidiomycota.
BATESIAN MIMICRY: A type of mimicry in which a harmless species looks like a different species
that is poisonous or otherwise harmful to predators.
B-CELL LYMPHOCYTE: A type of lymphocyte that develops in the bone marrow and later
produces antibodies, which mediate humoral immunity.
BEHAVIORAL ECOLOGY: A heuristic approach based on the expectation that Darwinian fitness
(reproductive success) is improved by optimal behavior.
BELT PRESS: A dewatering device utilizing two opposing synthetic fabric belts, revolving over a
series of rollers to “squeeze” water from the sludge.
BENCH TEST: A small-scale test or study used to determine whether a technology is suitable for
a particular application.
BENIGN TUMOR: A noncancerous abnormal growth composed of cells that multiply excessively
but remain at their place of origin in the body.
BENTHIC: Pertaining to the bottom region of an aquatic environment.
BEST AVAILABLE TECHNOLOGY ECONOMICALLY ACHIEVABLE (BAT): A level of technology
based on the best existing control and treatment measures that are economically achievable
within the given industrial category or subcategory.
BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES (BMPs): Schedules of activities, prohibitions of practices,
maintenance procedures, and other management practices to prevent or reduce the pollution of
waters of the U.S. BMPs also include treatment requirements, operating procedures and
practices to control plant site runoff, spillage or leaks, sludge or waste disposal, or drainage from
raw material storage.
BEST PRACTICABLE CONTROL TECHNOLOGY CURRENTLY AVAILABLE (BPT): A level of
technology represented by the average of the best existing wastewater treatment performance
levels within an industrial category or subcategory.
BEST PROFESSIONAL JUDGMENT (BPJ): The method used by a permit writer to develop
technology-based limitations on a case-by-case basis using all reasonably available and relevant
data.
BETA PLEATED SHEET: A zigzag shape, constituting one form of the secondary structure of
proteins formed of hydrogen bonds between polypeptide segments running in opposite directions.
BILATERAL SYMMETRY: The property of having two similar sides, with definite upper and lower
surfaces and anterior and posterior ends. The Bilateria are members of the branch of Eumetazoa
(Kingdom Animalia) which possess bilateral symmetry.
BILE: A mixture of substances containing bile salts, which emulsify fats and aid in their digestion
and absorption.
BINARY FISSION: The kind of cell division found in prokaryotes, in which dividing daughter cells
each receive a copy of the single parental chromosome.
BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE: Consisting of two names. In biology, each organism is given a
genus name and a species name (i.e., the human is Homo sapiens.
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (BOD): The BOD test is used to measure the strength of
wastewater. The BOD of wastewater determines the milligrams per liter of oxygen required during
stabilization of decomposable organic matter by aerobic bacteria action. Also, the total milligrams
of oxygen required over a five-day test period to biologically assimilate the organic contaminants

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in one liter of wastewater maintained at 20 degrees Centigrade.
BIOCHEMISTRY: The chemistry of organisms.
BIOGENESIS: A central concept of biology, that living organisms are derived from other living
organisms (contrasts to the concept of abiogenesis, or spontaneous generation, which held that
life could be derived from inanimate material).
BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE: A circuit whereby a nutrient moves between both biotic and abiotic
components of ecosystems.
BIOGEOGRAPHY: The study of the past and present distribution of species.
BIOLOGICAL MAGNIFICATION: Increasing concentration of relatively stable chemicals as they
are passed up a food chain from initial consumers to top predators.
BIOLOGICAL SPECIES: A population or group of populations whose members have the potential
to interbreed. This concept was introduced by Ernst Mayr.
BIOMASS: The total weight of all the organisms, or of a designated group of organisms, in a given
area
BIOME: A large climatic region with characteristic sorts of plants and animals.
BIOSOLIDS: Solid organic matter recovered from municipal wastewater treatment that can be
beneficially used, especially as a fertilizer. “Biosolids” are solids that have been stabilized within
the treatment process, whereas “sludge” has not.
BIOSPHERE: The region on and surrounding the earth which is capable of supporting life.
Theoretically, the concept may be ultimately expanded to include other regions of the universe.
BMR: The basal metabolic rate is the minimal energy (in kcal) required by a homeotherm to fuel
itself for a given time. Measured within the thermoneutral zone for a postabsorptive animal at rest.
BODY FEED: Coating or bulking material added to the influent of material to be treated. This adds
“body” to the material during filtration cycle.
BOILING POINT ELEVATION: The process where the boiling point is elevated by adding a
substance.
BOILING POINT: The temperature in which the substance starts to boil.
BOILING: The phase transition of liquid vaporizing.
BOND: The attraction and repulsion between atoms and molecules that is a cornerstone of
chemistry.
Both measurements (mg/L or KH) are usually expressed "as CaCO3" – meaning the amount of
hardness expressed as if calcium carbonate was the sole source of hardness. Every bicarbonate
ion only counts for half as much carbonate hardness as a carbonate ion does. If a solution
contained 1 liter of water and 50 mg NaHCO3 (baking soda), it would have a carbonate hardness
of about 18 mg/L as CaCO3. If you had a liter of water containing 50 mg of Na2CO3, it would have
a carbonate hardness of about 29 mg/L as CaCO3. Carbonate hardness supplements non-
carbonate (a.k.a. "permanent") hardness where hard ions are associated with anions such as
Chloride that do not precipitate out of solution when heated. Carbonate hardness is removed from
water through the process of softening. Softening can be achieved by adding lime in the form of
Ca(OH)2, which reacts first with CO2 to form calcium carbonate precipitate, reacts next with multi-
valent cations to remove carbonate hardness, then reacts with anions to replace the non-carbonate
hardness due to multi-valent cations with non-carbonate hardness due to calcium. The process
requires recarbonation through the addition of carbon-dioxide to lower the pH which is raised during
the initial softening process.
BREAK POINT CHLORINATION: The process of chlorinating the water with significant quantities
of chlorine to oxidize all contaminants and organic wastes and leave all remaining chlorine as free
chlorine.
BRIDGING: The tendency of sediment, filter, or seal media to create an obstruction if installed in
too small an annulus or to rapidly. Also can occur within filter packs requiring development.
BROMINE: Chemical disinfectant (HALOGEN) that kills bacteria and algae. This chemical
disinfectant has been used only on a very limited scale for water treatment because of its handling
difficulties. This chemical causes skin burns on contact, and a residual is difficult to obtain.
BRONSTED-LOWREY ACID: A chemical species that donates a proton.
BRONSTED-LOWREY BASE: A chemical species that accepts a proton.
BUFFER: Chemical that resists pH change, e.g. sodium bicarbonate

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BUFFERED SOLTION: An aqueous solution consisting of a weak acid and its conjugate base or
a weak base and its conjugate acid that resists changes in pH when strong acids or bases are
added.
BULKING SLUDGE: A phenomenon that occurs in activated sludge plants whereby the sludge
occupies excessive volumes and will not concentrate readily. This condition refers to a decrease
in the ability of the sludge to settle and consequent loss over the settling tank weir. Bulking in
activated sludge aeration tanks is caused mainly by excess suspended solids (SS) content.
Sludge bulking in the final settling tank of an activated sludge plant may be caused by improper
balance of the BOD load, SS concentration in the mixed liquor, or the amount of air used in
aeration. A poor or slow settling activated sludge that results from the prevalence of filamentous
organisms.
BURETTE (also BURET): Glassware used to dispense specific amounts of liquid when precision
is necessary (e.g. titration and resource dependent reactions).

C
Ca: The chemical symbol for calcium.
CADMIUM: A contaminant that is usually not found naturally in water or in very small amounts.
CAKE: Dewatered sludge material with a satisfactory solids concentration to allow handling as a
solid material.
CALCIUM HARDNESS: A measure of the calcium salts dissolved in water.
CALCIUM ION: Is divalent because it has a valence of +2.
CALCIUM, MAGNESIUM AND IRON: The three elements that cause hardness in water.
CaOCl2.4H2O: The molecular formula of Calcium hypochlorite.
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS: The pH will decrease and alkalinity will change as measured by the
Langelier index after pumping carbon dioxide gas into water.
CARBON DIOXIDE GAS: The pH will decrease and alkalinity will change as measured by the
Langelier index after pumping carbon dioxide gas into water.
CARBONATE HARDNESS: Carbonate hardness is the measure of Calcium and Magnesium and
other hard ions associated with carbonate (CO32-) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) ions contained in a
solution, usually water. It is usually expressed either as parts per million (ppm or mg/L), or in
degrees (KH - from the German "Karbonathärte"). One German degree of carbonate hardness is
equivalent to about 17.8575 mg/L. Both measurements (mg/L or KH) are usually expressed "as
CaCO3" – meaning the amount of hardness expressed as if calcium carbonate was the sole
source of hardness. Every bicarbonate ion only counts for half as much carbonate hardness as a
carbonate ion does. If a solution contained 1 liter of water and 50 mg NaHCO3 (baking soda), it
would have a carbonate hardness of about 18 mg/L as CaCO3. If you had a liter of water
containing 50 mg of Na2CO3, it would have a carbonate hardness of about 29 mg/L as CaCO3.
CARBONATE, BICARBONATE AND HYDROXIDE: Chemicals that are responsible for the
alkalinity of water.
CAROLUS LINNAEUS: Swedish botanist and originator of the binomial nomenclature system of
taxonomic classification
CATALYST: A chemical compound used to change the rate (either to speed up or slow down) of
a reaction, but is regenerated at the end of the reaction.
CATHODIC PROTECTION: An operator should protect against corrosion of the anode and/or the
cathode by painting the copper cathode. Cathodic protection interrupts corrosion by supplying an
electrical current to overcome the corrosion-producing mechanism. Guards against stray current
corrosion.
CATION: Positively charged ion.
CAUSTIC SODA: Also known as sodium hydroxide and is used to raise pH.
CAUSTIC: NaOH (also called Sodium Hydroxide) is a strong chemical used in the treatment
process to neutralize acidity, increase alkalinity or raise the pH value.
CEILING AREA: The specific gravity of ammonia gas is 0.60. If released, this gas will accumulate
first at the ceiling area. Cl2 gas will settle on the floor.
CELL POTENIAL: The force in a galvanic cell that pulls electron through reducing agent to
oxidizing agent.

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CENTRATE: The liquid remaining after solids have been removed in a centrifuge.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE: That force when a ball is whirled on a string that pulls the ball outward.
On a centrifugal pump, it is that force which throws water from a spinning impeller.
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP: A pump consisting of an impeller fixed on a rotating shaft and enclosed in
a casing, having an inlet and a discharge connection. The rotating impeller creates pressure in the
liquid by the velocity derived from centrifugal force.
CENTRIFUGE: A dewatering device relying on centrifugal force to separate particles of varying
density such as water and solids. Equipment used to separate substances based on density by
rotating the tubes around a centered axis
CESIUM (also Caesium): Symbol Cs- A soft, silvery-white ductile metal, liquid at room
temperature, the most electropositive and alkaline of the elements, used in photoelectric cells and
to catalyze hydrogenation of some organic compounds.
CHAIN OF CUSTODY (COC): A record of each person involved in the possession of a sample
from the person who collects the sample to the person who analyzes the sample in the
laboratory.
CHELATION: A chemical process used to control scale formation in which a chelating agent
"captures" scale-causing ions and holds them in solution.
CHEMICAL FEED RATE: Chemicals are added to the water in order to improve the subsequent
treatment processes. These may include pH adjusters and coagulants. Coagulants are
chemicals, such as alum, that neutralize positive or negative charges on small particles, allowing
them to stick together and form larger particles that are more easily removed by sedimentation
(settling) or filtration. A variety of devices, such as baffles, static mixers, impellers and in-line
sprays, can be used to mix the water and distribute the chemicals evenly.
CHEMICAL LAW: Certain rules that pertain to the laws of nature and chemistry.
CHEMICAL OXIDIZER: KMnO4 is used for taste and odor control because it is a strong oxidizer
which eliminates many organic compounds.
CHEMICAL OXIDIZER: KMnO4 or Potassium Permanganate is used for taste and odor control
CHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND (COD): The milligrams of oxygen required to chemically oxidize
the organic contaminants in one liter of wastewater.
CHEMICAL REACTION RATE: In general, when the temperature decreases, the chemical
reaction rate also decreases. The opposite is true for when the temperature increases.
CHEMICAL REACTION: The change of one or more substances into another or multiple
substances.
CHEMICAL SLUDGE: Sludge resulting from chemical treatment processes of inorganic wastes
that are not biologically active.
CHEMISORPTION: (or chemical adsorption) Is adsorption in which the forces involved are
valence forces of the same kind as those operating in the formation of chemical compounds.
CHLORAMINES: A group of chlorine ammonia compounds formed when chlorine combines with
organic wastes in the water. Chloramines are not effective as disinfectants and are responsible
for eye and skin irritation as well as strong chlorine odors.
CHLORINATION: The process in water treatment of adding chlorine (gas or solid hypochlorite) for
purposes of disinfection.
CHLORINE DEMAND: Amount of chlorine required to react on various water impurities before a
residual is obtained. Also, means the amount of chlorine required to produce a free chlorine
residual of 0.1 mg/l after a contact time of fifteen minutes as measured by iodmetic method of a
sample at a temperature of twenty degrees in conformance with Standard methods.
CHLORINE FEED: Chlorine may be delivered by vacuum-controlled solution feed chlorinators.
The chlorine gas is controlled, metered, introduced into a stream of injector water and then
conducted as a solution to the point of application.
CHLORINE, FREE: Chlorine available to kill bacteria or algae. The amount of chlorine available
for sanitization after the chlorine demand has been met. Also known as chlorine residual.
CHLORINE: A chemical used to disinfect water. Chlorine is extremely reactive, and when it comes
in contact with microorganisms in water it kills them. Chlorine is added to swimming pools to keep
the water safe for swimming. Chlorine is available as solid tablets for swimming pools. Some public
water system’s drinking water treatment plants use chlorine in a gas form because of the large

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volumes required. Chlorine is very effective against algae, bacteria and viruses. Protozoa are
resistant to chlorine because they have thick coats; protozoa are removed from drinking water by
filtration.
CHRONIC: A stimulus that lingers or continues for a relatively long period of time, often one-tenth
of the life span or more. Chronic should be considered a relative term depending on the life span
of an organism. The measurement of chronic effect can be reduced growth, reduced
reproduction, etc., in addition to lethality.
CIRCULATION: The continual flow of drilling fluid from injection to recovery and recirculation at
the surface.
CLARIFIER: A settling tank used to remove suspended solids by gravity settling. Commonly
referred to as sedimentation or settling basins, they are usually equipped with a motor driven chain
and flight or rake mechanism to collect settled sludge and move it to a final removal point.
CLEAR WELL: A large underground storage facility sometimes made of concrete. A clear well or
a plant storage reservoir is usually filled when demand is low. The final step in the conventional
filtration process, the clearwell provides temporary storage for the treated water. The two main
purposes for this storage are to have filtered water available for backwashing the filter and to
provide detention time (or contact time) for the chlorine (or other disinfectant) to kill any
microorganisms that may remain in the water.
ClO2: The molecular formula of Chlorine dioxide.
COAGULATION: The best pH range for coagulation is between 5 and 7. Mixing is an important
part of the coagulation process you want to complete the coagulation process as quickly as
possible. A chemical added to initially destabilize, aggregate, and bind together colloids and
emulsions to improve settleability, filterability, or drainability.
COLIFORM TESTING: The effectiveness of disinfection is usually determined by Coliform
bacteria testing. A positive sample is a bad thing and indicates that you have bacteria
contamination.
COLIFORM: Bacteria normally found in the intestines of warm-blooded animals. Coliform
bacteria are present in high numbers in animal feces. They are an indicator of potential
contamination of water. Adequate and appropriate disinfection effectively destroys coliform
bacteria. Public water systems are required to deliver safe and reliable drinking water to their
customers 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. If the water supply becomes contaminated,
consumers can become seriously ill. Fortunately, public water systems take many steps to ensure
that the public has safe, reliable drinking water. One of the most important steps is to regularly
test the water for coliform bacteria. Coliform bacteria are organisms that are present in the
environment and in the feces of all warm-blooded animals and humans. Coliform bacteria will not
likely cause illness. However, their presence in drinking water indicates that disease-causing
organisms (pathogens) could be in the water system. Most pathogens that can contaminate water
supplies come from the feces of humans or animals. Testing drinking water for all possible
pathogens is complex, time-consuming, and expensive. It is relatively easy and inexpensive to
test for coliform bacteria. If coliform bacteria are found in a water sample, water system operators
work to find the source of contamination and restore safe drinking water. There are three different
groups of coliform bacteria; each has a different level of risk.
COLLIOD: Mixture of evenly dispersed substances, such as many milks.
COLLOIDAL SUSPENSIONS: Because both iron and manganese react with dissolved oxygen to
form insoluble compounds, they are not found in high concentrations in waters containing
dissolved oxygen except as colloidal suspensions of the oxide.
COLORIMETRIC MEASUREMENT: A means of measuring an unknown chemical concentration
in water by measuring a sample's color intensity.
COMBINED CHLORINE: The reaction product of chlorine with ammonia or other pollutants, also
known as chloramines.
COMBUSTION: An exothermic reaction between an oxidant and fuel with heat and often light
COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: A water system which supplies drinking water to 25 or more of
the same people year-round in their residences.
COMPLIANCE CYCLE: A 9-calendar year time-frame during which a public water system is
required to monitor. Each compliance cycle consists of 3 compliance periods.

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COMPLIANCE PERIOD: A 3-calendar year time-frame within a compliance cycle.
COMPOSITE SAMPLE: A water sample that is a combination of a group of samples collected at
various intervals during the day. A combination of individual samples of water or wastewater
taken at predetermined intervals to minimize the effect of variability of individual samples. To
have significant meaning, samples for laboratory tests on wastewater should be representative of
the wastewater. The best method of sampling is proportional composite sampling over several
hours during the day. Composite samples are collected because the flow and characteristics of
the wastewater are continually changing. A composite sample will give a representative analysis
of the wastewater conditions.
COMPOSTING: Stabilization process relying on the aerobic decomposition of organic matter in
sludge by bacteria and fungi.
COMPOUND: A substance that is made up of two or more chemically bonded elements.
CONDENSATION: The process that changes water vapor to tiny droplets or ice crystals.
CONDUCTOR: Material that allows electric flow more freely.
CONTACT STABILIZATION PROCESS: Modification of the activated sludge process where raw
wastewater is aerated with activated sludge for a short time prior to solids removal and continued
aeration in a stabilization tank.
CONTACT TIME: If the water temperature decreases from 70°F (21°C) to 40°F (4°C). The
operator needs to increase the detention time to maintain good disinfection of the water.
CONTAINS THE ELEMENT CARBON: A simple definition of an organic compound.
CONTAMINANT: Any natural or man-made physical, chemical, biological, or radiological
substance or matter in water, which is at a level that may have an adverse effect on public health,
and which is known or anticipated to occur in public water systems.
CONTAMINATION: A degradation in the quality of groundwater in result of the it’s becoming
polluted with unnatural or previously non-existent constituents.
CONTROL TASTE AND ODOR PROBLEMS: KMnO4 Potassium permanganate is a strong
oxidizer commonly used to control taste and odor problems.
COPPER: The chemical name for the symbol Cu.
CORROSION: The removal of metal from copper, other metal surfaces and concrete
surfaces in a destructive manner. Corrosion is caused by improperly balanced water or
excessive water velocity through piping or heat exchangers.
CORROSION: The removal of metal from copper, other metal surfaces and concrete surfaces in
a destructive manner. Corrosion is caused by improperly balanced water or excessive water
velocity through piping or heat exchangers.
CORROSIVITY: The Langelier Index measures corrosivity.
COUPON: A coupon placed to measure corrosion damage in the water mains.
COVALENT BOND: Chemical bond that involves sharing electrons.
CROSS-CONNECTION: A physical connection between a public water system and any source of
water or other substance that may lead to contamination of the water provided by the public water
system through backflow. Might be the source of an organic substance causing taste and odor
problems in a water distribution system.
CROSS-CONTAMINATION: The mixing of two unlike qualities of water. For example, the mixing
of good water with a polluting substance like a chemical.
CRYPTOSPORIDIUM: A disease-causing parasite, resistant to chlorine disinfection. It may be
found in fecal matter or contaminated drinking water. Cryptosporidium is a protozoan pathogen of
the Phylum Apicomplexa and causes a diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis. Other
apicomplexan pathogens include the malaria parasite Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, the causative
agent of toxoplasmosis. Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector,
Cryptosporidium does not utilize an insect vector and is capable of completing its life cycle within
a single host, resulting in cyst stages which are excreted in feces and are capable of transmission
to a new host.
CRYSTAL: A solid that is packed with ions, molecules or atoms in an orderly fashion.
CUVETTE: Glassware used in spectroscopic experiments. It is usually made of plastic, glass or
quartz and should be as clean and clear as possible.

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CYANOBACTERIA: Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or
Cyanophyta, is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name
"cyanobacteria" comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: kyanós = blue). They are a
significant component of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in many
areas of the ocean, but are also found on land.
CYANURIC ACID: White, crystalline, water-soluble solid, C3H3O3N3ꞏ2H2O, used chiefly in
organic synthesis. Chemical used to prevent the decomposition of chlorine by ultraviolet (UV)
light.
CYST: A phase or a form of an organism produced either in response to environmental
conditions or as a normal part of the life cycle of the organism. It is characterized by a thick and
environmentally resistant cell wall.

D
DAILY MAXIMUM LIMITATIONS: The maximum allowable discharge of pollutants during a 24
hour period. Where daily maximum limitations are expressed in units of mass, the daily discharge
is the total mass discharged over the course of the day. Where daily maximum limitations are
expressed in terms of a concentration, the daily discharge is the arithmetic average measurement
of the pollutant concentration derived from all measurements taken that day.
DANGEROUS CHEMICALS: The most suitable protection when working with a chemical that
produces dangerous fumes is to work under an air hood.
DARCY’S LAW: (Q=KIA) A fundamental equation used in the groundwater sciences to
determine aquifer characteristics, where Q=Flux, K=Hydraulic Conductivity (Permeability), I =
Hydraulic Gradient (change in head), and A = Cross Sectional Area of flow.
DECANT: Separation of a liquid from settled solids by removing the upper layer of liquid after the
solids have settled.
DECIBELS: The unit of measurement for sound.
DECOMPOSE: To decay or rot.
DECOMPOSTION OF ORGANIC MATERIAL: The decomposition of organic material in water
produces taste and odors.
DEIONIZATION: The removal of ions, and in water's case mineral ions such as sodium, iron and
calcium.
DELIQUESCENE: Substances that absorb water from the atmosphere to form liquid solutions.
DEMINERALIZATION PROCESS: Mineral concentration of the feed water is the most important
consideration in the selection of a demineralization process. Acid feed is the most common
method of scale control in a membrane demineralization treatment system.
DENITRIFICATION: A biological process by which nitrate is converted to nitrogen gas.
DENTAL CARIES PREVENTION IN CHILDREN: The main reason that fluoride is added to a
water supply.
DEPOLARIZATION: The removal of hydrogen from a cathode.
DEPOSITION: Settling of particles within a solution or mixture.
DESICCANT: When shutting down equipment which may be damaged by moisture, the unit may
be protected by sealing it in a tight container. This container should contain a desiccant.
DESORPTION: Desorption is a phenomenon whereby a substance is released from or through a
surface. The process is the opposite of sorption (that is, adsorption and absorption). This occurs in
a system being in the state of sorption equilibrium between bulk phase (fluid, i.e. gas or liquid
solution) and an adsorbing surface (solid or boundary separating two fluids). When the
concentration (or pressure) of substance in the bulk phase is lowered, some of the sorbed
substance changes to the bulk state. In chemistry, especially chromatography, desorption is the
ability for a chemical to move with the mobile phase. The more a chemical desorbs, the less likely
it will adsorb, thus instead of sticking to the stationary phase, the chemical moves up with the
solvent front. In chemical separation processes, stripping is also referred to as desorption as one
component of a liquid stream moves by mass transfer into a vapor phase through the liquid-vapor
interface.
DETENTION LAG: Is the period of time between the moment of change in a chlorinator control
system and the moment when the change is sensed by the chlorine residual indicator.

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DEVELOPMENT: The cleaning of the well and bore once construction is complete.
DIATOMACEOUS EARTH: A fine silica material containing the skeletal remains of algae.
DIGESTER: A tank or vessel used for sludge digestion.
DIGESTION: The biological decomposition of organic matter in sludge resulting in partial
gasification, liquefaction, and mineralization of putrescible and offensive solids.
DIPOLE MOMENT: The polarity of a polar covalent bond.
DIPOLE: Electric or magnetic separation of charge.
DIRECT CURRENT: A source of direct current (DC) may be used for standby lighting in a water
treatment facility. The electrical current used in a DC system may come from a battery.
DISINFECT: The application of a chemical to kill most, but not all, microorganisms that may be
present. Chlorine is added to public water drinking systems drinking water for disinfection.
Depending on your state rule, drinking water must contain a minimum of 0.2 mg/L free chlorine.
Disinfection makes drinking water safe to consume from the standpoint of killing pathogenic
microorganisms including bacteria and viruses. Disinfection does not remove all bacteria from
drinking water, but the bacteria that can survive disinfection with chlorine are not pathogenic
bacteria that can cause disease in normal healthy humans.
DISINFECTION BY-PRODUCTS (DBPs): The products created due to the reaction of chlorine
with organic materials (e.g. leaves, soil) present in raw water during the water treatment process.
The EPA has determined that these DBPs can cause cancer. Chlorine is added to drinking water
to kill or inactivate harmful organisms that cause various diseases. This process is called
disinfection. However, chlorine is a very active substance and it reacts with naturally occurring
substances to form compounds known as disinfection byproducts (DBPs). The most common
DBPs formed when chlorine is used are trihalomethanes (THMs), and haloacetic acids (HAAs).
DISINFECTION: The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy, and/or remove pathogenic
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, and other parasites.
DISSOLUTION or SOLVATION: The spread of ions in a monosacharide.
DISSOLVED OXYGEN: Can be added to zones within a lake or reservoir that would normally
become anaerobic during periods of thermal stratification.
DISSOLVED SOLIDS: Solids in solution that cannot be removed by filtration with a 0.45 micron
filter.
DISTILLATION, REVERSE OSMOSIS AND FREEZING: Processes that can be used to remove
minerals from the water.
DOUBLE BOND: Sharing of two pairs of electradodes.
DRY ACID: A granular chemical used to lower pH and or total alkalinity.

E
E. COLI, Escherichia coli: A bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water quality
analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered evidence of
water contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but do not
necessarily cause disease themselves.
EARTH METAL: See alkaline earth metal.
E. COLI, Escherichia coli: A bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water quality
analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered evidence of
water contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but do not
necessarily cause disease themselves.
ECDYSONE: A steroid hormone that triggers molting in arthropods.
ECOLOGICAL EFFICIENCY: The ratio of net productivity at one trophic level to net productivity
at the next lower level.
ECOLOGICAL NICHE: The sum total of an organism's utilization of the biotic and abiotic
resources of its environment. The fundamental niche represents the theoretical capabilities and
the realized niche represents the actual role.
ECOLOGY: The study of how organisms interact with their environments.
ECOSYSTEM: The sum of physical features and organisms occurring in a given area.
ECTODERM: The outermost tissue layer of an animal embryo. Also, tissue derived from an
embryonic ectoderm.

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ECTOTHERM: An organism that uses environmental heat and behavior to regulate its body
temperature.
EDWARD JENNER: A pioneer of vaccination; used vaccination with material from cowpox
lesions to protect people against smallpox.
EFFECTIVENESS OF CHLORINE: The factors which influence the effectiveness of chlorination
the most are pH, turbidity and temperature. Effectiveness of Chlorine decreases occurs during
disinfection in source water with excessive turbidity.
EFFECTOR: The part of an organism that produces a response to a stimulus.
EFFLUENT: Partially or completely treated water or wastewater flowing out of a basin or
treatment plant.
ELECTRIC CHARGE: A measured property (coulombs) that determine electromagnetic
interaction
ELECTRICAL SYNAPSE: A junction between two neurons separated only by a gap junction, in
which the local currents sparking the action potential pass directly between the cells.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM: A plot of electrical activity of the heart over the cardiac cycle;
measured via multiple skin electrodes.
ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL: Using a chemical reaction's current, electromotive force is made
ELECTROCHEMICAL GRADIENT: Combined electrostatic and osmotic-concentration gradient,
such as the chemiosmotic gradient of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
ELECTROGENIC PUMP: An ion transport protein generating voltage across a membrane.
ELECTROLYTE: A solution that conducts a certain amount of current and can be split
categorically as weak and strong electrolytes.
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION: A type of wave that can go through vacuums as well as
material and classified as a self-propagating wave.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM: The entire spectrum of radiation; ranges in wavelength from
less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer.
ELECTROMAGNETISM: Fields that have electric charge and electric properties that change the
way that particles move and interact.
ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE: A device that gains energy as electric charges pass through it.
ELECTRON MICROSCOPE: A microscope that focuses an electron beam through a specimen,
resulting in resolving power a thousandfold greater that of a light microscope. A transmission EM
is used to study the internal structure of thin sections of cells; a scanning EM is used to study the
ultrastructure of surfaces.
ELECTRON SHELLS: An orbital around the atom's nucleus that has a fixed number electrons
(usually two or eight).
ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN: A series of enzymes found in the inner membranes of
mitochondria and chloroplasts. These are involved in transport of protons and electrons either
across the membrane during ATP synthesis.
ELECTRON: A subatomic particle with a net charge that is negative. The name of a negatively
charged atomic particle.
ELECTRONEGATIVITY: A property exhibited by some atoms whereby the nucleus has a
tendency to pull electrons toward itself.
ELECTRONIC CHARGE UNIT: The charge of one electron (1.6021 x 10e - 19 coulomb).
ELECTROSTATIC FORCE: The attraction between particles with opposite charges.
ELECTROSTATIC GRADIENT: The free-energy gradient created by a difference in charge
between two points, generally the two sides of a membrane.
ELEMENT: Any substance that cannot be broken down into another substance by ordinary
chemical means. An atom that is defined by its atomic number.
ELEMENTARY BUSINESS PLAN: Technical Capacity, Managerial Capacity, and Financial
Capacity make up the elementary business plan. To become a new public water system, an
owner shall file an elementary business plan for review and approval by state environmental
agency.
ELIMINATION: The release of unabsorbed wastes from the digestive tract.

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EMERGENCY RESPONSE TEAM: A local team that is thoroughly trained and equipped to deal
with emergencies, e.g. chlorine gas leak. In case of a chlorine gas leak, get out of the area and
notify your local emergency response team in case of a large uncontrolled chlorine leak.
EMERGENT PROGERTY: A property exhibited at one level of biological organization but not
exhibited at a lower level. For example, a population exhibits a birth rate, an organism does not.
EMPOROCAL FORMULA: Also called the simplest formula, gives the simplest whole :number
ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound.
EMULSION: A suspension, usually as fine droplets of one liquid in another. A mixture made up of
dissimilar elements, usually of two or more mutually insoluble liquids that would normally separate
into layers based on the specific gravity of each liquid.
ENDERGONIC: A phenomenon which involves uptake of energy.
ENDOCRINE: A phenomenon which relates to the presence of ductless glands of the type typically
found in vertebrates. The endocrine system involves hormones, the glands which secrete them,
the molecular hormone receptors of target cells, and interactions between hormones and the
nervous system.
ENDOCYTOSIS: A process by which liquids or solid particles are taken up by a cell through
invagination of the plasma membrane.
ENDODERM: The innermost germ layer of an animal embryo.
ENDODERMIS: A plant tissue, especially prominent in roots, that surrounds the vascular cylinder;
all endodermal cells have Casparian strips.
ENDOMEMBRANE SYSTEM: The system of membranes inside a eukaryotic cell, including the
membranous vesicles which associate with membrane sheets and/or tubes.
ENDOMETRIUM: The inner lining of the uterus, which is richly supplied with blood vessels that
provide the maternal part of the placenta and nourish the developing embryo.
ENDONUCLEASE: An enzyme that breaks bonds within nucleic acids. A restriction endonuclease
is an enzyme that breaks bonds only within a specific sequence of bases.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM: A system of membrane-bounded tubes and flattened sacs, often
continuous with the nuclear envelope, found in the cytoplasm of eukaryotes. Exists as rough ER,
studded with ribosomes, and smooth ER, lacking ribosomes.
ENDORPHIN: A hormone produced in the brain and anterior pituitary that inhibits pain perception.
ENDOSKELETON: An internal skeleton.
ENDOSPERM: A nutritive material in plant seeds which is triploid (3n) and results from the fusion
of three nuclei during double fertilization.
ENDOSYMBIOTIC: 1) An association in which the symbiont lives within the host 2) A widely
accepted hypothesis concerning the evolution of the eukaryotic cell: the idea that eukaryotes
evolved as a result of symbiotic associations between prokaryote cells. Aerobic symbionts
ultimately evolved into mitochondria; photosynthetic symbionts became chloroplasts.
ENDOTHELIUM: The innermost, simple squamous layer of cells lining the blood vessels; the only
constituent structure of capillaries.
ENDOTHERMIC: In chemistry, a phenomenon in which energy is absorbed by the reactants. In
physiology, this term concerns organisms whose thermal relationship with the environment is
dependent substantially on internal production of heat.
ENDOTOXIN: A component of the outer membranes of certain gram-negative bacteria responsible
for generalized symptoms of fever and ache.
ENERGY: A system's ability to do work. The capacity to do work by moving matter against an
opposing force.
ENHANCED COAGULATION: The process of joining together particles in water to help remove
organic matter.
ENHANCER: A DNA sequence that recognizes certain transcription factors that can stimulate
transcription of nearby genes.
ENTAMOEBA HISTOLYTICA: Entamoeba histolytica, another water-borne pathogen, can cause
diarrhea or a more serious invasive liver abscess. When in contact with human cells, these
amoebae are cytotoxic. There is a rapid influx of calcium into the contacted cell, it quickly stops all
membrane movement save for some surface blebbing. Internal organization is disrupted,

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organelles lyse, and the cell dies. The ameba may eat the dead cell or just absorb nutrients
released from the cell.
ENTERIC: Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic but can live in certain anaerobic conditions;
produce nitrite from nitrate, acids from glucose; include Escherichia coli, Salmonella (over 1000
types), and Shigella.
ENTEROVIRUS: A virus whose presence may indicate contaminated water; a virus that may
infect the gastrointestinal tract of humans.
ENTHALPY: Measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic system (usually symbolized as H).
ENTROPY: The amount of energy not available for work in a closed thermodynamic system
(usually symbolized as S).
ENVELOPE: 1) (nuclear) The surface, consisting of two layers of membrane, that encloses the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells. 2) (virus) A structure which is present on the outside of some viruses
(exterior to the capsid).
ENVIRONMENT: Water, air, and land, and the interrelationship that exists among and between
water, air and land and all living things. The total living and nonliving aspects of an organism's
internal and external surroundings.
ENZYME: A protein, on the surface of which are chemical groups so arranged as to make the
enzyme a catalyst for a chemical reaction. A protein that speeds up (catalyzes) a reaction.
EPICOTYL: A portion of the axis of a plant embryo above the point of attachment of the cotyledons;
forms most of the shoot.
EPIDERMIS: The outermost portion of the skin or body wall of an animal.
EPINEPHRINE: A hormone produced as a response to stress; also called adrenaline.
EPIPHYTE: A plant that nourishes itself but grows on the surface of another plant for support,
usually on the branches or trunks of tropical trees.
EPISOME: Genetic element at times free in the cytoplasm, at other times integrated into a
chromosome.
EPISTASIS: A phenomenon in which one gene alters the expression of another gene that is
independently inherited.
EPITHELIUM: An animal tissue that forms the covering or lining of all free body surfaces, both
external and internal.
EPITOPE: A localized region on the surface of an antigen that is chemically recognized by
antibodies; also called antigenic determinant.
EPPENDORF TUBE: Generalized and trademarked term used for a type of tube; see
microcentrifuge.
EQUATION: A precise representation of the outcome of a chemical reaction, showing the reactants
and products, as well as the proportions of each.
EQUILIBRIUM: In a reversible reaction, the point at which the rate of the forward reaction equals
that of the reverse reaction. (Constant) At equilibrium, the ratio of products to reactants. (potential)
The membrane potential for a given ion at which the voltage exactly balances the chemical diffusion
gradient for that ion.
ERNST MAYR: Formulated the biological species concept.
ERYTHROCYTE: A red blood corpuscle.
ESOPHAGUS: An anterior part of the digestive tract; in mammals it leads from the pharynx to the
stomach.
ESSENTIAL: 1) An amino or fatty acid which is required in the diet of an animal because it cannot
be synthesized. 2) A chemical element required for a plant to grow from a seed and complete the
life cycle.
ESTIVATION: A physiological state characterized by slow metabolism and inactivity, which permits
survival during long periods of elevated temperature and diminished water supplies.
ESTRADIOL: 1,3,5(10)-estratriene- 3,17 beta-diol C18H24O2. This is the natural hormone -
present in pure form in the urine of pregnant mares and in the ovaries of pigs.
ESTROGEN: Any of a group of vertebrate female sex hormones.
ESTROUS CYCLE: In female mammals, the higher primates excepted, a recurrent series of
physiological and behavioral changes connected with reproduction.

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ESTRUS: The limited period of heat or sexual receptivity that occurs around ovulation in female
mammals having estrous cycles.
ESTUARY: That portion of a river that is close enough to the sea to be influenced by marine tides.
ETHYLENE: The only gaseous plant hormone, responsible for fruit ripening, growth inhibition, leaf
abscission, and aging.
EUBACTERIA: The lineage of prokaryotes that includes the cyanobacteria and all other
contemporary bacteria except archaebacteria.
EUCHROMATIN: The more open, unraveled form of eukaryotic chromatin, which is available for
transcription.
EUCOELOMATE: An animal whose body cavity is completely lined by mesoderm, the layers of
which connect dorsally and ventrally to form mesenteries.
EUGLENA: Euglena are common protists, of the class Euglenoidea of the phylum Euglenophyta.
Currently, over 1000 species of Euglena have been described. Marin et al. (2003) revised the
genus so and including several species without chloroplasts, formerly classified as Astasia and
Khawkinea. Euglena sometimes can be considered to have both plant and animal features.
Euglena gracilis has a long hair-like thing that stretches from its body. You need a very powerful
microscope to see it. This is called a flagellum, and the euglena uses it to swim. It also has a red
eyespot. Euglena gracilis uses its eyespot to locate light. Without light, it cannot use its
chloroplasts to make itself food.
EUKARYOTE: A life form comprised of one or more cells containing a nucleus and membrane -
bound organelles. Included are members of the Kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
EUMETAZOA: Members of the subkingdom that includes all animals except sponges.
EUTROPHIC: A highly productive condition in aquatic environments which owes to excessive
concentrations of nutrients which support the growth of primary producers.
EVAGINATED: Folded or protruding outward.
EVAPORATIVE COOLING: The property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during
evaporation, owing to the loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state.
EVOLUTION: A theory that all of the changes that have transformed life on earth from its earliest
beginnings to the diversity that characterizes it today. As used in biology, the term evolution means
descent with change. See Intelligent Design.
EVOLUTION: Any process of formation or growth; development: the evolution of a language; the
evolution of the airplane. A product of such development; something evolved: The exploration of
space is the evolution of decades of research.
EXCITABLE CELLS: A cell, such as a neuron or a muscle cell that can use changes in its
membrane potential to conduct signals.
EXCITATORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL: An electrical change (depolarization) in the
membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter from
a presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor. This phenomenon facilitates generation of an action
potential in the PSP.
EXCRETION: Release of materials which arise in the body due to metabolism (e.g., CO2, NH3,
H20).
EXERGONIC: A phenomenon which involves the release of energy.
EXOCYTOSIS: A process by which a vesicle within a cell fuses with the plasma membrane and
releases its contents to the outside.
EXON: A part of a primary transcript (and the corresponding part of a gene) that is ultimately
either translated (in the case of mRNA) or utilized in a final product, such as tRNA.
EXOSKELETON: An external skeleton, characteristic of members of the phylum, Arthropoda.
EXOTHERMIC: A process or reaction that is accompanied by the creation of heat.
EXOTOXIN: A toxic protein secreted by a bacterial cell that produces specific symptoms even in
the absence of the bacterium.
EXPONENTIAL: (population growth) The geometric increase of a population as it grows in an
ideal, unlimited environment.
EXTRAEMBRYONIC MEMBRANES: Four membranes (yolk sac, amnion, chorion, allantois) that
support the developing embryo in reptiles, birds, and mammals.
EXTRINSIC: External to, not a basic part of; as in extrinsic isolating mechanism.

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F
F PLASMID: The fertility factor in bacteria, a plasmid that confers the ability to form pili for
conjugation and associated functions required for transfer of DNA from donor to recipient.
F: The chemical symbol of Fluorine.
F1 GENERATION: The first filial or hybrid offspring in a genetic cross-fertilization.
F2 GENERATION: Offspring resulting from interbreeding of the hybrid F1 generation.
FACILITATED DIFFUSION: Passive movement through a membrane involving a specific carrier
protein; does not proceed against a concentration gradient.
FACULTATIVE: An organism which exhibits the capability of changing from one habit or metabolic
pathway to another, when conditions warrant. (anaerobe) An organism that makes ATP by aerobic
respiration if oxygen is present but that switches to fermentation under anaerobic conditions.
FARADAY CONSTANT: A unit of electrical charge widely used in electrochemistry and equal to
~ 96,500 coulombs. It represents 1 mol of electrons, or the Avogadro number of electrons:
6.022 × 1023 electrons. F = 96 485.339 9(24) C/mol.
FARADAY’S LAW OF ELECTROLYSIS: A two part law that Michael Faraday published about
electrolysis. The mass of a substance altered at an electrode during electrolysis is directly
proportional to the quantity of electricity transferred at that electrode. The mass of an elemental
material altered at an electrode is directly proportional to the element's equivalent weight.
FAT: A biological compound consisting of three fatty acids linked to one glycerol molecule.
FATE MAP: A means of tracing the fates of cells during embryonic development.
FATTY ACID: A long carbon chain carboxylic acid. Fatty acids vary in length and in the number
and location of double bonds; three fatty acids linked to a glycerol molecule form fat.
FAUCET WITH AN AERATOR: When collecting a water sample from a distribution system, a
faucet with an aerator should not be used as a sample location.
FAUNA: The animals of a given area or period.
FEATURE DETECTOR: A circuit in the nervous system that responds to a specific type of feature,
such as a vertically moving spot or a particular auditory time delay.
FECAL COLIFORM: A group of bacteria that may indicate the presence of human or animal fecal
matter in water. Total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli are all indicators of drinking water quality.
The total coliform group is a large collection of different kinds of bacteria. Fecal coliforms are types
of total coliform that mostly exist in feces. E. coli is a sub-group of fecal coliform. When a water
sample is sent to a lab, it is tested for total coliform. If total coliform is present, the sample will also
be tested for either fecal coliform or E. coli, depending on the lab testing method.
FECES: Indigestible wastes discharged from the digestive tract.
FEEDBACK: The process by which a control mechanism is regulated through the very effects it
brings about. Positive feedback is when the effect is amplified; negative feedback is when the effect
tends toward restoration of the original condition. Feedback inhibition is a method of metabolic
control in which the end-product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within
that pathway.
FERMENTATION: Anaerobic production of alcohol, lactic acid or similar compounds from
carbohydrate resulting from glycolysis.
FERRIC CHLORIDE: An iron salt commonly used as a coagulant. Chemical formula is FeCl3.
FIBRIN: The activated form of the blood: clotting protein fibrinogen, which aggregates into
threads that form the fabric of the clot.
FIBROBLAST: A type of cell in loose connective tissue that secretes the protein ingredients of
the extracellular fibers.
FIBRONECTINS: A family of extracellular glycoproteins that helps embryonic cells adhere to
their substrate as they migrate.
FILTER AID: A polymer or other material added to improve the effectiveness of the filtration
process.
FILTER CAKE: The layer of solids that is retained on the surface of a filter.
FILTER CLOGGING: An inability to meet demand may occur when filters are clogging.
FILTER PRESS: A dewatering device where sludge is pumped onto a filtering medium and water
is forced out of the sludge, resulting in a “cake”.

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FILTER: A device utilizing a granular material, woven cloth or other medium to remove pollutants
from water, wastewater or air.
FILTRATE: Liquid remaining after removal of solids with filtration.
FILTRATION METHODS: The conventional type of water treatment filtration method includes
coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and filtration. Direct filtration method is similar to
conventional except that the sedimentation step is omitted. Slow sand filtration process does not
require pretreatment, has a flow of 0.1 gallons per minute per square foot of filter surface area,
and is simple to operate and maintain. The Diatomaceous earth method uses a thin layer of fine
siliceous material on a porous plate. This type of filtration medium is only used for water with low
turbidity. Sedimentation, adsorption, and biological action treatment methods are filtration
processes that involve a number of interrelated removal mechanisms. Demineralization is
primarily used to remove total dissolved solids from industrial wastewater, municipal water, and
seawater.
FILTRATION RATE: A measurement of the volume of water applied to a filter per unit of surface
area in a given period of time.
FILTRATION: The process of passing water through materials with very small holes to strain out
particles. Most conventional water treatment plants used filters composed of gravel, sand, and
anthracite. These materials settle into a compact mass that forms very small holes. Particles are
filtered out as treated water passes through these holes. These holes are small enough to
remove microorganisms including algae, bacteria, and protozoans, but not viruses. Viruses are
eliminated from drinking water through the process of disinfection using chlorine. A series of
processes that physically removes particles from water. A water treatment step used to remove
turbidity, dissolved organics, odor, taste and color.
FINISHED WATER: Treated drinking water that meets minimum state and federal drinking water
regulations.
FLOC SHEARING: Likely to happen to large floc particles when they reach the flocculation
process.
FITNESS: The extent to which an individual passes on its genes to the next generation. Relative
fitness is the number of offspring of an individual compared to the mean.
FIXATION: 1) Conversion of a substance into a biologically more usable form, for example, CO2
fixation during photosynthesis and N2 fixation. 2) Process of treating living tissue for microscopic
examination.
FIXED ACTION PATTERN (FAP): A highly: stereotyped behavior that is innate and must be carried
to completion once initiated.
FLACCID: Limp; walled cells are flaccid in isotonic surroundings, where there is no tendency for
water to enter.
FLAGELLIN: The protein from which prokaryotic flagella are constructed.
FLAGELLUM: A long whip-like appendage that propels cells during locomotion in liquid solutions.
The prokaryote flagellum is comprised of a protein, flagellin. The eukaryote flagellum is longer than
a cilium, but as a similar internal structure of microtubules in a"9 + 2" arrangement.
FLAME CELL: A flagellated cell associated with the simplest tubular excretory system, present in
flatworms: it acts to directly regulate the contents of the extracellular fluid.
FLOC SHEARING: Likely to happen to large floc particles when they reach the flocculation
process.
FLOC SHEARING: Likely to happen to large floc particles when they reach the flocculation
process.
FLOCCULANTS: Flocculants, or flocculating agents, are chemicals that promote flocculation by
causing colloids and other suspended particles in liquids to aggregate, forming a floc. Flocculants
are used in water treatment processes to improve the sedimentation or filterability of small
particles. For example, a flocculant may be used in swimming pool or drinking water filtration to
aid removal of microscopic particles which would otherwise cause the water to be cloudy and
which would be difficult or impossible to remove by filtration alone. Many flocculants are
multivalent cations such as aluminum, iron, calcium or magnesium. These positively charged
molecules interact with negatively charged particles and molecules to reduce the barriers to
aggregation. In addition, many of these chemicals, under appropriate pH and other conditions

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such as temperature and salinity, react with water to form insoluble hydroxides which, upon
precipitating, link together to form long chains or meshes, physically trapping small particles into
the larger floc.
FLOCCULATION BASIN: A compartmentalized basin with a reduction of speed in each
compartment. This set-up or basin will give the best overall results.
FLOCCULATION: The process of bringing together destabilized or coagulated particles to form
larger masses that can be settled and/or filtered out of the water being treated. Conventional
coagulation–flocculation-sedimentation practices are essential pretreatments for many water
purification systems—especially filtration treatments. These processes agglomerate suspended
solids together into larger bodies so that physical filtration processes can more easily remove
them. Particulate removal by these methods makes later filtering processes far more effective.
The process is often followed by gravity separation (sedimentation or flotation) and is always
followed by filtration. A chemical coagulant, such as iron salts, aluminum salts, or polymers, is
added to source water to facilitate bonding among particulates. Coagulants work by creating a
chemical reaction and eliminating the negative charges that cause particles to repel each other.
The coagulant-source water mixture is then slowly stirred in a process known as flocculation. This
water churning induces particles to collide and clump together into larger and more easily
removable clots, or “flocs.” The process requires chemical knowledge of source water
characteristics to ensure that an effective coagulant mix is employed. Improper coagulants make
these treatment methods ineffective. The ultimate effectiveness of coagulation/flocculation is also
determined by the efficiency of the filtering process with which it is paired.
FLOOD RIM: The point of an object where the water would run over the edge of something and
begin to cause a flood.
FLORA: The plants of a given area or period.
FLOW CYTOMETER: A particle-sorting instrument capable of counting protozoa.
FLOW MUST BE MEASURED: A recorder that measures flow is most likely to be located in a
central location.
FLUID FEEDER: An animal that lives by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from another living organism.
FLUID MOSAIC MODEL: The currently accepted model of cell membrane structure, which
envisions the membrane as a mosaic of individually inserted protein molecules drifting laterally in
a fluid bilayer of phospholipids.
FLUORIDE FEEDING: Always review fluoride feeding system designs and specifications to
determine whether locations for monitoring readouts and dosage controls are convenient to the
operation center and easy to read and correct.
FLUORIDE: High levels of fluoride may stain the teeth of humans. This is called Mottling. This
chemical must not be overfed due to a possible exposure to a high concentration of the chemical.
The most important safety considerations to know about fluoride chemicals are that all fluoride
chemicals are extremely corrosive. These are the substances most commonly used to furnish
fluoride ions to water: Sodium fluoride, Sodium silicofluoride and Hydrofluosilicic acid.
FLUX: The term flux describes the rate of water flow through a semipermeable membrane. When
the water flux decreases through a semipermeable membrane, it means that the mineral
concentration of the water is increasing.
FLY ASH: The noncombustible particles in flue gas. Often used as a body feed or solidification
chemical.
FOLLICLE STIMULATING HORMONE (FSH): A gonadotropic hormone of the anterior pituitary
that stimulates growth of follicles in the ovaries of females and function of the seminiferous tubules
in males.
FOLLICLE: A jacket of cells around an egg cell in an ovary.
FOOD CHAIN: Sequence of organisms, including producers, consumers, and decomposers,
through which energy and materials may move in a community.
FOOD WEB: The elaborate, interconnected feeding relationships in an ecosystem.
FOOT CANDLE: Unit of illumination; the illumination of a surface produced by one standard candle
at a distance of one foot.
FORMATION OF TUBERCLES: This condition is of the most concern regarding corrosive water
effects on a water system. It is the creation of mounds of rust inside the water lines.

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Formation: A series of layers, deposits, or bodies of rock, which are geologically similar and
related in depositional environment or origin. A formation can be clearly distinguished relative to
bounding deposits or formations due to its particular characteristics and composition.
FORMULA: A precise representation of the structure of a molecule or ion, showing the proportion
of atoms which comprise the material.
FOUNDER EFFECT: The difference between the gene pool of a population as a whole and that
of a newly isolated population of the same species.
FRACTIONATION: An experimental technique which involves separation of parts of living tissue
from one another using centrifugation.
Fracture: A discrete break in a rock or formation.
FRAGMENTATION: A mechanism of asexual reproduction in which the parent plant or animal
separates into parts that reform whole organisms.
FRAMESHIFT MUTATION: A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or
deleted is not a multiple of 3, thus resulting in improper grouping into codons.
FREE CHLORINE RESIDUAL: Regardless of whether pre-chloration is practiced or not, a free
chlorine residual of at least 10 mg/L should be maintained in the clear well or distribution reservoir
immediately downstream from the point of post-chlorination. The reason for chlorinating past the
breakpoint is to provide protection in case of backflow.
FREE CHLORINE: In disinfection, chlorine is used in the form of free chlorine or as hypochlorite
ion.
FREE ENERGY OF ACTIVATION: See Activation energy.
FREE ENERGY: Usable energy in a chemical system; energy available for producing change.
FREE OIL: Non-emulsified oil that separates from water, in a given period of time.
FREEZING: Phase transition from liquid to solid.
FREQUENCY DEPENDENT SELECTION: A decline in the reproductive success of a morph
resulting from the morph's phenotype becoming too common in a population; a cause of balanced
polymorphism in populations.
FREQUENCY: Number of cycles per unit of time. Unit: 1 hertz = 1 cycle per 1 second.
FUNCTIONAL GROUP: One of several groups of atoms commonly found in organic molecules. A
functional group contributes somewhat predictable properties to the molecules which possess
them.
FUNDAMENTAL NICHE: The total resources an organism is theoretically capable of utilizing.

G
G: (protein) A membrane protein that serves as an intermediary between hormone receptors and
the enzyme adenylate cyclase, which converts ATP to cAMP in the second messenger system in
non-steroid hormone action. Depending on the system, G proteins either increase or decrease
cAMP production.
G1 PHASE: The first growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase before
DNA synthesis is initiated.
G2 PHASE: The second growth phase of the cell cycle, consisting of the portion of interphase after
DNA synthesis but before mitosis.
GAIA HYPOTHESIS: An idea, first formulated by James E. Lovelock in 1979, which suggests that
the biosphere of the earth exists as a "superorganism" which exhibits homeostatic self- regulation
of the environment-biota global system.
GALVANIC CELL: Battery made up of electrochemical with two different metals connected by salt
bridge.
GAMETANGIUM: The reproductive organ of bryophytes, consisting of the male antheridium and
female archegonium; a multi-chambered jacket of sterile cells in which gametes are formed.
GAMETE: A sexual reproductive cell that must usually fuse with another such cell before
development begins; an egg or sperm.
GAMETOPHYTE: A haploid plant that can produce gametes.
GANGLION: A structure containing a group of cell bodies of neurons.
GAP JUNCTION: A narrow gap between plasma membranes of two animal cells, spanned by
protein channels. They allow chemical substances or electrical signals to pass from cell to cell.

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GAS: Particles that fill their container though have no definite shape or volume.
GASTRULA: A two-layered, later three-layered, animal embryonic stage.
GASTRULATION: The process by which a blastula develops into a gastrula, usually by an
involution of cells.
GATED ION CHANNEL: A membrane channel that can open or close in response to a signal,
generally a change in the electrostatic gradient or the binding of a hormone, transmitter, or other
molecular signal.
GEL ELECTROPHORESIS: In general, electrophoresis is a laboratory technique used to separate
macromolecules on the basis of electric charge and size; the technique involves application of an
electric field to a population of macromolecules which disperse according to their electric mobilities.
In gel electrophoresis, the porous medium through which the macromolecules move is a gel.
GEL: Colloid in which the suspended particles form a relatively orderly arrangement.
GENE AMPLIFICATION: Any of the strategies that give rise to multiple copies of certain genes,
thus facilitating the rapid synthesis of a product (such as rRna for ribosomes) for which the demand
is great.
GENE CLONING: Formation by a bacterium, carrying foreign genes in a recombinant plasmid, of
a clone of identical cells containing the replicated foreign genes.
GENE DELIVERY: This is a general term for the introduction of new genetic elements into the
genomes of living cells. The delivery problem is essentially conditioned by the fact that the new
genetic elements are usually large, and by the presence of the outer cell membrane and the nuclear
membrane acting as barriers to incorporation of the new DNA into the genome already present in
the nucleus. Viruses possess various natural biochemical methods for achieving gene delivery;
artificial gene delivery is one of the essential problems of "genetic engineering". The most important
barrier is apparently the outer cell membrane, which is essentially a lipid barrier, and introduction
of any large complex into the cell requires a fusion of one kind or another with this membrane.
Liposomes, which consist of lipid membranes themselves, and which can fuse with outer cell
membranes, are thus potential vehicles for delivery of many substances, including DNA.
GENE FLOW: The movement of genes from one part of a population to another, or from one
population to another, via gametes.
GENE POOL: The sum total of all the genes of all the individuals in a population.
GENE REGULATION: Any of the strategies by which the rate of expression of a gene can be
regulated, as by controlling the rate of transcription.
GENE: The hereditary determinant of a specified characteristic of an individual; specific sequences
of nucleotides in DNA.
GENETIC DRIFT: Change in the gene pool as a result of chance and not as a result of selection,
mutation, or migration.
GENETIC RECOMBINATION: The general term for the production of offspring that combine traits
of the two parents.
GENETICS: The science of heredity; the study of heritable information.
GENOME: The cell's total complement of DNA.
GENOMIC EQUIVALENCE: The presence of all of an organism's genes in all of its cells.
GENOMIC IMPRINTING: The parental effect on gene expression. Identical alleles may have
different effects on offspring depending on whether they arrive in the zygote via the ovum or via the
sperm.
GENOMIC LIBRARY: A set of thousands of DNA segments from a genome, each carried by a
plasmid or phage.
GENOTYPE: The particular combination of genes present in the cells of an individual.
GENUS: A taxonomic category above the species level, designated by the first word of a species'
binomial Latin name.
GEOCHEMISTRY: The chemistry of and chemical composition of the Earth.
GIARDIA LAMBLIA: Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia
duodenalis) is a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small
intestine, causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive
disc, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does
it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the

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small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine,
and are anaerobes.
GIARDIA LAMLIA: Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis)
is a flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine, causing
giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive disc, and
reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream, nor does it spread
to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the lumen of the small intestine.
Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine, and are
anaerobes.
GIARDIASAS, HEPATITIS OR TYPHOID: Diseases that may be transmitted through the
contamination of a water supply but not AIDS.
GIBBS ENERGY: Value that indicates the spontaneity of a reaction (usually symbolized as G).
GIS – GRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEM: Detailed information about the physical locations of
structures such as pipes, valves, and manholes within geographic areas with the use of satellites.
GLIAL CELL: A non-conducting cell of the nervous system that provides support, insulation, and
protection for the neurons.
GLIDING: Rod-shaped, gram-negative, mostly aerobic; glide on secreted slimy substances; form
colonies, frequently with complex fruiting structures.
GLOMERULUS: A capillary bed within Bowman's capsule of the nephron; the site of ultrafiltration.
GLUCOSE: A six carbon sugar which plays a central role in cellular metabolism.
GLYCOCALYX: The layer of protein and carbohydrates just outside the plasma membrane of an
animal cell; in general, the proteins are anchored in the membrane, and the carbohydrates are
bound to the proteins.
GLYCOGEN: A long, branched polymer of glucose subunits that is stored in the muscles and liver
of animals and is metabolized as a source of energy.
GLYCOLYSIS: A metabolic pathway which occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and during which
glucose is oxidized anaerobically to form pyruvic acid.
GLYCOPROTEIN: A protein with covalently linked sugar residues. The sugars may be bound to
OH side chains of the polypeptide (O: linked) or the amide nitrogen of asparagine side chains (N:
linked).
GLYCOSIDIC: A type of bond which links monosaccharide subunits together in di- or
polysaccharides.
GLYOXYSOME: A type of microbody found in plants, in which stored lipids are converted to
carbohydrates.
GOLGI APPARATUS: A system of concentrically folded membranes found in the cytoplasm of
eukaryotic cells. Plays a role in the production and release of secretory materials such as the
digestive enzymes manufactured in the pancreas.
GONADOTROPIN: Refers to a member of a group of hormones capable of promoting growth and
function of the gonads. Includes hormones such as follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH) which are stimulatory to the gonads.
GOOD CONTACT TIME, pH and LOW TURBIDITY: These are factors that are important in
providing good disinfection when using chlorine.
GPM: Gallons per minute.
GRAB SAMPLE: A sample which is taken from a water or wastestream on a one-time basis
with no regard to the flow of the water or wastestream and without consideration of time. A
single grab sample should be taken over a period of time not to exceed 15 minutes. A single
water or wastewater sample taken at a time and place representative of total discharge.
GRADED POTENTIAL: A local voltage change in a neuron membrane induced by stimulation of a
neuron, with strength proportional to the strength of the stimulus and lasting about a millisecond.
GRANUM: A stack-like grouping of photosynthetic membranes in a chloroplast
GRAVITROPISM: A response of a plant or animal in response to gravity.
GRAVITY BELT THICKENER: A sludge dewatering device utilizing a filter belt to promote gravity
drainage of water. Usually precedes additional dewatering treatment.
GRAVITY FILTER: A filter that operates at atmospheric pressure.
GRAVITY THICKENING: A sedimentation basin designed to operate at high solids loading rates.

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GREENHOUS EFFECT: The warming of the Earth due to atmospheric accumulation of carbon
dioxide which absorbs infrared radiation and slows its escape from the irradiated Earth.
GREGOR MENDEL: The first to make quantitative observations of the patterns of inheritance and
proposing plausible explanations for them.
GROWTH FACTOR: A protein that must be present in a cell's environment for its normal growth
and development.
GT: Represents (Detention time) x (mixing intensity) in flocculation.
GUARD CELL: A specialized epidermal cell that regulates the size of stoma of a leaf.
GYMNOSPERM: A vascular plant that bears naked seeds not enclosed in any specialized
chambers.

H
H2SO4: The molecular formula of Sulfuric acid.
HABIT: In biology, the characteristic form or mode of growth of an organism.
HABITAT: The kind of place where a given organism normally lives.
HABITUATION: The process that results in a long-lasting decline in the receptiveness of
interneurons to the input from sensory neurons or other interneurons (sensitization, adaptation).
HALF: The average amount of time it takes for one-half of a specified quantity of a substance to
decay or disappear.
HALIDES: A halide is a binary compound, of which one part is a halogen atom and the other part
is an element or radical that is less electronegative than the halogen, to make a fluoride, chloride,
bromide, iodide, or astatide compound. Many salts are halides. All Group 1 metals form halides
with the halogens and they are white solids. A halide ion is a halogen atom bearing a negative
charge. The halide anions are fluoride (F), chloride (Cl), bromide (Br), iodide (I) and astatide (At).
Such ions are present in all ionic halide salts.
HALL EFFECT: Refers to the potential difference (Hall voltage) on the opposite sides of an
electrical conductor through which an electric current is flowing, created by a magnetic field
applied perpendicular to the current. Edwin Hall discovered this effect in 1879.
HALOACETIC ACIDS: Haloacetic acids are carboxylic acids in which a halogen atom takes the
place of a hydrogen atom in acetic acid. Thus, in a monohaloacetic acid, a single halogen would
replace a hydrogen atom. For example, chloroacetic acid would have the structural formula
CH2ClCO2H. In the same manner, in dichloroacetic acid two chlorine atoms would take the place
of two hydrogen atoms (CHCl2CO2H).
HALOGENS: Group 7 on the Periodic Table and are all non-metals.
HAPLOID: The condition of having only one kind of a given type of chromosome.
HARD WATER: Hard water causes a buildup of scale in household hot water heaters. Hard water
is a type of water that has high mineral content (in contrast with soft water). Hard water primarily
consists of calcium (Ca2+), and magnesium (Mg2+) metal cations, and sometimes other
dissolved compounds such as bicarbonates and sulfates. Calcium usually enters the water as
either calcium carbonate (CaCO3), in the form of limestone and chalk, or calcium sulfate
(CaSO4), in the form of other mineral deposits. The predominant source of magnesium is
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2). Hard water is generally not harmful. The simplest way to determine the
hardness of water is the lather/froth test: soap or toothpaste, when agitated, lathers easily in soft
water but not in hard water. More exact measurements of hardness can be obtained through a
wet titration. The total water 'hardness' (including both Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions) is read as parts per
million or weight/volume (mg/L) of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the water. Although water
hardness usually only measures the total concentrations of calcium and magnesium (the two
most prevalent, divalent metal ions), iron, aluminum, and manganese may also be present at
elevated levels in some geographical locations.
HARDNESS: A measure of the amount of calcium and magnesium salts in water. More calcium
and magnesium lead to greater hardness. The term "hardness" comes from the fact that it is hard
to get soap suds from soap or detergents in hard water. This happens because calcium and
magnesium react strongly with negatively-charged chemicals like soap to form insoluble
compounds.

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HARDY-WEINBERG THEOREM: An axiom maintaining that the sexual shuffling of genes alone
cannot alter the overall genetic makeup of a population.
HARTSHORN: The antler of a hart, formerly used as a source of ammonia. Ammonium
carbonate.
HAUSTORIUM: In parasitic fungi, a nutrient-absorbing hyphal tip that penetrates the tissues of the
host but remains outside the host cell membranes.
HAVERSIAN SYSTEM: One of many structural units of vertebrate bone, consisting of concentric
layers of mineralize bone matrix surrounding lacunae, which contain osteocytes, and a central
canal, which contains blood vessels and nerves.
HAZARDS OF POLYMERS: Slippery and difficult to clean-up are the most common hazards
associated with the use of polymers in a water treatment plant.
HEAD: The measure of the pressure of water expressed in feet of height of water. 1 PSI = 2.31
feet of water or 1 foot of head equals about a half a pound of pressure or .433 PSI. There are
various types of heads of water depending upon what is being measured. Static (water at rest) and
Residual (water at flow conditions).
HEADWORKS: The facility at the "head" of the water source where water is first treated and
routed into the distribution system.
HEALTH ADVISORY: An EPA document that provides guidance and information on
contaminants that can affect human health and that may occur in drinking water, but which the
EPA does not currently regulate in drinking water.
HEAT OF VAPORIZATION: The amount of energy absorbed by a substance when it changes
state to a gas. Water absorbs approximately 580 calories per gram when it changes from liquid
water to water vapor.
HEAT: The total amount of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of matter. Heat is
energy in its most random form.
HEAT: Energy transferred from one system to another by thermal interaction.
HELPER T CELL: A type of T cell that is required by some B cells to help them make antibodies
or that helps other T cells respond to antigens or secrete lymphokines or interleukins.
HEMAGGLUTININ: A surface antigen on influenza viruses which controls infectivity by associating
with receptors on host erythrocytes or other cells.
HEMATOPOIESIS: The formation of blood.
HEMATOPOIETIC STEM CELLS: Cells found in the bone marrow of adult mammals which give
rise to erythroid stem cells, lymphoid stem cells, and myeloid stem cells. Such cells give rise to
erythrocytes and a variety of types of lymphocytes and leucocytes.
HEMOGLOBIN: An iron-containing respiratory pigment found in many organisms.
HEMOLYMPH: In invertebrates with open circulatory systems, the body fluid that bathes tissues.
HEMOPHILIA: A genetic disease resulting from an abnormal sex-linked recessive gene,
characterized by excessive bleeding following injury.
HEPATIC: Pertaining to the liver.
HEREDITY: A biological phenomenon whereby characteristics are transmitted from one
generation to another by virtue of chemicals (i.e. DNA) transferred during sexual or asexual
reproduction.
HERPESVIRUS: A double stranded DNA virus with an enveloped, icosahedral capsid.
HERTZ: The term used to describe the frequency of cycles in an alternating current (AC) circuit. A
unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
HETEROCHROMATIN: Non-transcribed eukaryotic chromatin that is so highly compacted that it
is visible with a light microscope during interphase.
HETEROCHRONY: Evolutionary changes in the timing or rate of development.
HETEROCYST: A specialized cell that engages in nitrogen fixation on some filamentous
cyanobacteria.
HETEROGAMY: The condition of producing gametes of two different types (contrast with
isogamy).
HETEROMORPHIC: A condition in the life cycle of all modern plants in which the sporophyte and
gametophyte generations differ in morphology.

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HETEROSPOROUS: Referring to plants in which the sporophyte produces two kinds of spores
that develop into unisexual gametophytes, either male or female.
HETEROTROPH: An organism dependent on external sources of organic compounds as a means
of obtaining energy and/or materials. Such an organism requires carbon ("food") from its
environment in an organic form. (synonym-organotroph).
HETEROTROPHIC PLATE COUNT: A test performed on drinking water to determine the total
number of all types of bacteria in the water.
HETEROZYGOTE ADVANTAGE: A mechanism that preserves variation in eukaryotic gene pools
by conferring greater reproductive success on heterozygotes over individuals homozygous for any
one of the associated alleles.
HETEROZYGOUS: The condition whereby two different alleles of the gene are present within the
same cell.
HF: The molecular formula of Hydrofluoric acid.
HIGH TURBIDITY CAUSING INCREASED CHLORINE DEMAND: May occur or be caused by the
inadequate disinfection of water.
HISTAMINE: A substance released by injured cells that causes blood vessels to dilate during an
inflammatory response.
HISTOLOGY: The study of tissues.
HISTONE: A type of protein characteristically associated with the chromosomes of eukaryotes.
HIV-1: Acute human immunodeficiency virus type 1 is the subtype of HIV (human immune
deficiency virus) that causes most cases of AIDS in the Western Hemisphere, Europe, and Central,
South, and East Africa. HIV is a retrovirus (subclass lentivirus), and retroviruses are single:
stranded RNA viruses that have an enzyme called reverse transcriptase. With this enzyme the viral
RNA is used as a template to produce viral DNA from cellular material. This DNA is then
incorporated into the host cell's genome, where it codes for the synthesis of viral components. An
HIV-1 infection should be distinguished from AIDS. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)
is a secondary immunodeficiency syndrome resulting from HIV infection and characterized by
opportunistic infections, malignancies, neurologic dysfunction, and a variety of other syndromes.
HOLOBLASTIC: A type of cleavage in which there is complete division of the egg, as in eggs
having little yolk (sea urchin) or a moderate amount of yolk (frog).
HOME RANGE: An area within which an animal tends to confine all or nearly all its activities for a
long period of time.
HOMEOBOX: Specific sequences of DNA that regulate patterns of differentiation during
development of an organism.
HOMEOSTASIS: A phenomenon whereby a state or process (for example, within an organism) is
regulated automatically despite the tendency for fluctuations to occur.
HOMEOTHEMIC: Capable of regulation of constancy with respect to temperature.
HOMEOTIC GENES: Genes that control the overall body plan of animals by controlling the
developmental fate of groups of cells.
HOMEOTIC: (mutation) A mutation in genes regulated by positional information that results in the
abnormal substitution of one type of body part in place of another.
HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES: Chromosomes bearing genes for the same characters.
HOMOLOGOUS STRUCTURES: Characters in different species which were inherited from a
common ancestor and thus share a similar ontogenetic pattern.
HOMOLOGY: Similarity in characteristics resulting from a shared ancestry.
HOMOPLASY: The presence in several species of a trait not present in their most common
ancestor. Can result from convergent evolution, reverse evolution, or parallel evolution.
HOMOSPOROUS: Referring to plants in which a single type of spore develops into a bisexual
gametophyte having both male and female sex organs.
HOMOZYGOUS: Having two copies of the same allele of a given gene.
HORMONE: A control chemical secreted in one part of the body that affects other parts of the
body.
HOST RANGE: The limited number of host species, tissues, or cells that a parasite (including
viruses and bacteria) can infect.

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HUMORAL IMMUNITY: The type of immunity that fights bacteria and viruses in body fluids with
antibodies that circulate in blood plasma and lymph, fluids formerly called humors.
HYBIRD VIGOR: Increased vitality (compared to that of either parent stock) in the hybrid offspring
of two different, inbred parents.
HYBIRD: In evolutionary biology, a cross between two species. In genetics, a cross between two
genetic types.
HYBIRDIZATION: The process whereby a hybrid results from interbreeding two species; 2) DNA
hybridization is the comparison of whole genomes of two species by estimating the extent of
hydrogen bonding that occurs between single-stranded DNA obtained from the two species.
HYBRIDOMA: A hybrid cell that produces monoclonal antibodies in culture, formed by the fusion
of a myeloma cell with a normal antibody-producing lymphocyte.
HYDRATED LIME: The calcium hydroxide product that results from mixing quicklime with water.
Chemical formula is CaOH2.
HYDRATION SHELL: A "covering" of water molecules which surrounds polar or charged
substances in aqueous solutions. The association is due to the charged regions of the polar water
molecules themselves.
hydraulic conductivity: A primary factor in Darcy’s Law, the measure of a soil or formations ability
to transmit water, measured in gallons per day (gpd) See also Permeability and Darcy’s Law.
HYDRIDES: Hydride is the name given to the negative ion of hydrogen, H. Although this ion
does not exist except in extraordinary conditions, the term hydride is widely applied to describe
compounds of hydrogen with other elements, particularly those of groups 1–16. The variety of
compounds formed by hydrogen is vast, arguably greater than that of any other element. Various
metal hydrides are currently being studied for use as a means of hydrogen storage in fuel cell-
powered electric cars and batteries. They also have important uses in organic chemistry as
powerful reducing agents, and many promising uses in hydrogen economy.
HYDROCARBON: Any compound made of only carbon and hydrogen.
HYDROCHLORIC AND HYPOCHLOROUS ACIDS: HCL and HOCL: The compounds that are
formed in water when chlorine gas is introduced.
HYDROFLUOSILICIC ACID: (H2SiF6) a clear, fuming corrosive liquid with a pH ranging from 1 to
1.5. Used in water treatment to fluoridate drinking water.
HYDROGEN BOND: A type of bond formed when the partially positive hydrogen atom of a polar
covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to the partially negative atom of a polar covalent bond
in another.
HYDROGEN ION: A single proton with a charge of +1. The dissociation of a water molecule (H2O)
leads to the generation of a hydroxide ion (OH-) and a hydrogen ion (H+).
HYDROGEN SULFIDE OR CHLORINE GAS: These chemicals can cause olfactory fatigue.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE: A toxic gas formed by the anaerobic decomposition of organic matter.
Chemical formula is H2S.
Hydrologic Cycle: (Water Cycle) The continual process of precipitation (rain and snowfall),
evaporation (primarily from the oceans), peculation (recharge to groundwater), runoff (surface
water), and transpiration (plants) constituting the renew ability and recycling of each component.
HYDROLYSIS: The chemical reaction that breaks a covalent bond through the addition of
hydrogen (from a water molecule) to the atom forming one side of the original bond, and a hydroxyl
group to the atom on the other side.
HYDROPHILIC: Having an affinity for water.
HYDROPHOBIC INTERACTION: A type of weak chemical bond formed when molecules that do
not mix with water coalesce to exclude the water.
HYDROPHOBIC: The physicochemical property whereby a substance or region of a molecule
resists association with water molecules. Does not mix readily with water.
HYDROSTATIC: Pertaining to the pressure and equilibrium of fluids. A hydrostatic skeleton is a
skeletal system composed of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment; the main
skeleton of most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids.
HYDROXYL GROUP: A functional group consisting of a hydrogen atom joined to an oxygen atom
by a polar covalent bond. Molecules possessing this group are soluble in water and are called
alcohols.

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HYDROXYL ION: The OH- ion.
HYGROSCOPIC: Absorbing or attracting moisture from the air.
HYPEROSMOTIC: A solution with a greater solute concentration than another, a hypoosmotic
solution. If the two solutions are separated from one another by a membrane permeable to water,
water would tend to move from the hypo- to the hyperosmotic side.
HYPERPOLARIZATION: An electrical state whereby the inside of the cell is made more negative
relative to the outside than was the case at resting potential. A neuron membrane is hyperpolarized
if the voltage is increased from the resting potential of about -70 mV, reducing the chance that a
nerve impulse will be transmitted.
HYPERTROPHY: Abnormal enlargement, excessive growth.
HYPHA: A fungal filament.
HYPOCHLORITE (OCL-) AND ORGANIC MATERIALS: Heat and possibly fire may occur when
hypochlorite is brought into contact with an organic material.
HYPOCHLORITE AND ORGANIC MATERIALS: Heat and possibly fire may occur when
hypochlorite is brought into contact with an organic material.
HYPOCOTYL: The portion of the axis of a plant embryo below the point of attachment of the
cotyledons; forms the base of the shoot and the root.
HYPOLIMNION: The layer of water in a thermally stratified lake that lies below the thermocline, is
noncirculating, and remains perpetually cold.
HYPOOSMOTIC SOLUTION: A solution with a lesser solute concentration than another, a
hyperosmotic solution. If the two solutions are separated from one another by a membrane
permeable to water, water would tend to move from the hypo- to the hyperosmotic side.
HYPOTHESIS: A formal statement of supposition offered to explain observations. Note that a
hypothesis is only useful if it can be tested. Even if correct, it is not scientifically useful if untestable.
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE: A method used to test hypotheses. If deductions formulated from
the hypothesis are tested and proven false, the hypothesis is rejected.

I
IMAGINAL DISK: An island of undifferentiated cells in an insect larva, which are committed
(determined) to form a particular organ during metamorphosis to the adult.
IMBIBITION: The soaking of water into a porous material that is hydrophilic.
IMMUNE RESPONSE: 1) A primary immune response is the initial response to an antigen, which
appears after a lag of a few days. 2) A secondary immune response is the response elicited when
the animal encounters the same antigen at a later time. The secondary response is normally more
rapid, of greater magnitude and of longer duration than the primary response.
IMMUNOGLOBULINE: The class of proteins comprising the antibodies.
IMMUNOLOGICAL: 1) Immunological distance is the amount of difference between two proteins
as measured by the strength of the antigen: antibody reaction between them. 2) Immunological
tolerance is a mechanism by which an animal does not mount an immune response to the antigenic
determinants of its own macromolecules.
IMMUNOMAGNETIC SEPARATION (IMS): A purification procedure that uses microscopic,
magnetically responsive particles coated with an antibodies targeted to react with a specific
pathogen in a fluid stream. Pathogens are selectively removed from other debris using a magnetic
field.
IMPERVIOUS: Not allowing, or allowing only with great difficulty, the movement of water.
IMPRINTING: A type of learned behavior with a significant innate component, acquired during a
limited critical period.
In practice, water with an LSI between -0.5 and +0.5 will not display enhanced mineral dissolving
or scale forming properties. Water with an LSI below -0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased
dissolving abilities while water with an LSI above +0.5 tends to exhibit noticeably increased scale
forming properties.
In Series: Several components being connected one to the other without a bypass, requiring
each component to work dependent on the one before it.
IN SERIES: Several components being connected one to the other without a bypass, requiring
each component to work dependent on the one before it.

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IN SITU: Treatment or disposal methods that do not require movement of contaminated material.
IN VITRO FERTILIZATION: Fertilization of ova in laboratory containers followed by artificial
implantation of the early embryo in the mother's uterus.
INCINERATION: The process of reducing the volume of a material by burning and reducing to ash
if possible.
INCLINED PLATE SEPARATOR: A series of parallel inclined plates that can be used to increase
the efficiency of clarifiers and gravity thickeners.
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE: A type of inheritance in which F1 hybrids have an appearance that
is intermediate between the phenotypes of the parental varieties.
INDETERMINATE: 1) A type of cleavage exhibited during the embryonic development in
deuterostomes, in which each cell produced by early cleavage divisions retains the capacity to
develop into a complete embryo; 2) A type of growth exhibited by plants: they continue to grow as
long as they live, because they always retain meristematic cells capable of undergoing mitosis.
INDICATOR: A special compound added to solution that changes color depending on the acidity
of the solution; different indicators have different colors and effective pH ranges.
INDIRECT REUSE: The beneficial use of reclaimed water into natural surface waters or
groundwater.
INDUCED FIT: The change in shape of the active site of an enzyme so that it binds more snugly
to the substrate, induced by entry of the substrate.
INDUCTION: 1) The ability of one group of embryonic cells to influence the development of
another. 2) A method in logic which proceeds from the specific to general and develops a general
statement which explains all of the observations. Commonly used to formulate scientific
hypotheses.
INDUSTRIAL MELANISM: Melanism which has resulted from blackening of environmental
surfaces (tree bark, etc.) by industrial pollution. This favors survival of melanic forms such as moths
which rest on tree bark and are less likely to be seen by predators.
INDUSTRIAL WASTEWATER: Liquid wastes resulting from industrial processes.
INFECTIOUS PATHOGENS/MICROBES/GERMS: Are considered disease-producing bacteria,
viruses and other microorganisms.
INFECTIOUS: 1) An infectious disease is a disease caused by an infectious microbial or parasitic
agent. 2) Infectious hepatitis is the former name for hepatitis A. 3) Infectious mononucleosis is an
acute disease that affects many systems, caused by the Epstein: Barr virus.
Infiltration: The percolation of fluid into soil or formation. See also percolation.
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE: A line of defense triggered by penetration of the skin or mucous
membranes, in which small blood vessels in the vicinity of an injury dilate and become leakier,
enhancing infiltration of leukocytes; may also be widespread in the body.
INFLUENT: Water or wastewater flowing into a basin or treatment plant.
INFORMATION COLLECTION RULE: ICR EPA collected data required by the Information
Collection Rule (May 14, 1996) to support future regulation of microbial contaminants,
disinfectants, and disinfection byproducts. The rule was intended to provide EPA with information
on chemical byproducts that form when disinfectants used for microbial control react with
chemicals already present in source water (disinfection byproducts (DBPs)); disease-causing
microorganisms (pathogens), including Cryptosporidium; and engineering data to control these
contaminants.
INGESTION: A heterotrophic mode of nutrition in which other organisms or detritus are eaten
whole or in pieces.
INHIBITORY POSTSYNAPTIC POTENTIAL: An electrical charge (hyperpolarization) in the
membrane of a postsynaptic neuron caused by the binding of an inhibitory neurotransmitter from a
presynaptic cell to a postsynaptic receptor.
INITIAL MONITORING YEAR: An initial monitoring year is the calendar year designated by the
Department within a compliance period in which a public water system conducts initial monitoring
at a point of entry.
INITIAL PRECISION AND RECOVERY (IPR): Four aliquots of spiking suspension analyzed to
establish the ability to generate acceptable precision and accuracy. An IPR is performed prior to
the first time this method is used and any time the method or instrumentation is modified.

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INNER CELL MASS: A cluster of cells in a mammalian blastocyst that protrudes into one end of
the cavity and subsequently develops into the embryo proper and some of the extraembryonic
membranes.
INORGANIC CHEMISTRY: A part of chemistry concerned with inorganic compounds.
INORGANIC COMPOUND: Compounds that contain no carbon or contain only carbon bound to
elements other than hydrogen.
INORGANIC COMPOUND: Compounds that do not contain carbon, though there are exceptions.
INORGANIC CONTAMINANTS: Mineral-based compounds such as metals, nitrates, and
asbestos. These contaminants are naturally-occurring in some water, but can also get into water
through farming, chemical manufacturing, and other human activities. EPA has set legal limits on
15 inorganic contaminants.
INORGANIC IONS: Present in all waters. Inorganic ions are essential for human health in small
quantities, but in larger quantities they can cause unpleasant taste and odor or even illness. Most
community water systems will commonly test for the concentrations of seven inorganic ions: nitrate,
nitrite, fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, chloride, and bromide. Nitrate and nitrite can cause an illness
in infants called methemoglobinemia. Fluoride is actually added to the drinking water in some public
water systems to promote dental health. Phosphate, sulfate, chloride, and bromide have little direct
effect on health, but high concentrations of inorganic ions can give water a salty or briny taste.
INOSITOL TRIPHOSPHATE: The second messenger, which functions as an intermediate between
certain non-steroid hormones and the third messenger, a rise in cytoplasmic Ca++ concentration.
INSERTION: A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.
INSIGHT LEARNING: The ability of an animal to perform a correct or appropriate behavior on the
first attempt in a situation with which it has had no prior experience.
INSOLUBLE COMPOUNDS: are types of compounds cannot be dissolved. When iron or
manganese reacts with dissolved oxygen (DO) insoluble compound are formed.
INSULATOR: Material that resists the flow of electric current.
INSULIN: The vertebrate hormone that lowers blood sugar levels by promoting the uptake of
glucose by most body cells and promoting the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver; also
stimulates protein and fat synthesis; secreted by endocrine cells of the pancreas called islets of
Langerhans.
INTAKE FACILITIES: One of the more important considerations in the construction of intake
facilities is the ease of operation and maintenance over the expected lifetime of the facility. Every
intake structure must be constructed with consideration for operator safety and for cathodic
protection.
INTEGRAL PROTEIN: A protein of biological membranes that penetrates into or spans the
membrane.
INTERBREED: To breed with another kind or species; hybridize.
INTERFERON: A chemical messenger of the immune system, produced by virus: infected cells
and capable of helping other cells resist the virus.
INTERLEUKIN: 1: A chemical regulator (cytokine) secreted by macrophages that have ingested
a pathogen or foreign molecule and have bound with a helper T cell; stimulates T cells to grow and
divide and elevates body temperature. Interleukin: 2, secreted by activated T cells, stimulates
helper T cells to proliferate more rapidly.
INTERMEDIATE FILAMENT: A component of the cytoskeleton that includes all filaments
intermediate in size between microtubules and microfilaments.
INTERNEURON: An association neuron; a nerve cell within the central nervous system that forms
synapses with sensory and motor neurons and integrates sensory input and motor output.
INTERNODE: The segment of a plant stem between the points where leaves are attached.
INTERSTITIAL CELLS: Cells scattered among the seminiferous tubules of the vertebrate testis
that secrete testosterone and other androgens, the male sex hormones.
INTERSTITIAL FLUID: The internal environment of vertebrates consisting of the fluid filling the
spaces between cells.
INTERTIDAL ZONE: The shallow zone of the ocean where land meets water.
INTRINSIC RATE OF INCREASE: The difference between number of births and number of deaths,
symbolized as rmax; maximum population growth rate.

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INTROGRESSION: Transplantation of genes between species resulting from fertile hybrids mating
successfully with one of the parent species.
INTRON: The noncoding, intervening sequence of coding region (exon) in eukaryotic genes.
INVAGINATION: The buckling inward of a cell layer, caused by rearrangements of microfilaments
and microtubules; an important phenomenon in embryonic development.
INVERSION: 1) An aberration in chromosome structure resulting from an error in meiosis or from
mutagens; reattachment in a reverse orientation of a chromosomal fragment to the chromosome
from which the fragment originated. 2) A phenomenon which occurs during early development of
sponges at which time the external ciliated cells become inward-directed.
INVERTEBRATE: An animal without a backbone; invertebrates make up about 95% of animal
species.
ION EXCHANGE: An effective treatment process used to remove iron and manganese in a water
supply. The hardness of the source water affects the amount of water an ion exchange softener
may treat before the bed requires regeneration.
ION: A charged chemical formed when an atom or group of atoms has more or less electrons than
protons (rather than an equal number). A molecule that has gained or lost one or more electrons.
IONIC BOND: A chemical bond due to attraction between oppositely charged ions.
IONIZATION: The breaking up of a compound into separate ions.
IRON AND MANGANESE: Fe and Mn In water they can usually be detected by observing the
color of the inside walls of filters and the filter media. If the raw water is pre-chlorinated, there will
be black stains on the walls below the water level and a black coating over the top portion of the
sand filter bed. When significant levels of dissolved oxygen are present, iron and manganese
exist in an oxidized state and normally precipitate into the reservoir bottom sediments. The
presence of iron and manganese in water promote the growth of Iron bacteria. Only when a water
sample has been acidified then you can perform the analysis beyond the 48 hour holding time.
Iron and Manganese in water may be detected by observing the color of the of the filter media.
Maintaining a free chlorine residual and regular flushing of water mains may control the growth of
iron bacteria in a water distribution system.
IRON AND MANGANESE: In water they can usually be detected by observing the color of the
inside walls of filters and the filter media. If the raw water is pre-chlorinated, there will be black
stains on the walls below the water level and a black coating over the top portion of the sand filter
bed. When significant levels of dissolved oxygen are present, iron and manganese exist in an
oxidized state and normally precipitate into the reservoir bottom sediments. The presence of iron
and manganese in water promote the growth of Iron bacteria. Only when a water sample has been
acidified then you can perform the analysis beyond the 48 hour holding time. Iron and Manganese
in water may be detected by observing the color of the of the filter media. Maintaining a free chlorine
residual and regular flushing of water mains may control the growth of iron bacteria in a water
distribution system.
IRON BACTERIA: Perhaps the most troublesome consequence of iron and manganese in the
water is they promote the growth of a group of microorganism known as Iron Bacteria.
IRON FOULING: You should look for an orange color on the resin and backwash water when
checking an ion exchange unit for iron fouling
IRON: Fe The elements iron and manganese are undesirable in water because they cause
stains and promote the growth of iron bacteria.
IRRUPTION: A rapid increase in population density often followed by a mass emigration.
ISOGAMY: A condition in which male and female gametes are morphologically indistinguishable.
ISOMER: Molecules consisting of the same numbers and kinds of atoms, but differing in the way
in which the atoms are combined.
ISOSMOTIC: Solutions of equal concentration with respect to osmotic pressure.
ISOTOPE: An atomic form of an element, containing a different number of neutrons than another
isotope. Isotopes vary from one another with respect to atomic mass.
It is also worth noting that the LSI is temperature sensitive. The LSI becomes more positive as the
water temperature increases. This has particular implications in situations where well water is used.
The temperature of the water when it first exits the well is often significantly lower than the

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temperature inside the building served by the well or at the laboratory where the LSI measurement
is made.
IUPAC: International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry

J
JODIUM: Latin name of the halogen element iodine.
JOULE: The SI unit of energy, defined as a newton-meter.
JUXTAGLOMERULAR APPARATUS (JGA): Specialized tissue located near the afferent arteriole
that supplies blood to the kidney glomerulus; JGA raises blood pressure by producing renin, which
activates angiotensin.
K
K- SELECTION: The concept that life history of the population is centered upon producing relatively
few offspring that have a good chance of survival.
KARYOGAMY: The fusion of nuclei of two cells, as part of syngamy.
KARYOTYPE: A method of classifying the chromosomes of a cell in relation to number, size and
type.
KEYSTONE PREDATOR: A species that maintains species richness in a community through
predation of the best competitors in the community, thereby maintaining populations of less
competitive species.
KILL = C X T: Where other factors are constant, the disinfecting action may be represented by:
Kill=C x T. Kill=C x T. C= Chlorine T= Contact time.
KILOCALORIE: A thousand calories; the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature
of 1 kilogram of water by primary C.
KIN SELECTION: A phenomenon of inclusive fitness, used to explain altruistic behavior between
related individuals.
KINESIS: A change in activity rate in response to a stimulus.
KINETIC ENERGY: The ability of an object to do work by virtue of its motion. The energy terms
that are used to describe the operation of a pump are pressure and head. The energy of motion.
Moving matter does work by transferring some of its kinetic energy to other matter.
KINETICS: A sub-field of chemistry specializing in reaction rates.
KINETOCHORE: A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the
mitotic spindle.
KINGDOM: A taxonomic category, the second broadest after domain.
KREBS CYCLE: A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown
of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage
in cellular respiration. Also called citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.

L
L.O.T.O.: If a piece of equipment is locked out, the key to the lock-out device the key should be
held by the person who is working on the equipment. The tag is an identification device and the
lock is a physical restraint.
LABORATORY BLANK: See Method blank
LABORATORY CONTROL SAMPLE (LCS): See Ongoing precision and recovery (OPR) standard
LACRIMATION: The secretion of tears, esp. in abnormal abundance Also, lachrymation,
lachrimation.
LACTEAL: A tiny lymph vessel extending into the core of the intestinal villus and serving as the
destination for absorbed chylomicrons.
LACTIC ACID: Gram-positive, anaerobic; produce lactic acid through fermentation; include
Lactobacillus, essential in dairy product formation, and Streptococcus, common in humans.
LAGGING STRAND: A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates in a direction away
from the replication fork.
LAMARCK: Proposed, in the early 1800s, that evolutionary change may occur via the inheritance
of acquired characteristics. This idea, which has since been discredited, holds that the changes in
characteristics which occur during an individual's life can be passed on to its offspring.

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LAND APPLICATION: The disposal of wastewater or municipal solids onto land under controlled
conditions.
LAND DISPOSAL: Application of municipal wastewater solids to the soil without production of
usable agricultural products.
LANDFILL: A land disposal site that employs an engineering method of solid waste disposal to
minimize environmental hazards and protect the quality of surface and subsurface waters.
LANGELIER INDEX: A measurement of Corrosivity. The water is becoming corrosive in the
distribution system causing rusty water if the Langelier index indicates that the pH has decreased
from the equilibrium point. Mathematically derived factor obtained from the values of calcium
hardness, total alkalinity, and pH at a given temperature. A Langelier index of zero indicates
perfect water balance (i.e., neither corroding nor scaling). The Langelier Saturation Index
(sometimes Langelier Stability Index) is a calculated number used to predict the calcium
carbonate stability of water. It indicates whether the water will precipitate, dissolve, or be in
equilibrium with calcium carbonate. Langelier developed a method for predicting the pH at which
water is saturated in calcium carbonate (called pHs). The LSI is expressed as the difference
between the actual system pH and the saturation pH.
LANTHANIDES: Elements 57 through 71.
LARVA (pl. larvae): A free-living, sexually immature form in some animal life cycles that may differ
from the adult in morphology, nutrition, and habitat.
LATERAL LINE SYSTEM: A mechanoreceptor system consisting of a series of pores and receptor
units (neuromasts) along the sides of the body of fishes and aquatic amphibians; detects water
movements made by an animal itself and by other moving objects.
LATERAL MERISTEMS: The vascular and cork cambia, cylinders of dividing cells that run most
of the length of stems and roots and are responsible for secondary growth.
LATTICE: Unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid.
LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT: Mendel's second law, stating that each allele pair
segregates independently during gamete formation; applies when genes for two traits are located
on different pairs of homologous chromosomes.
LAW OF MOTION: An object in motion stay in motion an object in rest stays in rest unless an
unbalanced force acts on it.
LAW OF SEGREGATION: Mendel's first law, stating that allele pairs separate during gamete
formation, and then randomly re-form pairs during the fusion of gametes at fertilization.
LEACHATE: Fluid that trickles through solid materials or wastes and contains suspended or
dissolved materials or products of the solids.
LEACHING: A chemical reaction between water and metals that allows for removal of soluble
materials.
LEAD AND COPPER: Initial tap water monitoring for lead and copper must be conducted during
2 consecutive 6-month periods.
LEADING STRAND: The new continuously complementary DNA strand synthesized along the
template strand in the 5' --- > 3' direction.
LEUKOCYTE: A white blood cell; typically functions in immunity, such as phagocytosis or antibody
production.
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION: A basic concept in biology is that organization is based on a
hierarchy of structural levels, with each level building on the levels below it.
LICHEN: An organism formed by the symbiotic association between a fungus and a photosynthetic
alga.
LIFE: (table) A table of data summarizing mortality in a population.
LIGAMENT: A type of fibrous connective tissue that joins bones together at joints.
LIGAND: A ligand is a molecule that binds specifically to a receptor site of another molecule. A
ligase is an enzyme which catalyzes such a reaction. For example, a DNA ligase is an enzyme
which catalyzes the covalent bonding of the 3' end of a new DNA fragment to the 5' end of a growing
chain.
LIGASE: Ligases are enzymes that catalyze the "stitching together" of polymer fragments. DNA
ligase, for example, catalyzes phosphodiester bond formation between two DNA fragments, and

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this enzyme is involved in normal DNA replication, repair of damaged chromosomes, and various
in vitro techniques in genetic engineering that involve linking DNA fragments.
LIGHT: Portion of the electromagnetic spectrum which is visible to the naked eye. Also called
"visible light."
LIGNIN: A hard material embedded in the cellulose matrix of vascular plant cell walls that functions
as an important adaptation for support in terrestrial species.
LIMBIC SYSTEM: A group of nuclei (clusters of nerve cell bodies) in the lower part of the
mammalian forebrain that interact with the cerebral cortex in determining emotions; includes the
hippocampus and the amygdala.
LIME SODA SOFTENING: In a lime soda softening process, to the pH of the water is raised to
11.0. In a lime softening process, excess lime is frequently added to remove Calcium and
Magnesium Bicarbonate. The minimum hardness which can be achieved by the lime-soda ash
process is 30 to 40 mg/L as calcium carbonate. The hardness due to noncarbonate hardness is
most likely to determine the choice between lime softening and ion exchange to remove
hardness.
LIME SOFTENING: Lime softening is primarily used to “soften” water—that is to remove calcium
and magnesium mineral salts. But it also removes harmful toxins like radon and arsenic. Though
there is no consensus, some studies have even suggested that lime softening is effective at
removal of Giardia. Hard water is a common condition responsible for numerous problems. Users
often recognize hard water because it prevents their soap from lathering properly. However, it can
also cause buildup (“scale”) in hot water heaters, boilers, and hot water pipes. Because of these
inconveniences, many treatment facilities use lime softening to soften hard water for consumer
use. Before lime softening can be used, managers must determine the softening chemistry
required. This is a relatively easy task for groundwater sources, which remain more constant in
their composition. Surface waters, however, fluctuate widely in quality and may require frequent
changes to the softening chemical mix. In lime softening, lime and sometimes sodium carbonate
are added to the water as it enters a combination solids contact clarifier. This raises the pH (i.e.,
increases alkalinity) and leads to the precipitation of calcium carbonate. Later, the pH of the effluent
from the clarifier is reduced again, and the water is then filtered through a granular media filter. The
water chemistry requirements of these systems require knowledgeable operators, which may make
lime softening an economic challenge for some very small systems.
LIME STABILIZATION: The addition of lime to untreated sludge to raise the pH to 12 for a minimum
of 2 hours to chemically inactivate microorganisms.
LIME: Is a chemical that may be added to water to reduce the corrosivity. When an operator
adds lime to water, Calcium and magnesium become less soluble. The term generally used to
describe ground limestone (calcium carbonate), hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), or burned
lime (calcium oxide).
LINKED GENES: Genes that are located on the same chromosomes.
LIPID: One of a family of compounds, including fats, phospholipids, and steroids, that are insoluble
in water.
LIPOPROTEIN: A protein bonded to a lipid; includes the low-density lipoproteins (LDLS) and high-
density lipoproteins (HDLS) that transport fats and cholesterol in the blood.
LIPOSOME: Liposomes are vesicles (spherules) in which the lipid molecules are spontaneously
arranged into bilayers with hydrophilic groups exposed to water molecules both outside the vesicle
and in the core.
LIQUID: A state of matter which takes the shape of its container.
LISTED HAZARDOUS WASTE: The designation for a waste material that appears on an EPA list
of specific hazardous wastes or hazardous waste categories.
LOCUS: A particular place along the length of a certain chromosome where a specified allele is
located.
LOGISTIC POPULATION GROWTH: A model describing population growth that levels off as
population size approaches carrying capacity.
LONDON DISERSION FORCES: A weak intermolecular force.
LSI = pH - pHs
LSI = pH (measured) - pHs

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LYMPHOCYTE: Lymphocytes (lymph cells, lympho- leukocytes) are a type of leukocyte (white
blood cell) responsible for the immune response. There are two classes of lymphocytes: 1) the B-
cells, when presented with a foreign chemical entity (antigen), change into antibody producing
plasma cells; and, 2) the T- cells interact directly with foreign invaders such as bacteria and viruses.
The T- cells express various surface marker macromolecules. For example, CD4+ is the notation
for a specific expressed T- cell surface marker that can be identified by assay.
LYSIS: The destruction of a cell by rupture of the plasma membrane.
LYSOGENIC CYCLE: A type of viral replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes
incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage.
LYSOSOME: A membrane-bounded organelle found in eukaryotic cells (other than plants).
Lysosomes contain a mixture of enzymes that can digest most of the macromolecules found in the
rest of the cell. An enzyme in perspiration, tears, and saliva that attacks bacterial cell walls.
LYTIC CYCLE: A type of viral replication cycle resulting in the release of new phages by death or
lysis of the host cell.

M
M PHASE: The mitotic phase of the cell cycle, which includes mitosis and cytokinesis.
M.S.D.S.: Material Safety Data Sheet, now S.D.S. (Safety Data Sheet). A safety document must
an employer provide to an operator upon request.
MACROEVOLUTION: Evolutionary change on a grand scale, encompassing the origin of novel
designs, evolutionary trends, adaptive radiation, and mass extinction.
MACROMOLECULE: A giant molecule of living matter formed by the joining of smaller molecules,
usually by condensation synthesis. Polysaccharides, proteins, and nucleic acids are
macromolecules.
MACROPHAGE: An amoeboid cell that moves through tissue fibers, engulfing bacteria and dead
cells by phagocytosis.
MAGNESIUM HARDNESS: Measure of the magnesium salts dissolved in water – it is not a
factor in water balance.
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX: A large set of cell surface antigens encoded by a
family of genes. Foreign MHC markers trigger T-cell responses that may lead to rejection of
transplanted tissues and organs.
MAKEUP WATER: Fluid introduced in a recirculating stream to maintain an equilibrium of
temperature, solids concentration or other parameters. Also refers to the quantity of water required
to make a solution.
MALIGNANT TUMOR: A cancerous growth; an abnormal growth whose cells multiply excessively,
have altered surfaces, and may have unusual numbers of chromosomes and/or aberrant metabolic
processes.
MALPHIGHIAN TUBULE: A unique excretory organ of insects that empties into the digestive tract,
removes nitrogenous wastes from the blood, and functions in osmoregulation.
MANTLE: A heavy fold of tissue in mollusks that drapes over the visceral mass and may secrete
a shell.
MARBLE AND LANGELIER TESTS: Are used to measure or determine the corrosiveness of a
water source.
MASS NUMBER: The sum of the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the nucleus
of an atom; unique for each element and designated by a superscript to the left of the elemental
symbol.
MATRIX SPIKE (MS): A sample prepared by adding a known quantity of organisms to a specified
amount of sample matrix for which an independent estimate of target analyte concentration is
available. A matrix spike is used to determine the effect of the matrix on a method’s recovery
efficiency.
MATRIX: The nonliving component of connective tissue, consisting of a web of fibers embedded in
homogeneous ground substance that may be liquid, jellylike, or solid.
MATTER: Anything that takes up space and has mass.

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MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL (MCLs): The maximum allowable level of a contaminant that
federal or state regulations allow in a public water system. If the MCL is exceeded, the water
system must treat the water so that it meets the MCL.
MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL GOAL (MCLG): The level of a contaminant at which there
would be no risk to human health. This goal is not always economically or technologically
feasible, and the goal is not legally enforceable.
MCL for TURBIDITY: Turbidity is undesirable because it causes health hazards. An MCL for
turbidity was established by the EPA because turbidity does not allow for proper disinfection.
MEASURE CORROSION DAMAGE: A coupon such as a strip of metal and is placed to measure
corrosion damage in the distribution system in a water main.
MECHANICAL SEAL: A mechanical device used to control leakage from the stuffing box of a pump.
Usually made of two flat surfaces, one of which rotates on the shaft. The two flat surfaces are of
such tolerances as to prevent the passage of water between them. Held in place with spring
pressure.
MECHANORECEPTOR: A sensory receptor that detects physical deformations in the body
environment associated with pressure, touch, stretch, motion, and sound.
MEDIAN BODIES: Prominent, dark-staining, paired organelles consisting of microtubules and
found in the posterior half of Giardia. In G. intestinalis (from humans), these structures often
have a claw-hammer shape, while in G. muris (from mice), the median bodies are round.
MEDIUM WATER SYSTEM: More than 3,300 persons and 50,000 or fewer persons.
MEDULLA OBLONGATA: The lowest part of the vertebrate brain; a swelling of the hindbrain dorsal
to the anterior spinal cord that controls autonomic, homeostatic functions, including breathing, heart
and blood vessel activity, swallowing, digestion, and vomiting.
MEDUSA: The floating, flattened, mouth-down version of the cnidarian body plan. The alternate
form is the polyp.
MEGAPASCAL: A unit of pressure equivalent to 10 atmospheres of pressure.
MEGGER: Used to test the insulation resistance on a motor.
MEIOSIS: A two-stage type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms that results in
gametes with half the chromosome number of the original cell.
MELTING: The phase change from a solid to a liquid.
MEMBRANE POTENTIAL: The charge difference between the cytoplasm and extracellular fluid in
all cells, due to the differential distribution of ions. Membrane potential affects the activity of
excitable cells and the transmembrane movement of all charged substances.
MEMBRANE: A thin barrier that permits passage of particles of a certain size or of particular
physical or chemical properties.
M-ENDO BROTH: The coliform group are used as indicators of fecal pollution in water, for
assessing the effectiveness of water treatment and disinfection, and for monitoring water quality.
m-Endo Broth is used for selectively isolating coliform bacteria from water and other specimens
using the membrane filtration technique. m-Endo Broth is prepared according to the formula of
Fifield and Schaufus.1 It is recommended by the American Public Health Association in standard
total coliform membrane filtration procedure for testing water, wastewater, and foods.2,3 The US
EPA specifies using m-Endo Broth in the total coliform methods for testing water using single-step,
two-step, and delayed incubation membrane filtration methods.
M-ENDO BROTH: The coliform group is used as indicators of fecal pollution in water, for
assessing the effectiveness of water treatment and disinfection, and for monitoring water quality.
m-Endo Broth is used for selectively isolating coliform bacteria from water and other specimens
using the membrane filtration technique. m-Endo Broth is prepared according to the formula of
Fifield and Schaufus.1 It is recommended by the American Public Health Association in standard
total coliform membrane filtration procedure for testing water, wastewater, and foods.2,3 The US
EPA specifies using m-Endo Broth in the total coliform methods for testing water using single-
step, two-step, and delayed incubation membrane filtration methods.: The media shall be brought
to the boiling point when preparing M-Endo broth to be used in the membrane filter test for total
coliform.
MESENTERIES: Membranes that suspend many of the organs of vertebrates inside fluid- filled
body cavities.

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MESODERM: The middle primary germ layer of an early embryo that develops into the notochord,
the lining of the coelom, muscles, skeleton, gonads, kidneys and most of the circulatory system.
MESOSOME: A localized infolding of the plasma membrane of a bacterium.
MESSENGER: (RNA) A type of RNA synthesized from DNA in the genetic material that attaches
to ribosomes in the cytoplasm and specifies the primary structure of a protein.
METABOLISM: The sum total of the chemical and physical changes constantly taking place in
living substances.
METAL: Chemical element that is a good conductor of both electricity and heat and forms cations
and ionic bonds with non-metals.
METALIMNION: Thermocline, middle layer of a thermally stratified lake which is characterized by
a rapid decrease in temperature in proportion to depth.
METALLOID: Metalloid is a term used in chemistry when classifying the chemical elements. On
the basis of their general physical and chemical properties, nearly every element in the periodic
table can be termed either a metal or a nonmetal. A few elements with intermediate properties
are, however, referred to as metalloids. (In Greek metallon = metal and eidos = sort)
METAMORPHOSIS: The resurgence of development in an animal larva that transforms it into a
sexually mature adult.
METANEPHRIDIUM: A type of excretory tubule in annelid worms that has internal openings called
nephrostomes that collect body fluids and external openings called nephridiopores.
METASTASIS: The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site.
METAZOAN: A multicellular animal. Among important distinguishing characteristics of Metazoa
are cell differentiation and intercellular communication. For certain multicellular colonial entities
such as sponges, some biologists prefer the term "parazoa".
METHANE: Methane is a chemical compound with the molecular formula CH4. It is the simplest
alkane, and the principal component of natural gas. Methane's bond angles are 109.5 degrees.
Burning methane in the presence of oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water. The relative
abundance of methane and its clean burning process makes it a very attractive fuel. However,
because it is a gas at normal temperature and pressure, methane is difficult to transport from its
source. In its natural gas form, it is generally transported in bulk by pipeline or LNG carriers; few
countries still transport it by truck.
METHLENE BLUE: A heterocyclic aromatic chemical compound with the molecular formula
C16H18N3SCl.
METHOD BLANK: An aliquot of reagent water that is treated exactly as a sample, including
exposure to all glassware, equipment, solvents, and procedures that are used with samples. The
method blank is used to determine if analytes or interferences are present in the laboratory
environment, the reagents, or the apparatus.
Mg/L: Stands for "milligrams per liter." A common unit of chemical concentration. It expresses the
mass of a chemical that is present in a given volume of water. A milligram (one one-thousandth of
a gram) is equivalent to about 18 grains of table salt. A liter is equivalent to about one quart.
Mg/L: Stands for "milligrams per liter." A common unit of chemical concentration. It expresses the
mass of a chemical that is present in a given volume of water. A milligram (one one-thousandth of
a gram) is equivalent to about 18 grains of table salt. A liter is equivalent to about one quart.
MICROBE OR MICROBIAL: Any minute, simple, single-celled form of life, especially one that
causes disease.
MICROBIAL CONTAMINANTS: Microscopic organisms present in untreated water that can cause
waterborne diseases.
MICROBE OR MICROBIAL: Any minute, simple, single-celled form of life, especially one that
causes disease.
MICROBIOLOGICAL: Is a type of analysis in which a composite sample unacceptable.
MICROBODY: A small organelle, bounded by a single membrane and possessing a granular
interior. Peroxisomes and glyoxysomes are types of microbodies.
MICROCENTRIFUGE: A small plastic container that is used to store small amounts of liquid.
MICROEVOLUTION: A change in the gene pool of a population over a succession of generations.
MICROFILAMENT: Minute fibrous structure generally composed of actin found in the cytoplasm
of eukaryotic cells. They play a role in motion within cells.

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MICROFILTRATION: A low pressure membrane filtration process that removes suspended solids
and colloids generally larger than 0.1 micron diameter.
MICROORGANISMS: Very small animals and plants that are too small to be seen by the naked
eye and must be observed using a microscope. Microorganisms in water include algae, bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa. Algae growing in surface waters can cause off-taste and odor by
producing the chemicals MIB and geosmin. Certain types of bacteria, viruses, and protozoa can
cause disease in humans. Bacteria are the most common microorganisms found in treated
drinking water. The great majority of bacteria are not harmful. In fact, humans would not be able
to live without the bacteria that inhabit the intestines. However, certain types of bacteria called
coliform bacteria can signal the presence of possible drinking water contamination.
MICROSCOPE: An instrument which magnifies images either by using lenses in an optical system
to bend light (light microscope) or electromagnets to direct the movement of electrons (electron
microscope).
MICROTUBULE: A minute tubular structure found in centrioles, spindle apparati, cilia, flagella, and
other places in the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells. Microtubules play a role in movement and
maintenance of shape.
MICROVILLUS: Collectively, fine, fingerlike projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the
small intestine that increase its surface area.
MILLIGRAMS PER LITER: (mg/L) A common unit of measurement of the concentration of a
material in solution.
MILLILITER: One one-thousandth of a liter. A liter is a little more than a quart. A milliliter is about
two drops from an eye dropper.
MIMICRY: A phenomenon in which one species benefits by a superficial resemblance to an
unrelated species. A predator or species of prey may gain a significant advantage through mimicry.
MISCIBLE: Capable of being mixed together.
MISSENSE: (mutation) The most common type of mutation involving a base- pair substitution
within a gene that changes a codon, but the new codon makes sense, in that it still codes for an
amino acid.
MITOCHONDRIAL MATRIX: The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner
membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the Krebs cycle.
MITOCHONDRION: An organelle that occurs in eukaryotic cells and contains the enzymes of the
citric acid cycle, the respiratory chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. A mitochondrion is bounded
by a double membrane.
MITOSIS: A process of cell division in eukaryotic cells conventionally divided into the growth period
(interphase) and four stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. The stages
conserve chromosome number by equally allocating replicated chromosomes to each of the
daughter cells.
MIXED LIQUOR SUSPENDED SOLIDS: Suspended solids in the mixture of wastewater and
activated sludge undergoing aeration in the aeration basin.
MODEM SYNTHESIS: A comprehensive theory of evolution emphasizing natural selection,
gradualism, and populations as the fundamental units of evolutionary change; also called Neo-
Darwinism.
MOISTURE AND POTASSIUM PERMANGANATE: The combination of moisture and potassium
permanganate produces heat.
MOISTURE: If a material is hygroscopic, it must it be protected from water.
MOLARITY: A common measure of solute concentration, referring to the number of moles of solute
in 1 L of solution.
MOLD: A rapidly growing, asexually reproducing fungus.
MOLE: Abbreviated mol : a measurement of an amount of substance; a single mole contains
approximately 6.022×1023 units or entities .A mole of water contains 6.022×1023 H2O
molecules.
MOLE: The number of grams of a substance that equals its molecular weight in daltons and
contains Avogadro's number of molecules.
MOLECULAR FORMULA: A type of molecular notation indicating only the quantity of the
constituent atoms.

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MOLECULAR ORBITAL: Region where an electron can be found in a molecule (as opposed to
an atom).
MOLECULAR WEIGHT: The molecular mass (abbreviated Mr) of a substance, formerly also
called molecular weight and abbreviated as MW, is the mass of one molecule of that substance,
relative to the unified atomic mass unit u (equal to 1/12 the mass of one atom of carbon-12). This
is distinct from the relative molecular mass of a molecule, which is the ratio of the mass of that
molecule to 1/12 of the mass of carbon 12 and is a dimensionless number. Relative molecular
mass is abbreviated to Mr.
MOLECULE: Two or more atoms of one or more elements held together by ionic or covalent
chemical bonds. A chemically bonded number of atoms that are electrically neutral.
MOLTING: A process in arthropods in which the exoskeleton is shed at intervals to allow growth
by secretion of a larger exoskeleton.
MONERA: The kingdom of life forms that includes all of the bacteria.
MONOCLONAL ANTIBODY: A defensive protein produced by cells descended from a single cell;
an antibody that is secreted by a clone of cells and, consequently, is specific for a single antigenic
determinant.
MONOECIOUS: Referring to an organism having the capacity of producing both sperm and eggs.
MONOHYBRID CROSS: A breeding experiment that employs parental varieties differing in a single
character.
MONOMER: A small molecule, two or more of which can be combined to form oligomers
(consisting of a few monomers) or polymers (consisting of many monomers).
MONOPHYLETIC: A term used to describe any taxon derived from a single ancestral form that
gave rise to no species in other taxa.
MONOSACCHARIDE: A simple sugar; a monomer.
MONOZYGOTIC TWINS: Monozygotic twins are genetically identical, derived from the division
and autonomous development of a single zygote (fertilized egg).
MORPHOGENESIS: The development of body shape and organization during ontogeny.
MORPHOSPECIES: Species defined by their anatomical features.
MOSAIC EVOLUTION: The evolution of different features of an organism at different rates.
MOSAIC: A pattern of development, such as that of a mollusk, in which the early blastomeres each
give rise to a specific part of the embryo. In some animals, the fate of the blastomeres is established
in the zygote.
MOTOR NERVOUS SYSTEM: In vertebrates, the component of the peripheral nervous system
that transmits signals from the central nervous system to effector cells.
MOTTLING: High levels of fluoride may stain the teeth of humans.
MPF: M: phase promoting factor: A protein complex required for a cell to progress from late
interphase to mitosis; the active form consists of cyclin and cdc2, a protein kinase.
MUCOSA: Refers to the mucous tissue lining various tubular structures in the body.
MUD BALLS IN FILTER MEDIA: Is a possible result of an ineffective or inadequate filter
backwash.
MULLERIAN MIMICRY: A mutual mimicry by two unpalatable species.
MULTIGENE FAMILY: A collection of genes with similar or identical sequences, presumably of
common origin.
MUNICIPAL WASTE: The combined solid and liquid waste from residential, commercial and
industrial sources.
MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT (MWTP): Treatment works designed to treat
municipal wastewater.
MURIATIC ACID: An acid used to reduce pH and alkalinity. Also used to remove stain and scale.
MUST: This action, activity, or procedural step is required.
MUTAGEN: A chemical or physical agent that interacts with DNA and causes a mutation.
MUTAGENESIS: The creation of mutations.
MUTATION: A spontaneous or induced change in a gene's or chromosome's structure or number.
The resulting individual is termed a mutant.
MUTUALISM: A symbiotic relationship in which both the host and the symbiont benefit.
MYCELIUM: The densely branched network of hyphae in a fungus.

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MYCOBACTERIUM: Pleomorphic spherical or rod-shaped, frequently branching, no gram stain,
aerobic; commonly form yellow pigments; include Mycobacterium tuberculosis, cause of
tuberculosis.
MYCOPLASMA: Spherical, commonly forming branching chains, no gram stain, aerobic but can
live in certain anaerobic conditions; without cell walls yet structurally resistant to lysis; among
smallest of bacteria; named for superficial resemblance to fungal hyphae (myco-means “fungus’).
MYCOTOXIN: A toxin produced by a fungus.
MYELIN SHEATH: An insulating coat of cell membrane from Schwann cells that is interrupted by
nodes of Ranvier where saltatory conduction occurs.
MYOFIBRILS: Fibrils arranged in longitudinal bundles in muscle cells (fibers); composed of thin
filaments of actin and a regulatory protein and thick filaments of myosin.
MYOGLOBIN: An oxygen-storing, pigmented protein in muscle cells.
MYOSIN: A type of protein filament that interacts with actin filaments to cause cell movement, such
as contraction in muscle cells.

N
NAD+: Nicatinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized); a coenzyme present in all cells that assists
enzymes in transferring electrons during the redox reactions of metabolism.
NANO-FILTRATION: A specialty membrane filtration process that rejects solutes larger than
approximately one nanometer (10 angstroms) in size.
NANOMETER: A unit of measure (length). 1 nm is equal to 1 x 10: 9 m, or 1/1,000,000 mm.
NaOCl: Is the molecular formula of Sodium hypochlorite.
NaOH: Is the molecular formula of Sodium hydroxide.
NASCENT: Coming into existence; emerging.
NATURAL ORGANIC MATTER: Organic matter present in natural waters.
NEAT: Conditions with a liquid reagent or gas performed with no added solvent or co-solvent.
NEGATIVE CONTROL: See Method blank.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK: A primary mechanism of homeostasis, whereby a change in a
physiological variable that is being monitored triggers a response that counteracts the initial
fluctuation.
NEURAMINIDASE: A surface enzyme possessed by some influenza viruses which help the virus
penetrate the mucus layer protecting the respiratory epithelium and also plays a role in budding of
new virus particles from infected cells.
NEURON: A nerve cell; the fundamental unit of the nervous system, having structure and
properties that allow it to conduct signals by taking advantage of the electrical charge across its
cell membrane.
NEUROSECRETORY CELLS: Cells that receive signals from other nerve cells, but instead of
signaling to an adjacent nerve cell or muscle, release hormones into the blood stream.
NEUROTRANSMITTER: The chemical messenger released from the synaptic terminals of a
neuron at a chemical synapse that diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to and stimulates
the postsynaptic cell.
NEUTRAL VARIATION: Genetic diversity that confers no apparent selective advantage.
NEUTRALIZATION REACTIONS: Chemical reactions between acids and bases where water is
an end product.
NEUTRALIZATION: The chemical process that produces a solution that is neither acidic nor
alkaline. Usually with a pH between 6 and 8.
NEUTRINO: A particle that can travel at speeds close to the speed of light and are created as a
result of radioactive decay.
NEUTRON: An uncharged subatomic particle of about the same size and mass as a proton.
NH4+: The molecular formula of the Ammonium ion.
NITRATES: A dissolved form of nitrogen found in fertilizers and sewage by-products that may
leach into groundwater and other water sources. Nitrates may also occur naturally in some
waters. Over time, nitrates can accumulate in aquifers and contaminate groundwater.
NITROGEN AND PHOSPHORUS: Pairs of elements and major plant nutrients that cause algae
to grow.

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NITROGEN: Nitrogen is a nonmetal, with an electronegativity of 3.0. It has five electrons in its outer
shell and is therefore trivalent in most compounds. The triple bond in molecular nitrogen (N2) is
one of the strongest in nature. The resulting difficulty of converting (N2) into other compounds, and
the ease (and associated high energy release) of converting nitrogen compounds into elemental
N2, have dominated the role of nitrogen in both nature and human economic activities. At
atmospheric pressure molecular nitrogen condenses (liquefies) at 77 K (-195.8 °C) and freezes at
63 K (-210.0 °C) into the beta hexagonal close-packed crystal allotropic form. Below 35.4 K (-
237.6 °C) nitrogen assumes the alpha cubic crystal allotropic form. Liquid nitrogen, a fluid
resembling water, but with 80.8% of the density, is a common cryogen. Unstable allotropes of
nitrogen consisting of more than two nitrogen atoms have been produced in the laboratory, like N3
and N4.[1] Under extremely high pressures (1.1 million atm) and high temperatures (2000 K), as
produced under diamond anvil conditions, nitrogen polymerizes into the single bonded diamond
crystal structure, an allotrope nicknamed "nitrogen diamond."
NITROGEN-FIXING: Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; convert atmospheric nitrogen gas to
ammonium in soil; include Azotobacter, a common genus.
NO3-: The molecular formula of the Nitrate ion.
NOBLE GASES: Group 18 elements, those whose outer electron shell is filled.
NOMENCLATURE: The method of assigning names in the classification of organisms.
NON-CARBONATE HARDNESS: The portion of the total hardness in excess of the alkalinity.
NON-CARBONATE IONS: Water contains non-carbonate ions if it cannot be softened to a
desired level through the use of lime only.
NONCOMPETITIVE INHIBITOR: A substance that reduces the activity of an enzyme by binding
to a location remote from the active site, changing its conformation so that it no longer binds to the
substrate.
NONCYCLIC ELECTRON FLOW: A route of electron flow during the light reactions of
photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen; the net
electron flow is from water to NADP+.
NONCYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION: The production of ATP by noncyclic electron flow.
NONDISJUNCTION: An accident of meiosis or mitosis, in which both members of a pair of
homologous chromosomes or both sister chromatids fail to separate normally.
NON-METAL: An element which is not metallic.
NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION: Air pollution may leave contaminants on highway surfaces.
This non-point source pollution adversely impacts reservoir water and groundwater quality.
NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION: Air pollution may leave contaminants on highway surfaces.
This non-point source pollution adversely impacts reservoir water and groundwater quality.
NONPOLAR: Electrically symmetrical. For example, in many molecules with covalent bonds, the
electrons are shared equally; the poles are electrically neutral.
NONSENSE MUTATION: A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop
codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.
NON-TRANSIENT, NON-COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: A water system which supplies water
to 25 or more of the same people at least six months per year in places other than their
residences. Some examples are schools, factories, office buildings, and hospitals which have
their own water systems.
NORM OF REACTION: The range of phenotypic possibilities for a single genotype, as influenced
by the environment.
NORMALITY: It is the number of equivalent weights of solute per liter of solution. Normality
highlights the chemical nature of salts: in solution, salts dissociate into distinct reactive species
(ions such as H+, Fe3+, or Cl-). Normality accounts for any discrepancy between the
concentrations of the various ionic species in a solution. For example, in a salt such as MgCl2,
there are two moles of Cl- for every mole of Mg2+, so the concentration of Cl- as well as of Mg2+
is said to be 2 N (read: "two normal"). Further examples are given below. A normal is one gram
equivalent of a solute per liter of solution. The definition of a gram equivalent varies depending on
the type of chemical reaction that is discussed - it can refer to acids, bases, redox species, and
ions that will precipitate. It is critical to note that normality measures a single ion which takes part
in an overall solute. For example, one could determine the normality of hydroxide or sodium in an

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aqueous solution of sodium hydroxide, but the normality of sodium hydroxide itself has no
meaning. Nevertheless it is often used to describe solutions of acids or bases, in those cases it is
implied that the normality refers to the H+ or OH- ion. For example, 2 Normal sulfuric acid
(H2SO4), means that the normality of H+ ions is 2, or that the molarity of the sulfuric acid is 1.
Similarly for 1 Molar H3PO4 the normality is 3 as it contains three H+ ions.
NTNCWS: Non-transient non-community water system.
NTU (Nephelometric turbidity unit): A measure of the clarity or cloudiness of water.
NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY: Technique that exploits the magnetic
properties of certain nuclei, useful for identifying unknown compounds.
NTU: (Nephelometric turbidity unit): A measure of the clarity or cloudiness of water.
NUCLEAR: 1) (envelope) The surface, consisting of two layers of membrane, that encloses the
nucleus of eukaryotic cells. 2) (pore) An opening of the nuclear envelope which allows for the
movement of materials between the nucleus and surrounding cytoplasm.
NUCLEAR: Of or pertaining to the atomic nucleus.
NUCLEASE: This term refers to any enzyme that acts on nucleic acids, e.g., Dnase, Rnase,
endonuclease, etc.
NUCLEIC: (acid) A polymer composed of nucleotides that are joined by covalent bonds
(phosphodiester linkages) between the phosphate of one nucleotide and the sugar of the next
nucleotide.
NUCLELUS: A small, generally spherical body found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The
site of ribosomal RNA synthesis.
NUCLEOID: The region that harbors the chromosome of a prokaryotic cell. Unlike the eukaryotic
nucleus, it is not bounded by a membrane.
NUCLEOLUS (pl. nucleoli): A specialized structure in the nucleus, formed from various
chromosomes and active in the synthesis of ribosomes.
NUCLEOSIDE: An organic molecule consisting of a nitrogenous base joined to a five- carbon
sugar.
NUCLEOSOME: The basic, beadlike unit of DNA packaging in eukaryotes, consisting of a segment
of DNA wound around a protein core composed of two copies of each of four types of histone.
NUCLEOTIDE: The basic chemical unit (monomer) of a nucleic acid. A nucleotide in RNA consists
of one of four nitrogenous bases linked to ribose, which in turn is linked to phosphate. In DNA,
deoxyribose is present instead of ribose.
NUCLEUS: A membrane-bound organelle containing genetic material. Nuclei are a prominent
internal structure seen both in Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts. In Cryptosporidium
oocysts, there is one nucleus per sporozoite. One to four nuclei can be seen in Giardia cysts.
NUCLEUS: The membrane bound organelle of eukaryotic cells that contains the cell's genetic
material. Also the central region of an atom composed of protons and neutrons.
NUCLEUS: The center of an atom made up of neutrons and protons, with a net positive charge.
NULL: In the scientific method, the hypothesis which one attempts to falsify.
NUMBER DENSITY: A measure of concentration of countable objects (atoms, molecules, etc.) in
space; number per volume.

O
O3: The molecular formula of ozone.
OLIGOTROPHIC: A reservoir that is nutrient-poor and contains little plant or animal life. An
oligotrophic ecosystem or environment is one that offers little to sustain life. The term is commonly
utilized to describe bodies of water or soils with very low nutrient levels. It derives etymologically
from the Greek oligo (small, little, few) and trophe (nutrients, food). Oligotrophic environments are
of special interest for the alternative energy sources and survival strategies upon which life could
rely.
ONGOING PRECISION AND RECOVERY (OPR) STANDARD: A method blank spiked with
known quantities of analytes. The OPR is analyzed exactly like a sample. Its purpose is to assure
that the results produced by the laboratory remain within the limits specified in this method for
precision and recovery.
OOCYST AND CYST STOCK SUSPENSION: See Stock suspension.

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OOCYST: The encysted zygote of some sporozoa; e.g., Cryptosporidium. The oocyst is a phase
or form of the organism produced as a normal part of the life cycle of the organism. It is
characterized by a thick and environmentally resistant outer wall.
ORBITAL: May refer to either an atomic orbital or a molecular orbital.
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY: A part of chemistry concerned with organic compounds.
ORGANIC COMPOUND: Compounds that contain carbon.
ORGANIC MATTER: Substances containing carbon compounds, usually of animal or vegetable
origin.
ORGANIC PRECURSORS: Natural or man-made compounds with chemical structures based
upon carbon that, upon combination with chlorine, leading to trihalomethane formation.
ORGANIC: Relating to, or derived from, a living thing. A description of a substance that contains
carbon atoms linked together by carbon-carbon bonds.
OSMOSIS: Osmosis is the process by which water moves across a semi permeable membrane
from a low concentration solute to a high concentration solute to satisfy the pressure differences
caused by the solute.
OVER-RANGE PROTECTION DEVICES: Mechanical dampers, snubbers and an air cushion
chamber are examples of surging and over range protection devices.
OXIDE: An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom as well as at least
one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides. Oxides result when elements are
oxidized by oxygen in air. Combustion of hydrocarbons affords the two principal oxides of carbon,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. Even materials that are considered to be pure elements
often contain a coating of oxides. For example, aluminum foil has a thin skin of Al2O3 that
protects the foil from further corrosion.
OXIDIZING: The process of breaking down organic wastes into simpler elemental forms or by
products. Also used to separate combined chlorine and convert it into free chlorine.
OXYGEN DEFICIENT ENVIRONMENT: One of the most dangerous threats to an operator upon
entering a manhole.
OZONE DOES NOT PROVIDE A RESIDUAL: One of the major drawbacks to using ozone as a
disinfectant.
OZONE: Ozone or trioxygen (O3) is a triatomic molecule, consisting of three oxygen atoms. It is
an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic O2. Ground-level ozone is an air
pollutant with harmful effects on the respiratory systems of animals. Ozone in the upper
atmosphere filters potentially damaging ultraviolet light from reaching the Earth's surface. It is
present in low concentrations throughout the Earth's atmosphere. It has many industrial and
consumer applications. Ozone, the first allotrope of a chemical element to be recognized by
science, was proposed as a distinct chemical compound by Christian Friedrich Schönbein in
1840, who named it after the Greek word for smell (ozein), from the peculiar odor in lightning
storms. The formula for ozone, O3, was not determined until 1865 by Jacques-Louis Soret and
confirmed by Schönbein in 1867. Ozone is a powerful oxidizing agent, far better than dioxygen. It
is also unstable at high concentrations, decaying to ordinary diatomic oxygen (in about half an
hour in atmospheric conditions):2 O3 = 3 O2.

P
PAC: A disadvantage of using PAC is it is very abrasive and requires careful maintenance of
equipment. One precaution that should be taken in storing PAC is that bags of carbon should not
be stored near bags of HTH. Removes tastes and odors by adsorption only. Powered activated
carbon frequently used for taste and odor control because PAC is non-specific and removes a
broad range of compounds. Jar tests and threshold odor number testing determines the
application rate for powdered activated carbon. Powdered activated carbon, or PAC, commonly
used for in a water treatment plant for taste and odor control. Powdered activated carbon may be
used with some success in removing the precursors of THMs.
PARAMECIUM: Paramecia are a group of unicellular ciliate protozoa formerly known as slipper
animalcules from their slipper shape. They are commonly studied as a representative of the
ciliate group. Simple cilia cover the body which allows the cell to move with a synchronous
motion (like a caterpilla). There is also a deep oral groove containing inconspicuous compound

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oral cilia (as found in other peniculids) that is used to draw food inside. They generally feed upon
bacteria and other small cells. Osmoregulation is carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles,
which actively expel water absorbed by osmosis from their surroundings. Paramecia are
widespread in freshwater environments, and are especially common in scums. Paramecia are
attracted by acidic conditions. Certain single-celled eukaryotes, such as Paramecium, are
examples for exceptions to the universality of the genetic code (translation systems where a few
codons differ from the standard ones).
PARTS PER MILLION (PPM): A common unit of measure used to express the number of parts
of a substance contained within a million parts of a liquid, solid, or gas.
PASTEURIZATION: A process for killing pathogenic organisms by applying heat for a specific
period of time.
PATHOGENS: Disease-causing pathogens; waterborne pathogens A pathogen may contaminate
water and cause waterborne disease.
Pb: The chemical symbol of Lead.
PCE: abbr. perchloroethylene. Known also as perc or tetrachloroethylene, perchloroethylene is
a clear, colorless liquid with a distinctive, somewhat ether-like odor. It is non-flammable, having no
measurable flashpoint or flammable limits in air. Effective over a wide range of applications,
perchloroethylene is supported by closed loop transfer systems, stabilizers and employee exposure
monitoring.
PERKINESIS: The aggregation resulting from random thermal motion of fluid molecules.
pCi/L: Picocuries per liter A curie is the amount of radiation released by a set amount of a certain
compound. A picocurie is one quadrillionth of a curie.
PEAK DEMAND: The maximum momentary load placed on a water treatment plant, pumping
station or distribution system.
PEPTIDOGLYCAN: A polymer found in the cell walls of prokaryotes that consists of
polysaccharide and peptide chains in a strong molecular network. Also called mucopeptide,
murein.
PERKINESIS: The aggregation resulting from random thermal motion of fluid molecules.
PERMEATE: The term for water which has passed through the membrane of a reverse osmosis
unit.
PERMEATE: The term for water which has passed through the membrane of a reverse osmosis
unit. The liquid that passes through a membrane.
pH OF SATURATION: The ideal pH for perfect water balance in relation to a particular total
alkalinity level and a particular calcium hardness level, at a particular temperature. The pH where
the Langelier Index equals zero.
pH: A unit of measure which describes the degree of acidity or alkalinity of a solution. The pH
scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the mid-point or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid
side of the scale with 0 as the point of greatest acid activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic
(alkaline) side of the scale with 14 as the point of greatest basic activity. The term pH is derived
from “p”, the mathematical symbol of the negative logarithm, and “H”, the chemical symbol of
Hydrogen. The definition of pH is the negative logarithm of the Hydrogen ion activity. pH=-
log[H+].
PHENOL RED: Chemical reagent used for testing pH in the range of 6.8 - 8.4.
PHENOLPHTHALEIN/TOTAL ALKALINITY: The relationship between the alkalinity constituent’s
bicarbonate, carbonate, and hydroxide can be based on the P and T alkalinity measurement.
PHOSPHATE, NITRATE AND ORGANIC NITROGEN: Nutrients in a domestic water supply
reservoir may cause water quality problems if they occur in moderate or large quantities.
PHOTON: A carrier of electromagnetic radiation of all wavelength (such as gamma rays and radio
waves).
PHYSICAL CHEMICAL TREATMENT: Treatment processes that are non-biological in nature.
PHYSISORPTION: (Or physical adsorption) Is adsorption in which the forces involved are
intermolecular forces (van der Waals forces) of the same kind as those responsible for the
imperfection of real gases and the condensation of vapors, and which do not involve a significant
change in the electronic orbital patterns of the species involved. The term van der Waals
adsorption is synonymous with physical adsorption, but its use is not recommended.

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PICOCURIE: A unit of radioactivity. "Pico" is a metric prefix that means one one-millionth of one
one-millionth. A picocurie is one one-millionth of one one-millionth of a Curie. A Curie is that
quantity of any radioactive substance that undergoes 37 billion nuclear disintegrations per
second. Thus a picocurie is that quantity of any radioactive substance that undergoes 0.037
nuclear disintegrations per second.
PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE: See potentiometric surface.
PIN FLOC: Small flocculated particle size.
PLANKTON: The aggregate of passively floating, drifting, or somewhat motile organisms
occurring in a body of water, primarily comprising microscopic algae and protozoa.
PLASMA: State of matter similar to gas in which a certain portion of the particles are ionized.
PLUNGER: See Surge-block.
POINT OF ENTRY: POE.
POINT SOURCE DISCHARGE: A pipe, ditch, channel or other container from which pollutants
may be discharged.
POLLUTANT: A substance, organism or energy form present in amounts that impair or threaten
an ecosystem to the extent that its current or future uses are prevented.
POLLUTION: To make something unclean or impure. See Contaminated.
POLYMER: A type of chemical when combined with other types of coagulants aid in binding small
suspended particles to larger particles to help in the settling and filtering processes. Chemical
used for flocculation in dewatering. Also known as a "polyelectrolyte" which is a substance made
of giant molecules formed by the union of simple smaller molecules.
POLYPHOSPHATES: Chemicals that may be added to remove low levels of iron and
manganese.
POSITIVE CONTROL: See Ongoing precision and recovery standard.
POST TREATMENT: Treatment of finished water or wastewater to further enhance its quality.
POST-CHLORINE: Where the water is chlorinated to make sure it holds a residual in the
distribution system.
POST-CHLORINE: Where the water is chlorinated to make sure it holds a residual in the
distribution system.
POTABLE: Good water which is safe for drinking or cooking purposes. Non-Potable: A liquid or
water that is not approved for drinking.
POTENTIAL ENERGY: The energy that a body has by virtue of its position or state enabling it to
do work.
PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million.
PRE-CHLORINE: Where the raw water is dosed with a large concentration of chlorine.
PRECIPITATE: A solid that separates from a solution.
PRECIPTATION: The phenomenon that occurs when a substance held in solution passes out of
solution into a solid form.
PRELIMINARY TREATMENT: Treatment steps including comminution, screening, grit removal,
pre-aeration, and/or flow equalization that prepares wastewater influent for further treatment.
PRESIPATATE: Formation of a solid in a solution or inside another solid during a chemical
reaction or by diffusion in a solid.
PRESSURE FILTER: Filter unit enclosed in a vessel that may be operated under pressure.
PRESSURE HEAD: The height of a column of water capable of being maintained by pressure.
See also Total Head, Total Dynamic Head.
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT: Bourdon tube, Bellows gauge and Diaphragm are commonly
used to measure pressure in waterworks systems. A Bellows-type sensor reacts to a change in
pressure.
PRESSURE: Pressure is defined as force per unit area. It is usually more convenient to use
pressure rather than force to describe the influences upon fluid behavior. The standard unit for
pressure is the Pascal, which is a Newton per square meter. For an object sitting on a surface,
the force pressing on the surface is the weight of the object, but in different orientations it might
have a different area in contact with the surface and therefore exert a different pressure.
PREVENTION: To take action. Stop something before it happens.
PRIMARY CLARIFIER: Sedimentation basin that precedes secondary wastewater treatment.

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PRIMARY SLUDGE: Sludge produced in a primary waste treatment unit.
PRIMARY TREATMENT: Treatment steps including sedimentation and/or fine screening to
produce an effluent suitable for biological treatment.
PROCESS WASTEWATER: Wastewater generated during manufacture or production
processes.
PROCESS WATER: Water that is used for, or comes in contact with an end product or the
materials used in an end product.
PROPIONIC ACID: Rod-shaped, pleomorphic, gram-positive, anaerobic; ferment lactic acid;
fermentation produces holes in Swiss cheese from the production of carbon dioxide.
PROTIST: Any of a group of eukaryotic organisms belonging to the kingdom Protista according
to some widely used modern taxonomic systems. The protists include a variety of unicellular,
coenocytic, colonial, and multicellular organisms, such as the protozoans, slime molds, brown
algae, and red algae. A unicellular protoctist in taxonomic systems in which the protoctists are
considered to form a kingdom.
PROTOCTIST: Any of various unicellular eukaryotic organisms and their multicellular,
coenocytic, or colonial descendants that belong to the kingdom Protoctista according to some
taxonomic systems. The protoctists include the protozoans, slime molds, various algae, and other
groups. In many new classification systems, all protoctists are considered to be protists.
PROTON, NEUTRON AND ELECTRON: Are the 3 fundamental particles of an atom.
PROTON: A positive unit or subatomic particle that has a positive charge.
PROTONATION: The addition of a proton (H+) to an atom, molecule, or ion.
PROTOZOA: Microscopic animals that occur as single cells. Some protozoa can cause disease
in humans. Protozoa form cysts, which are specialized cells like eggs that are very resistant to
chlorine. Cysts can survive the disinfection process, then "hatch" into normal cells that can cause
disease. Protozoa must be removed from drinking water by filtration, because they cannot be
effectively killed by chlorine.
PSEUDOMONAD: Rod-shaped (straight or curved ) with polar flagella, gram-negative, aerobic;
can use up to 100 different compounds for carbon and energy.
PTFE: Polytetrafluoroethylene.
PUBLIC NOTIFICATION: An advisory that EPA requires a water system to distribute to affected
consumers when the system has violated MCLs or other regulations. The notice advises
consumers what precautions, if any, they should take to protect their health.
PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM (PWS): Any water system which provides water to at least 25 people
for at least 60 days annually. There are more than 170,000 PWSs providing water from wells,
rivers and other sources to about 250 million Americans. The others drink water from private
wells. There are differing standards for PWSs of different sizes and types.
PUMPING LIFT: The height to which water must be pumped or lifted to, feet of head.
PWS: 3 types of public water systems. Community water system, non-transient non-community
water system, transient non-community water system.

Q
QUANTA: It is the minimum amount of bundle of energy.
QUANTITATIVE TRANSFER: The process of transferring a solution from one container to
another using a pipette in which as much solution as possible is transferred, followed by rinsing of
the walls of the source container with a small volume of rinsing solution (e.g., reagent water,
buffer, etc.), followed by transfer of the rinsing solution, followed by a second rinse and transfer.
QUANTUM MECHANICS: The study of how atoms, molecules, subatomic particles, etc. behave
and are structured.
QUARKS: Elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter.
QUICKLIME: A calcium oxide material produced by calcining limestone to liberate carbon
dioxide, also called “calcined lime” or “pebble lime”, commonly used for pH adjustment. Chemical
formula is CaO.

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R
RADIATION: Energy in the form of waves or subatomic particles when there is a change from
high energy to low energy states.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY: The process of an unstable atomic nucleus losing energy by emitting
radiation.
RADIOCHEMICALS: (Or radioactive chemicals) Occur in natural waters. Naturally radioactive
ores are particularly common in the Southwestern United States, and some streams and wells
can have dangerously high levels of radioactivity. Total alpha and beta radioactivity and isotopes
of radium and strontium are the major tests performed for radiochemicals. The federal drinking
water standard for gross alpha radioactivity is set at 5 picocuries per liter.
RAW SEWAGE: Untreated wastewater and its contents.
RAW SLUDGE: Undigested sludge recently removed from a sedimentation basin.
RAW TURBIDITY: The turbidity of the water coming to the treatment plant from the raw water
source.
RAW WATER: Water that has not been treated in any way; it is generally considered to be unsafe
to drink.
REAGENT: A substance used in a chemical reaction to measure, detect, examine, or produce
other substances.
REAGENT WATER BLANK: see Method blank.
REAGENT WATER: Water demonstrated to be free from the analytes of interest and
potentially interfering substances at the method detection limit for the analyte.
REAGENT: A substance used in a chemical reaction to measure, detect, examine, or produce
other substances.
RECHARGE: The infiltration component of the hydrologic cycle. Often used in the context of
referring to: The infiltration of water back into an aquifer, resulting in the restoration of lost storage
and water levels which had been decreased due to pumping and/or natural discharges from the
aquifer.
RECLAIMED WATER: Wastewater that has been treated to a level that allows for its reuse for a
beneficial purpose.
RECLAMATION: The process of improving or restoring the condition of land or other material to a
better or more useful state.
RECORDER, FLOW: A flow recorder that measures flow is most likely to be located anywhere
in the plant where a flow must be measured and in a central location.
RECYCLING: The process by which recovered materials are transformed into new products.
RED WATER AND SLIME: Iron bacteria are undesirable in a water distribution system because
of red water and slime complaints.
REDOX POTENTIAL: Reduction potential (also known as redox potential, oxidation / reduction
potential or ORP) is the tendency of a chemical species to acquire electrons and thereby be
reduced. Each species has its own intrinsic reduction potential; the more positive the potential,
the greater the species' affinity for electrons and tendency to be reduced. In aqueous solutions,
the reduction potential is the tendency of the solution to either gain or lose electrons when it is
subject to change by introduction of a new species. A solution with a higher (more positive)
reduction potential than the new species will have a tendency to gain electrons from the new
species (i.e. to be reduced by oxidizing the new species) and a solution with a lower (more
negative) reduction potential will have a tendency to lose electrons to the new species (i.e. to be
oxidized by reducing the new species).
RELATIVE STANDARD DEVIATION (RSD): The standard deviation divided by the mean times
100.
RELAY LOGIC: The name of a popular method of automatically controlling a pump, valve,
chemical feeder, and other devices.
RESERVOIR: An impoundment used to store water.
RESIDENCE TIME: The period of time that a volume of liquid remains in a tank or system.
RESIDUAL DISINFECTION PROTECTION: A required level of disinfectant that remains in
treated water to ensure disinfection protection and prevent recontamination throughout the
distribution system (i.e., pipes).

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RESPIRATION: Intake of oxygen and discharge of carbon dioxide as a result of biological
oxidation.
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE: Settled activated sludge that is returned to mix with raw or
primary settled wastewater.
REVERSE OSMOSIS: Forces water through membranes that contain holes so small that even
salts cannot pass through. Reverse osmosis removes microorganisms, organic chemicals, and
inorganic chemicals, producing very pure water. For some people, drinking highly purified water
exclusively can upset the natural balance of salts in the body. Reverse osmosis units require
regular maintenance or they can become a health hazard.
RICKETTSIA: Spherical or rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; cause Rocky Mountain spotted
fever and typhus; closely related to Agrobacterium, a common gall-causing plant bacterium.
ROBERT HOOKE: Coined the term "cell" to describe the structures he saw while examining a
piece of cork using a microscope.
ROTAMETER: The name of transparent tube with a tapered bore containing a ball is often used
to measure the rate of flow of a gas or liquid.
ROTARY DRUM SCREEN: Cylindrical screen used to remove floatable and suspended solids.
ROTIFER: Rotifers get their name (derived from Greek and meaning "wheel-bearer"; they have
also been called wheel animalcules) from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated tufts
around the mouth that in motion resemble a wheel. These create a current that sweeps food into
the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called the mastax) containing a
tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia also pull the animal, when unattached,
through the water. Most free-living forms have pairs of posterior toes to anchor themselves while
feeding. Rotifers have bilateral symmetry and a variety of different shapes. There is a well-
developed cuticle which may be thick and rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible,
giving the animal a worm-like shape; such rotifers are respectively called loricate and illoricate.
RSD: See Relative standard deviation.

S
S- BLOCK ELEMENTS: Group 1 and 2 elements (alkali and alkaline metals), which includes
Hydrogen and Helium.
S.T.P.: Standard temperature and pressure standard temperature and pressure the
temperature of 0°C and pressure of 1 atmosphere, usually taken as the conditions when stating
properties of gases.
SAFE YIELD: A possible consequence when the “safe yield” of a well is exceeded and water
continues to be pumped from a well, is land subsidence around the well will occur. Safe yield
refers to a long-term balance between the water that is naturally and artificially recharged to an
aquifer and the groundwater that is pumped out. When more water is removed than is recharged,
the aquifer is described as being out of safe yield. When the water level in the aquifer then drops,
we are said to be mining groundwater.
SALINE SOLUTION: General term for NaCl in water.
SALT BRIDGE: Devices used to connection reduction with oxidation half-cells in an
electrochemical cell.
SALTS ARE ABSENT: Is a strange characteristic that is unique to water vapor in the atmosphere.
SALTS: Ionic compounds composed of anions and cations.
SAMPLE: The water that is analyzed for the presence of EPA-regulated drinking water
contaminants. Depending on the regulation, EPA requires water systems and states to take
samples from source water, from water leaving the treatment facility, or from the taps of selected
consumers. Sampling Location: A location where soil or cuttings samples may be readily and
accurately collected.
SANITARY SURVEY: Persons trained in public health engineering and the epidemiology of
waterborne diseases should conduct the sanitary survey. The importance of a detailed sanitary
survey of a new water source cannot be overemphasized. An on-site review of the water sources,
facilities, equipment, operation, and maintenance of a public water systems for the purpose of
evaluating the adequacy of the facilities for producing and distributing safe drinking water. The

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purpose of a non-regulatory sanitary survey is to identify possible biological and chemical
pollutants which might affect a water supply.
SANITIZER: A disinfectant or chemical which disinfects (kills bacteria), kills algae and oxidizes
organic matter.
SATURATED ZONE: Where an unconfined aquifer becomes saturated beneath the capillary
fringe.
SATURATION INDEX: See Langelier's Index.
SATURATOR: A device which produces a fluoride solution for the fluoride process. Crystal-grade
types of sodium fluoride should be fed with a saturator. Overfeeding must be prevented to protect
public health when using a fluoridation system.
SCADA: A remote method of monitoring pumps and equipment. 130 degrees F is the maximum
temperature that transmitting equipment is able to with stand. If the level controller may be set
with too close a tolerance 45 could be the cause of a control system that is frequently turning a
pump on and off.
SCALE: Crust of calcium carbonate, the result of unbalanced water. Hard insoluble minerals
deposited (usually calcium bicarbonate) which forms on pool and spa surfaces and clog filters,
heaters and pumps. Scale is caused by high calcium hardness and/or high pH. The regular use of
stain prevention chemicals can prevent scale.
SCHMUTZDECKE: German, "grime or filth cover", sometimes spelt schmutzedecke) is a
complex biological layer formed on the surface of a slow sand filter. The schmutzdecke is the
layer that provides the effective purification in potable water treatment, the underlying sand
providing the support medium for this biological treatment layer. The composition of any
particular schmutzdecke varies, but will typically consist of a gelatinous biofilm matrix of bacteria,
fungi, protozoa, rotifera and a range of aquatic insect larvae. As a schmutzdecke ages, more
algae tend to develop, and larger aquatic organisms may be present including some bryozoan,
snails and annelid worms.
SCHRODINGER EQUATION: Quantum state equation which represents the behavior of an
election around an atom.
SCREENINGS PRESS: A mechanical press used to compact and/or dewater material removed
from mechanical screening equipment.
SCROLL AND BASKET: The two basic types of centrifuges used in water treatment.
SCRUBBER: A device used to removal particulates or pollutant gases from combustion or
chemical process exhaust streams.
SCUM: Floatable materials found on the surface of primary and secondary settling tanks
consisting of food wastes, grease, fats, paper, foam, and similar matter.
SEAL: For wells: to abandon a well by filling up the well with approved seal material including
cementing with grout from a required depth to the land surface.
SECONDARY CLARIFIER: A clarifier following a secondary treatment process, designed for
gravity removal of suspended matter.
SECONDARY DRINKING WATER STANDARDS: Non-enforceable federal guidelines regarding
cosmetic effects (such as tooth or skin discoloration) or aesthetic effects (such as taste, odor, or
color) of drinking water.
SECONDARY SLUDGE: The sludge from the secondary clarifier in a wastewater treatment
plant.
SECONDARY TREATMENT: The treatment of wastewater through biological oxidation after
primary treatment.
SEDIMENT: Grains of soil, sand, gravel, or rock deposited by and generated by water movement.
SEDIMENTATION BASIN: A quiescent tank used to remove suspended solids by gravity settling.
Also called clarifiers or settling tanks, they are usually equipped with a motor driven rake
mechanism to collect settled sludge and move it to a central discharge point.
SEDIMENTATION BASIN: Where the thickest and greatest concentration of sludge will be found.
Twice a year sedimentation tanks should be drained and cleaned if the sludge buildup interferes
with the treatment process.

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SEDIMENTATION: The process of suspended solid particles settling out (going to the bottom of
the vessel) in water. The removal of settleable suspended solids from water or wastewater by
gravity in a quiescent basin or clarifier.
SEMICONDUCTOR: An electrically conductive solid that is between a conductor and an
insulator.
SENSOR: A float and cable system are commonly found instruments that may be used as a
sensor to control the level of liquid in a tank or basin.
SEPTIC: Condition characterized by bacterial decomposition under anaerobic conditions.
SESSILE: Botany. attached by the base, or without any distinct projecting support, as a leaf
issuing directly from the stem. Zoology. permanently attached; not freely moving.
SETTLEABILITY: The tendency of suspended solids to settle.
SETTLEABLE SOLIDS: That portion of suspended solids which are of a sufficient size and weight
to settle to the bottom of an Imhoff cone in one hour.
SETTLED SLUDGE VOLUME: Volume of settled sludge measured at predetermined time
increments for use in process control calculations.
SETTLED SOLIDS: Solids that have been removed from the raw water by the coagulation and
settling processes.
SEWAGE: Liquid or waterborne wastes polluted or fouled from households, commercial or
industrial operations, along with any surface water, storm water or groundwater infiltration.
SEWER GAS: A gas mixture produced by anaerobic decomposition of organic matter usually
containing high percentages of methane and hydrogen sulfide.
SHEATHED: Filamentous, gram-negative, aerobic; “swarmer” (colonizing) cells form and break
out of a sheath; sometimes coated with metals from environment.
SHOCK LOAD: A sudden hydraulic or organic load to a treatment plant, also descriptive of a
change in the material being treated.
SHOCK: Also known as superchlorination or break point chlorination. Ridding a water of organic
waste through oxidization by the addition of significant quantities of a halogen.
SHORT-CIRCUITING: Short Circuiting is a condition that occurs in tanks or basins when some of
the water travels faster than the rest of the flowing water. This is usually undesirable since it may
result in shorter contact, reaction or settling times in comparison with the presumed detention
times.
SHOULD: This action, activity, or procedural step is suggested but not required.
SINGLE BOND: Sharing of one pair of electrons.
SINGLE PHASE POWER: The type of power used for lighting systems, small motors, appliances,
portable power tools and in homes.
SINUSOID: A curve described by the equation y = a sin x, the ordinate being proportional to the
sine of the abscissa.
SINUSOIDAL: Mathematics. Of or pertaining to a sinusoid. Having a magnitude that varies as
the sine of an independent variable: a sinusoidal current.
SLOP OIL: Separator skimmings and tramp oil generated during refinery startup, shutdown or
abnormal operation.
SLUDGE BASINS: After cleaning sludge basins and before returning the tanks into service the
tanks should be inspected, repaired if necessary, and disinfected.
SLUDGE BLANKET: The accumulated sludge suspended in a clarifier or other enclosed body of
water.
SLUDGE DEWATERING: The removal of a portion or majority of the water contained in sludge
by means of a filter press, centrifuge or other mechanism.
SLUDGE DRYING BED: A closed area consisting of sand or other porous material upon which
sludge is dewatered by gravity drainage and evaporation.
SLUDGE REDUCTION: Organic polymers are used to reduce the quantity of sludge. If a plant
produces a large volume of sludge, the sludge could be dewatered, thickened, or conditioned to
decrease the volume of sludge. Turbidity of source water, dosage, and type of coagulant used
are the most important factors which determine the amount of sludge produced in a treatment of
water.

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SLUDGE: Accumulated and concentrated solids generated within a treatment process that have
not undergone a stabilization process.
SLURRY: A mixture of a solid and a liquid that facilitates the transfer of the solid into a treatment
solution.
SMALL WATER SYSTEM: 3,300 or fewer persons.
SOC: A common way for a synthetic organic chemical such as dioxin to be introduced to a
surface water supply is from an industrial discharge, agricultural drainage, or a spill.
SOC: Synthetic organic chemical. A common way for a synthetic organic chemical such as
dioxin to be introduced to a surface water supply is from an industrial discharge, agricultural
drainage, or a spill.
SODA ASH: Chemical used to raise pH and total alkalinity (sodium carbonate).
SODIUM BICARBONATE: Commonly used to increase alkalinity of water and stabilize pH.
SODIUM BISULFATE: Chemical used to lower pH and total alkalinity (dry acid).
SODIUM HYDROXIDE: Also known as caustic soda, a by-product chlorine generation and often
used to raise pH.
SOFTENING WATER: When the water has a low alkalinity it is advantageous to use soda ash
instead of caustic soda for softening water.
SOFTENING: The process that removes the ions which cause hardness in water.
SOL: A suspension of solid particles in liquid. Artificial examples include sol-gels.
SOLAR DRYING BEDS OR LAGOONS: Are shallow, small-volume storage pond where sludge is
concentrated and stored for an extended periods.
SOLAR DRYING BEDS, CENTRIFUGES AND FILTER PRESSES: Are procedures used in the
dewatering of sludge.
SOLDER: A fusible alloy used to join metallic parts.
SOLID: One of the states of matter, where the molecules are packed close together, there is a
resistance of movement/deformation and volume change; see Young's modulus.
SOLID WASTE: Garbage, refuse, sludge and other discarded material resulting from community
activities or commercial or industrial operations.
SOLID, LIQUID AND VAPOR: 3 forms of matter.
SOLUBILITY: The amount of a substance that can dissolve in a solution under a given set of
conditions.
SOLUTE: The part of the solution that is mixed into the solvent (NaCl in saline water).
SOLUTION: Homogeneous mixture made up of multiple substances. It is made up of solutes and
solvents.
SOLVENT: The part of the solution that dissolves the solute (H2O in saline water).
SPADNS: The lab reagent called SPADNS solution is used in performing the Fluoride test.
SPADNS: The lab reagent called SPADNS solution is used in performing the Fluoride test.
SPECTROSCOPY: Study of radiation and matter, such as X:ray absorption and emission
spectroscopy.
SPEED OF LIGHT: The speed of anything that has zero rest mass (Energyrest = mc² where m is
the mass and c is the speed of light).
SPIKING SUSPENSION: Diluted stock suspension containing the organism(s) of interest
at a concentration appropriate for spiking samples.
SPIRILLUM: Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; include Bdellovibrio, predatory on
other bacteria.
SPIRIT OF HARTSHORN: A colorless, pungent, suffocating, aqueous solution of about 28.5
percent ammonia gas: used chiefly as a detergent, for removing stains and extracting certain
vegetable coloring agents, and in the manufacture of ammonium salts.
SPIROCHETE: Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, mostly anaerobic; common in moist
environments, from mammalian gums to coastal mudflats; complex internal structures
convey rapid movement; include Treponemapallidum, cause of syphilis.
SPLIT FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM: This type of control system is to control the flow to each filter
influent which is divided by a weir.
SPOROZOITE: A motile, infective stage of certain protozoans; e.g., Cryptosporidium. There
are four sporozoites in each Cryptosporidium oocyst, and they are generally banana-shaped.

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SPRAY BOTTLE OF AMMONIA: An operator should use ammonia to test for a chlorine leak
around a valve or pipe. You will see white smoke if there is a leak.
SPRING PRESSURE: Is what maintains contact between the two surfaces of a mechanical seal.
STABILIZATION POND: A large shallow basin used for wastewater treatment by natural
processes involving the use of algae and bacteria to accomplish biological oxidation of organic
matter.
STANDARD CONDITIONS FOR TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE or SATP : A standardization
used in order compare experimental results (25 °C and 100.000 kPa).
STANDPIPE: A water tank that is taller than it is wide. Should not be found in low point.
STATE OF MATTER: Matter having a homogeneous, macroscopic phase; gas, plasma, liquid,
and solid are the most well-known (in increasing concentration).
STERILIZED GLASSWARE: The only type of glassware that should be used in testing for
coliform bacteria.
STOCK SUSPENSION: A concentrated suspension containing the organism(s) of interest that is
obtained from a source that will attest to the host source, purity, authenticity, and viability of the
organism(s).
STORAGE TANKS: Three types of water usage that determine the volume of a storage tank are
fire suppression storage, equalization storage, and emergency storage. Equalization storage is
the volume of water needed to supply the system for periods when demand exceeds supply.
Generally, a water storage tank’s interior coating (paint) protects the interior about 3-5 years.
STUFFING BOX: That portion of the pump that houses the packing or mechanical seal.
SUBATOMIC PARTICLES: Particles that are smaller than an atom; examples are protons,
neutrons and electrons.
SUBLIMATION: A phase transition from solid to limewater fuel or gas.
SUBNATANT: Liquid remaining beneath the surface of floating solids.
SUBSTANCE: Material with definite chemical composition.
SUCCESSION: Transition in the species composition of a biological community, often following
ecological disturbance of the community; the establishment of a biological community in an area
virtually barren of life.
SULFATE- AND SULFUR- REDUCING: Commonly rod-shaped, mostly gram-negative,
anaerobic; include Desulfovibrio, ecologically important in marshes.
SULFATE: Will readily dissolve in water to form an anion. Sulfate is a substance that occurs
naturally in drinking water. Health concerns regarding sulfate in drinking water have been raised
because of reports that diarrhea may be associated with the ingestion of water containing high
levels of sulfate. Of particular concern are groups within the general population that may be at
greater risk from the laxative effects of sulfate when they experience an abrupt change from
drinking water with low sulfate concentrations to drinking water with high sulfate concentrations.
SULFIDE: The term sulfide refers to several types of chemical compounds containing sulfur in its
lowest oxidation number of -2. Formally, "sulfide" is the dianion, S2-, which exists in strongly
alkaline aqueous solutions formed from H2S or alkali metal salts such as Li2S, Na2S, and K2S.
Sulfide is exceptionally basic and, with a pKa > 14, it does not exist in appreciable concentrations
even in highly alkaline water, being undetectable at pH < ~15 (8 M NaOH). Instead, sulfide
combines with electrons in hydrogen to form HS, which is variously called hydrogen sulfide ion,
hydrosulfide ion, sulfhydryl ion, or bisulfide ion. At still lower pH's (<7), HS- converts to H2S,
hydrogen sulfide. Thus, the exact sulfur species obtained upon dissolving sulfide salts depends
on the pH of the final solution. Aqueous solutions of transition metals cations react with sulfide
sources (H2S, NaSH, Na2S) to precipitate solid sulfides. Such inorganic sulfides typically have
very low solubility in water and many are related to minerals. One famous example is the bright
yellow species CdS or "cadmium yellow". The black tarnish formed on sterling silver is Ag2S.
Such species are sometimes referred to as salts. In fact, the bonding in transition metal sulfides is
highly covalent, which gives rise to their semiconductor properties, which in turn is related to the
practical applications of many sulfide materials.
SULFUR- AND IRON- OXIDIZING: Commonly rod-shaped, frequently with polar flagella, gram-
negative, mostly anaerobic; most live in neutral (nonacidic) environment.
SUPERNATANT: The liquid layer which forms above the sludge in a settling basin.

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SURFACE SEAL: The upper portion of a wells construction where surface contaminants are
adequately prevented from entering the well, normally consisting of surface casing and neat
cement grout.
SURFACE WATER SOURCES: Surface water sources such as a river or lake are primarily the
result of Runoff.
SURFACE WATER: Water that is open to the atmosphere and subject to surface runoff;
generally, lakes, streams, rivers.
SURFACTANT: Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-gas
interface. They also reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water by adsorbing at the
liquid-liquid interface. Many surfactants can also assemble in the bulk solution into aggregates.
Examples of such aggregates are vesicles and micelles. The concentration at which surfactants
begin to form micelles is known as the critical micelle concentration or CMC. When micelles form
in water, their tails form a core that can encapsulate an oil droplet, and their (ionic/polar) heads
form an outer shell that maintains favorable contact with water. When surfactants assemble in oil,
the aggregate is referred to as a reverse micelle. In a reverse micelle, the heads are in the core
and the tails maintain favorable contact with oil. Surfactants are also often classified into four
primary groups; anionic, cationic, non-ionic, and zwitterionic (dual charge).
SURFACTANT: Surfactants reduce the surface tension of water by adsorbing at the liquid-gas
interface. They also reduce the interfacial tension between oil and water by adsorbing at the liquid-
liquid interface. Many surfactants can also assemble in the bulk solution into aggregates. Examples
of such aggregates are vesicles and micelles. The concentration at which surfactants begin to form
micelles is known as the critical micelle concentration or CMC. When micelles form in water, their
tails form a core that can encapsulate an oil droplet, and their (ionic/polar) heads form an outer
shell that maintains favorable contact with water. When surfactants assemble in oil, the aggregate
is referred to as a reverse micelle. In a reverse micelle, the heads are in the core and the tails
maintain favorable contact with oil. Surfactants are also often classified into four primary groups;
anionic, cationic, non-ionic, and zwitterionic (dual charge).
SUSCEPTIBILITY WAIVER: A waiver that is granted based upon the results of a vulnerability
assessment.
SUSPENDED SOLIDS: Solids captured by filtration through a 0.45 micron filter membrane.
SYNCHRONY: Simultaneous occurrence; synchronism.

T
TALC: A mineral representing the one on the Mohs Scale and composed of hydrated magnesium
silicate with the chemical formula H2Mg3(SiO3)4 or Mg3Si4O10(OH)2.
TASTE AND ODORS: The primary purpose to use potassium permanganate in water treatment is
to control taste and odors. Anaerobic water undesirable for drinking water purposes because of
color and odor problems are more likely to occur under these conditions. Taste and odor
problems in the water may happen if sludge and other debris are allowed to accumulate in a
water treatment plant.
TCE, trichloroethylene: A solvent and degreaser used for many purposes; for example dry
cleaning, it is a common groundwater contaminant. Trichloroethylene is a colorless liquid which is
used as a solvent for cleaning metal parts. Drinking or breathing high levels of trichloroethylene
may cause nervous system effects, liver and lung damage, abnormal heartbeat, coma, and
possibly death. Trichloroethylene has been found in at least 852 of the 1,430 National Priorities
List sites identified by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).
TDS: Ion exchange is an effective treatment process used to remove iron and manganese in a
water supply. This process is ideal as long as the water does not contain a large amount of TDS.
When determining the total dissolved solids, a sample should be filtered before being poured into
an evaporating dish and dried. Demineralization may be necessary in a treatment process if the
water has a very high value Total Dissolved Solids.
TDS-TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS: An expression for the combined content of all inorganic and
organic substances contained in a liquid which are present in a molecular, ionized or micro-
granular (colloidal sol) suspended form. Generally, the operational definition is that the solids
(often abbreviated TDS) must be small enough to survive filtration through a sieve size of two

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micrometers. Total dissolved solids are normally only discussed for freshwater systems, since
salinity comprises some of the ions constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of
TDS is in the study of water quality for streams, rivers and lakes, although TDS is generally
considered not as a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated with health effects),
but it is rather used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an
aggregate indicator of presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants. Ion exchange is an
effective treatment process used to remove iron and manganese in a water supply. This process
is ideal as long as the water does not contain a large amount of TDS. When determining the total
dissolved solids, a sample should be filtered before being poured into an evaporating dish and
dried. Demineralization may be necessary in a treatment process if the water has a very high
value Total Dissolved Solids.
TDS-TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS: An expression for the combined content of all inorganic and
organic substances contained in a liquid which are present in a molecular, ionized or micro-granular
(colloidal sol) suspended form. Generally, the operational definition is that the solids (often
abbreviated TDS) must be small enough to survive filtration through a sieve size of two
micrometers. Total dissolved solids are normally only discussed for freshwater systems, since
salinity comprises some of the ions constituting the definition of TDS. The principal application of
TDS is in the study of water quality for streams, rivers and lakes, although TDS is generally
considered not as a primary pollutant (e.g. it is not deemed to be associated with health effects),
but it is rather used as an indication of aesthetic characteristics of drinking water and as an
aggregate indicator of presence of a broad array of chemical contaminants.
TELEMETERING: The use of a transmission line with remote signaling to monitor a pumping
station or motors. Can be used to accomplish accurate and reliable remote monitoring and control
over a long distribution system.
TEMPERATURE SAMPLE: This test should be performed immediately in the field, this is a grab
sample.
TEMPERATURE SAMPLE: This test should be performed immediately in the field, a grab
sample.
TEMPERATURE: The average energy of microscopic motions of particles.
TERTIARY TREATMENT: The use of physical, chemical, or biological means to improve
secondary wastewater effluent quality.
THE RATE DECREASES: In general, when the temperature decreases, the chemical reaction
rate decreases also.
THEORY: A model describing the nature of a phenomenon.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY: A property of a material to conduct heat (often noted as ).
THERMOCHEMISTRY: The study of absorption/release of heat within a chemical reaction.
THERMODYNAMIC STABILITY: When a system is in its lowest energy state with its environment
(equilibrium).
THERMODYNAMICS: The study of the effects of changing temperature, volume or pressure (or
work, heat, and energy) on a macroscopic scale.
THERMOMETER: Device that measures the average energy of a system.
THICKENING, CONDITIONING AND DEWATERING: Common processes that are utilized to
reduce the volume of sludge.
THICKENING: A procedure used to increase the solids content of sludge by removing a portion
of the liquid.
THOMAS MALTHUS: Formulated the concept that population growth proceeds at a geometric
rate.
TIME FOR TURBIDITY BREAKTHROUGH AND MAXIMUM HEADLOSS: Are the two factors
which determine whether or not a change in filter media size should be made.
TITRATION: A method of testing by adding a reagent of known strength to a water sample until a
specific color change indicates the completion of the reaction.
TITRATION: The process of titrating one solution with another, also called volumetric analysis. A
method of testing by adding a reagent of known strength to a water sample until a specific color
change indicates the completion of the reaction.
TITRIMETRIC: Chemistry. Using or obtained by titration. Titrimetrically, adverb.

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TOROID: A surface generated by the revolution of any closed plane curve or contour about an
axis lying in its plane. The solid enclosed by such a surface.
TORR: A unit to measure pressure (1 Torr is equivalent to 133.322 Pa or 1.3158×10−3 atm).
TOTAL ALKALINITY: A measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water which indicates its
buffering ability, i.e. measure of its resistance to a change in pH. Generally, the higher the total
alkalinity, the greater the resistance to pH change.
TOTAL COLIFORM: Total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli are all indicators of drinking water
quality. The total coliform group is a large collection of different kinds of bacteria. Fecal coliforms
are types of total coliform that mostly exist in feces. E. coli is a sub-group of fecal coliform. When
a water sample is sent to a lab, it is tested for total coliform. If total coliform is present, the sample
will also be tested for either fecal coliform or E. coli, depending on the lab testing method.
TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS (TDS): The accumulated total of all solids that might be dissolved in
water. The weight per unit volume of all volatile and non-volatile solids dissolved in a water or
wastewater after a sample has been filtered to remove colloidal and suspended solids.
TOTAL DYNAMIC HEAD: The pressure (psi) or equivalent feet of water, required for a pump to lift
water to its point of storage overcoming elevation head, friction loss, line pressure, drawdown and
pumping lift.
TOTAL SOLIDS: The sum of dissolved and suspended solids in a water or wastewater.
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS: The measure of particulate matter suspended in a sample of water
or wastewater.
TOXIC: Capable of causing an adverse effect on biological tissue following physical contact or
absorption.
TRANSIENT, NON-COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: TNCWS A water system which provides
water in a place such as a gas station or campground where people do not remain for long
periods of time. These systems do not have to test or treat their water for contaminants which
pose long-term health risks because fewer than 25 people drink the water over a long period.
They still must test their water for microbes and several chemicals. A Transient Non-community
Water System: Is not required to sample for VOC’s.
TRANSITION METAL: Elements that have incomplete d sub-shells, but also may be referred to
as the d-block elements.
TRANSURANIC ELEMENT: Element with atomic number greater than 92; none of the
transuranic elements are stable.
TREATABILITY STUDY: A study in which a waste is subjected to a treatment process to determine
treatment and/or to determine the treatment efficiency or optimal process conditions for treatment.
TREATED WATER: Disinfected and/or filtered water served to water system customers. It must
meet or surpass all drinking water standards to be considered safe to drink.
TRIHALOMETHANES (THM): Four separate compounds including chloroform,
dichlorobromomethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. The most common class of
disinfection by-products created when chemical disinfectants react with organic matter in water
during the disinfection process. See Disinfectant Byproducts.
TRIHALOMETHANES (THM): Four separate compounds including chloroform,
dichlorobromomethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform. The most common class of
disinfection by-products created when chemical disinfectants react with organic matter in water
during the disinfection process. See Disinfectant Byproducts.
TRIPLE BOND: The sharing of three pairs of electrons within a covalent bond (example N2).
TRIPLE POINT: The place where temperature and pressure of three phases are the same (Water
has a special phase diagram).
TUBE SETTLERS: This modification of the conventional process contains many metal tubes that
are placed in the sedimentation basin, or clarifier. These tubes are approximately 1 inch deep and
36 inches long, split-hexagonal shape and installed at an angle of 60 degrees or less. These
tubes provide for a very large surface area upon which particles may settle as the water flows
upward. The slope of the tubes facilitates gravity settling of the solids to the bottom of the basin,
where they can be collected and removed. The large surface settling area also means that
adequate clarification can be obtained with detention times of 15 minutes or less. As with
conventional treatment, this sedimentation step is followed by filtration through mixed media.

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TUBERCLES: The creation of this condition is of the most concern regarding corrosive water
effects on a water system. Tubercles are formed due to joining dissimilar metals, causing electro-
chemical reactions. Like iron to copper pipe. We have all seen these little rust mounds inside cast
iron pipe.
TUNDALL EFFECT: The effect of light scattering by colloidal (mixture where one substance is
dispersed evenly through another) or suspended particles.
TURBIDIMETER: Monitoring the filter effluent turbidity on a continuous basis with an in-line
instrument is a recommended practice. Turbidimeter is best suited to perform this measurement.
TURBIDITY: A measure of the cloudiness of water caused by suspended particles. A qualitative
measurement of water clarity which results from suspended matter that scatters or otherwise
interferes with the passage of light through the water.

U
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: In the United States, this agency responsible
for setting drinking water standards and for ensuring their enforcement. This agency sets federal
regulations which all state and local agencies must enforce.
ULTRAFILTRATION: A low pressure membrane filtration process which separates solutes up to
0.1 micron size range.
UN NUMBER: A four digit code used to note hazardous and flammable substances.
UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE: Knowing the location of a particle makes the momentum uncertain,
while knowing the momentum of a particle makes the location uncertain.
UNCERTAINTY: A characteristic that any measurement that involves estimation of any amount
cannot be exactly reproducible.
UNDER PRESSURE IN STEEL CONTAINERS: After chlorine gas is manufactured, it is primarily
transported in steel containers.
UNIT CELL: The smallest repeating unit of a lattice.
UNIT FACTOR: Statements used in converting between units.
UNIT FILTER RUN VOLUME (UFRV): One of the most popular ways to compare filter runs. This
technique is the best way to compare water treatment filter runs.
UNIVERSAL OR IDEAL GAS CONSTANT: Proportionality constant in the ideal gas law (0.08206
Lꞏatm/(Kꞏmol)).
UP FLOW CLARIFIER: Clarifier where flocculated water flows upward through a sludge blanket to
obtain floc removal by contact with flocculated solids in the blanket.

V
VALENCE BOND THEORY: A theory explaining the chemical bonding within molecules by
discussing valencies, the number of chemical bonds formed by an atom.
VALENCE ELECTRON: The outermost electrons of an atom, which are located in electron shells.
VAN DER WAALS FORCE: One of the forces (attraction/repulsion) between molecules.
VAN’T HOFF FACTOR: Ratio of moles of particles in solution to moles of solute dissolved.
VAPOR PRESSURE: Pressure of vapor over a liquid at equilibrium.
VAPOR: The gaseous phase of a material that is in the solid or liquid state at standard temperature
and pressure.
VAPOR: When a substance is below the critical temperature while in the gas phase.
VAPORIZATION: Phase change from liquid to gas.
VELOCITY HEAD: The vertical distance a liquid must fall to acquire the velocity with which it
flows through the piping system. For a given quantity of flow, the velocity head will vary indirectly
as the pipe diameter varies.
VELOCITY HEAD: The vertical distance a liquid must fall to acquire the velocity with which it
flows through the piping system. For a given quantity of flow, the velocity head will vary indirectly
as the pipe diameter varies.
VENTURI: If water flows through a pipeline at a high velocity, the pressure in the pipeline is
reduced. Velocities can be increased to a point that a partial vacuum is created.

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VIBRIO: Rod- or comma-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; commonly with a single flagellum;
include Vibrio cholerae, cause of cholera, and luminescent forms symbiotic with deep-water fishes
and squids.
VIRION: A complete viral particle, consisting of RNA or DNA surrounded by a protein shell and
constituting the infective form of a virus.
VIRUSES: Very small disease-causing microorganisms that are too small to be seen even with
microscopes. Viruses cannot multiply or produce disease outside of a living cell.
VISCOSITY: The resistance of a liquid to flow (oil).
VITRIFICATION: Vitrification is a process of converting a material into a glass-like amorphous solid
that is free from any crystalline structure, either by the quick removal or addition of heat, or by
mixing with an additive. Solidification of a vitreous solid occurs at the glass transition temperature
(which is lower than melting temperature, Tm, due to super cooling). When the starting material is
solid, vitrification usually involves heating the substances to very high temperatures. Many
ceramics are produced in such a manner. Vitrification may also occur naturally when lightning
strikes sand, where the extreme and immediate heat can create hollow, branching rootlike
structures of glass, called fulgurite. When applied to whiteware ceramics, vitreous means the
material has an extremely low permeability to liquids, often but not always water, when determined
by a specified test regime. The microstructure of whiteware ceramics frequently contain both
amorphous and crystalline phases.
VOC WAIVER: The longest term VOC waiver that a public water system using groundwater could
receive is 9 years.
VOID: An opening, gap, or space within rock or sedimentary formations formed at the time of origin
or deposition.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs): Solvents used as degreasers or cleaning agents.
Improper disposal of VOCs can lead to contamination of natural waters. VOCs tend to evaporate
very easily. This characteristic gives VOCs very distinct chemical odors like gasoline, kerosene,
lighter fluid, or dry cleaning fluid. Some VOCs are suspected cancer-causing agents. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapor
pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere. A wide range
of carbon-based molecules, such as aldehydes, ketones, and other light hydrocarbons are VOCs.
The term often is used in a legal or regulatory context and in such cases the precise definition is a
matter of law. These definitions can be contradictory and may contain "loopholes"; e.g. exceptions,
exemptions, and exclusions. The United States Environmental Protection Agency defines a VOC
as any organic compound that participates in a photoreaction; others believe this definition is very
broad and vague as organics that are not volatile in the sense that they vaporize under normal
conditions can be considered volatile by this EPA definition. The term may refer both to well
characterized organic compounds and to mixtures of variable composition.
VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS: (VOCs) Solvents used as degreasers or cleaning agents.
Improper disposal of VOCs can lead to contamination of natural waters. VOCs tend to evaporate
very easily. This characteristic gives VOCs very distinct chemical odors like gasoline, kerosene,
lighter fluid, or dry cleaning fluid. Some VOCs are suspected cancer-causing agents. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapor
pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere. A wide
range of carbon-based molecules, such as aldehydes, ketones, and other light hydrocarbons are
VOCs. The term often is used in a legal or regulatory context and in such cases the precise
definition is a matter of law. These definitions can be contradictory and may contain "loopholes";
e.g. exceptions, exemptions, and exclusions. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
defines a VOC as any organic compound that participates in a photoreaction; others believe this
definition is very broad and vague as organics that are not volatile in the sense that they vaporize
under normal conditions can be considered volatile by this EPA definition. The term may refer
both to well characterized organic compounds and to mixtures of variable composition.
VOLATILE: A substance that evaporates or vaporizes at a relatively low temperature.
VOLT: One joule of work per coulomb - the unit of electrical potential transferred.
VOLTAGE: Voltage (sometimes also called electric or electrical tension) is the difference of
electrical potential between two points of an electrical or electronic circuit, expressed in volts.[1] It

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measures the potential energy of an electric field to cause an electric current in an electrical
conductor. Depending on the difference of electrical potential it is called extra low voltage, low
voltage, high voltage or extra high voltage. Specifically Voltage is equal to energy per unit charge.
VOLTAGE: Voltage (sometimes also called electric or electrical tension) is the difference of
electrical potential between two points of an electrical or electronic circuit, expressed in volts. It
measures the potential energy of an electric field to cause an electric current in an electrical
conductor. Depending on the difference of electrical potential it is called extra low voltage, low
voltage, high voltage or extra high voltage. Specifically Voltage is equal to energy per unit charge.
VOLTIMETER: Instrument that measures the cell potential.
VOLUMETERIC ANALYSIS: See titration.
VOLUTE: The spiral-shaped casing surrounding a pump impeller that collects the liquid discharge
by the impeller.
VORTEX: The helical swirling of water moving towards a pump.
VORTICELLA: Vorticella is a genus of protozoa, with over 100 known species. They are stalked
inverted bell-shaped ciliates, placed among the peritrichs. Each cell has a separate stalk anchored
onto the substrate, which contains a contracile fibril called a myoneme. When stimulated this
shortens, causing the stalk to coil like a spring. Reproduction is by budding, where the cell
undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the stalk. Vorticella mainly lives in
freshwater ponds and streams - generally anywhere protists are plentiful. Other genera such as
Carchesium resemble Vorticella but are branched or colonial.
VULNERABILITY ASSESSMENT: An evaluation of drinking water source quality and its
vulnerability to contamination by pathogens and toxic chemicals.

W
WAIVERS: Monitoring waivers for nitrate and nitrite are prohibited.
WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE: Excess activated sludge that is discharged from an activated
sludge treatment process.
WASTEWATER: Liquid or waterborne wastes polluted or fouled from households, commercial or
industrial operations, along with any surface water, storm water or groundwater infiltration.
WATER H2O: A chemical substance, a major part of cells and Earth, and covalently bonded.
WATER HAMMER: A surge in a pipeline resulting from the rapid increase or decrease in water
flow. Water hammer exerts tremendous force on a system and can be highly destructive.
WATER PURVEYOR: The individuals or organization responsible to help provide, supply, and
furnish quality water to a community.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA: Comprised of both numeric and narrative criteria. Numeric criteria
are scientifically derived ambient concentrations developed by EPA or States for various
pollutants of concern to protect human health and aquatic life. Narrative criteria are statements
that describe the desired water quality goal.
WATER QUALITY CRITERIA: Comprised of both numeric and narrative criteria. Numeric criteria
are scientifically derived ambient concentrations developed by EPA or States for various pollutants
of concern to protect human health and aquatic life. Narrative criteria are statements that describe
the desired water quality goal.
WATER QUALITY STANDARD: A statute or regulation that consists of the beneficial designated
use or uses of a waterbody, the numeric and narrative water quality criteria that are necessary to
protect the use or uses of that particular waterbody, and an antidegradation statement.
WATER QUALITY: The 4 broad categories of water quality are: Physical, chemical, biological,
radiological. Pathogens are disease causing organisms such as bacteria and viruses. A positive
bacteriological sample indicates the presence of bacteriological contamination. Source water
monitoring for lead and copper be performed when a public water system exceeds an action level
for lead of copper.
WATER RECLAMATION: The restoration of wastewater to a state that will allow its beneficial
reuse.
WATER VAPOR: A characteristic that is unique to water vapor in the atmosphere is that water
does not contain any salts.

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WATERBORNE DISEASE: A disease, caused by a virus, bacterium, protozoan, or other
microorganism, capable of being transmitted by water (e.g., typhoid fever, cholera, amoebic
dysentery, gastroenteritis).
WATERSHED: An area that drains all of its water to a particular water course or body of water.
The land area from which water drains into a stream, river, or reservoir.
WAVE FUNCTION: A function describing the electron's position in a three-dimensional space.
Weathered: The existence of rock or formation in a chemically or physically broken down or
decomposed state. Weathered material is in an unstable state.
WHOLE EFFLUENT TOXICITY: The total toxic effect of an effluent measured directly with a
toxicity test.
WORK: The amount of force over distance and is in terms of joules (energy).
WPCF: Water Pollution Control Facility
WTP: Water Treatment Plant
WWTP: Wastewater Treatment Plant

X
X-RAY DIFFRACTION: A method for establishing structures of crystalline solids using singe
wavelength X-rays and looking at diffraction pattern.
X-RAY PHOTOELECTRON SPECTROSCOPY: A spectroscopic technique to measure
composition of a material.
X-RAY: Form of ionizing, electromagnetic radiation, between gamma and UV rays.

Y
YIELD: The amount of product produced during a chemical reaction.

Z
ZERO DISCHARGE: A facility that discharges no liquid effluent to the environment.
ZONE MELTING: A way to remove impurities from an element by melting it and slowly travel
down an ingot (cast).
ZWITTERION: Is a chemical compound whose net charge is zero and hence is electrically
neutral. But there are some positive and negative charges in it, due to the formal charge, owing to
the partial charges of its constituent atoms.

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Common EPA Definitions
Larger Glossary and detailed Laboratory Terms and Procedures in the rear.

The following are terms that will be found in this course, especially in the
waterborne disease area and laboratory/sampling chapters.

As used in 40 CFR 141, the term:

Best available technology or BAT means the best technology, treatment techniques, or
other means which the Administrator finds, after examination for efficacy under field
conditions and not solely under laboratory conditions, are available (taking cost into
consideration). For the purposes of setting MCLs for synthetic organic chemicals, any BAT
must be at least as effective as granular activated carbon.

Community water system is a public water system which serves at least 15 service
connections used by year-round residents, or regularly serves at least 25 year-round
residents.

Compliance cycle is the nine-year calendar year cycle during which public water systems
must monitor. Each compliance cycle consists of three three-year compliance periods.

Compliance period is a three-year calendar year period within a compliance cycle. Each
compliance cycle has three three-year compliance periods.

Contaminant is any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance or matter in

water.

Maximum contaminant level is the maximum permissible level of a contaminant in water

which is delivered to any user of a public water system.

Maximum contaminant level goal or MCLG is the maximum level of a contaminant in

drinking water at which no known or anticipated adverse effect on the health of persons
would occur, and which allows an adequate margin of safety. Maximum contaminant level
goals are non-enforceable health goals.

Non-transient non-community water system or NTNCWS is a public water system that

is not a community water system and that regularly serves at least 25 of the same persons
over 6 months per year.

Point-of-entry treatment device (POE) is a treatment device applied to the drinking

water entering a house or building for the purpose of reducing contaminants in the drinking
water distributed throughout the house or building.

Point-of-use treatment device (POU) is a treatment device applied to a single tap used
for the purpose of reducing contaminants in drinking water at that one tap.

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Public water system is a system for the provision to the public of water for human
consumption through pipes or, after August 5, 1998, other constructed conveyances, if
such system has at least fifteen service connections or regularly serves an average of at
least twenty-five individuals daily at least 60 days out of the year. Such term includes: any
collection, treatment, storage, and distribution facilities under control of the operator of
such system and used primarily in connection with such system; and any collection or
pretreatment storage facilities not under such control which are used primarily in
connection with such system. Such term does not include any "special irrigation district."

A public water system is either a "community water system" or a "noncommunity water

system."

State means the agency of the State or Tribal government which has jurisdiction over
public water systems. During any period when a State or Tribal government does not have
primary enforcement responsibility pursuant to section 1413 of the Act, the term "State"
means the Regional Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.

Surface water means all water which is open to the atmosphere and subject to surface
runoff.

Microbes - Basic definitions, more detailed information in the next section.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally not harmful.
However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result of a problem
with the treatment system or the pipes which distribute water, and indicates that the water
may be contaminated with germs that can cause disease.

Fecal Coliform and E coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human or animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause short-
term effects, such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms.

Turbidity has no health effects. However, turbidity can interfere with disinfection and
provide a medium for microbial growth. Turbidity may indicate the presence of disease
causing organisms. These organisms include bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can
cause symptoms such as nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and associated headaches.

Cryptosporidium is a parasite that enters lakes and rivers through sewage and animal
waste. It causes cryptosporidiosis, a mild gastrointestinal disease. However, the disease
can be severe or fatal for people with severely weakened immune systems. The EPA and
CDC have prepared advice for those with severely compromised immune systems who
are concerned about Cryptosporidium.

Giardia lamblia is a parasite that enters lakes and rivers through sewage and animal
waste. It causes gastrointestinal illness (i.e., diarrhea, vomiting, and cramps).

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Common Water Quality and Sampling Statements
These statements will be more explained in the following chapters.
1. What are the correct procedures to follow in collecting bacteriological
samples?
Use a sterile plastic or glass bottle. Sodium thiosulfate should be added to neutralize the
chorine residual. Refrigerate the sample to 4o C. The regulations call for a minimum of
five samples for the month from any system that has positive sample results. Small
systems that take only one sample per month have to take four (4) repeats when they get
a total coliform positive test result. If any system has to take repeat samples, it must also
take a minimum of five (5) routine samples the following month. Small systems that
normally take less than 5 samples/month will have to increase the number to 5 samples.
They can return to normal sampling schedules the following month if no repeats are
required.

2. What are the proper sampling techniques for microbiological sampling?

Proper sampling techniques are extremely important in obtaining accurate water quality
information. An improperly taken coliform sample may indicate bacteriological
contamination of your water when the water is actually safe. You can avoid the cost of
additional testing by using good sampling procedures. Carefully follow these steps in
taking a sample for bacteriological testing:
 Select the sampling point. The sampling point must be a faucet from which water
is commonly taken for public use.
 The sampling point should be a non-swivel faucet.
 Remove any aerator or screen and flush.
 It should not be a faucet that leaks, permitting water to run over the outside of the
faucet. Leaking faucets can promote bacterial growth.
 If an outside faucet must be used, disconnect any hoses or other attachments
and be sure to flush the line thoroughly.
 Do not use fire hydrants as sampling points. Do not dip the bottle in reservoirs,
spring boxes or storage tanks in order to collect the sample.

3. What do the following abbreviations stand for and what do they mean: gpm,
MGD, TTHM, psi, HAA, NTU, and mg/L.
Gallons per minute- Million Gallons a Day - Total Trihalomethanes – Pounds Per Square
Inch –Haloacetic acids - Nephelometric turbidity unit -Milligrams Per Liter

4. What are the relationship between mg/L and ppm; ug/L and ppb?
Milligram per liter: Milligram per liter of substance and part per million are equals
amounts in water. While you can easily convert between micrograms/liter and
milligrams/liter, and between PPM and PPB, it’s not so easy to convert between the
different types of units such as milligrams/liter to PPM.

To convert micrograms per liter to milligrams per liter, divide by 1000.

To convert to PPM, you would first need to know the density of the substance, and the
density of what the substance is in.

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5. Ug/L: Represents the concentration of something in water or soil. One ppb
represents one microgram of something per liter of water (ug/l), or one microgram of
something per kilogram of soil (ug/kg).

Parts per million (ppm) or Milligrams per liter (mg/l) - one part per million corresponds to
one minute in two years or a single penny in $10,000.

Parts per billion (ppb) or Micrograms per liter - one part per billion corresponds to one
minute in 2,000 years, or a single penny in $10,000,000.

Parts per trillion (ppt) or Nanograms per liter (nanograms/l) - one part per trillion
corresponds to one minute in 2,000,000 years, or a single penny in $10,000,000,000.

6. What do the following terms represent in reference to water quality.

Total coliform: The coliform family has been divided into two groups. Results may
come back as either total coliform positive (TC positive) or fecal coliform positive, or (FC
positive or E. coli positive.) Total coliform positive means that no human coliform are
present.

7. Fecal Coliform: Fecal coliform positive indicates the presence of E. coli, which
means there is a greater chance of pathogens being present. The laboratory tests for
coliform include the MPN method, the Membrane Filter test, the Colilert test, and the
presence-absence test.

8. Presence-absence Test: Presence-Absence Broth is used for the detection of

coliform bacteria in water treatment plants or distribution systems using the presence-
absence coliform test.

9. Physical Characteristics of Water: A characteristic of water defined by the

temperature, turbidity, color, taste, and odor of the water.

10. Point-of-entry sample (POE): A type of water sample taken after treatment and
before reaching the first consumer.

11. Acute Health Effect: An immediate (i.e. within hours or days) effect that may result
from exposure to certain drinking water contaminants (e.g., pathogens).

12. Non-acute violation: If the MCL is exceeded and none of the positive results
indicated a presence of Fecal Coliform, a Tier 2 violation has occurred. This level of
violation used to be called a non-acute violation.

13. Routine Sample: Samples collected on a routine basis to monitor for contamination.
Collection should be in accordance with an approved sampling plan.

This course contains EPA’s federal rule requirements. Please be aware that each state
implements drinking water regulations that may be more stringent than EPA’s
regulations. Check with your state environmental agency for more information.

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14. Repeat Sample: Short answer… Samples collected following a ‘coliform present’
routine sample. The number of repeat samples to be collected is based on the number of
routine samples you normally collect. Long Answer. Anytime a microbiological sample
result comes back positive, indicating the presence of total or fecal coliform/ E.coli, repeat
samples must be taken. Three repeats are usually required. One must be taken at the site
of the positive sample. The two samples must be taken upstream and downstream of the
original site (within five service connections). These repeat samples must be taken within
24 hours of notification of positive results. They must be identified as a Repeat Sample on
the sample form. Repeat samples may be required to be sealed with a red evidentiary
seal tape. The tape must cover the cap and extend down the sides of the bottle. The
sample forms must also include the reference number for the positive sample.

There is an important exception to the three repeat samples rule. The regulations also
state that when repeats are taken the minimum number of samples is raised to five for the
month. A system that collects just one sample a month must collect four repeat samples,
when the sample is positive, in order to have five samples as required.

Whenever a system has to take repeat samples, a minimum of five routine samples must
also be submitted the following month. This is only an issue for systems that normally turn
in four or fewer samples each month. If the five samples are negative the system can
return to its normal sampling schedule the next month.

Small systems that have fewer than four sampling sites have a problem complying with
the “upstream and downstream” aspects of the repeat sampling requirements. In this case,
samples should be taken at as many separate sites as possible and then wait a minimum
of 2 hours before resampling enough sites to get the required number of samples. Repeat
sample with red seal tape.

15. Treatment technique: An enforceable procedure or level of technical performance

which public water systems must follow to ensure control of a contaminant.

16. Action level: The level of lead or copper which, if exceeded, triggers treatment or
other requirements that a water system must follow.

17. What does the membrane filter test analyze with regards to bacteriological
sampling?
Membrane Filter Technique: A standard test used for measuring coliform numbers
(quantity) in water is the membrane filter technique. This technique involves filtering a
known volume of water through a special sterile filter. These filters are made of
nitrocellulose acetate and polycarbonate, are 150 μm thick, and have 0.45 μm diameter
pores. A grid pattern is printed on these filter disks in order to facilitate colony counting.
When the water sample is filtered, bacteria (larger than 0.45 μm) in the sample are trapped
on the surface of the filter. The filter is then carefully removed, placed in a sterile petri
plate on a pad saturated with a liquid medium, and incubated for 20-24 hours at 37°C.

One assumes that each bacterium trapped on the filter will then grow into a separate
colony. By counting the colonies one can directly determine the number of bacteria in the
water sample that was filtered. The broth medium usually employed in detecting total
coliforms is M-Endo Broth MF. Total coliform colonies will be pink to dark red in color and
will appear to have a golden green color.

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18. What do the following terms mean in relation to drinking water quality:
disinfection, pathogenic, toxic, pH, aesthetic, culinary and potable.
Disinfection: The chemical process of killing or inactivating most microorganisms in
water. See also Sterilization.

19. Pathogenic: Organisms or bugs that cause disease. These include bacteria, viruses,
cysts and anything capable of causing disease in humans, like cryptosporidiosis, typhoid,
cholera and so on. There are other organisms that do not create disease, these are called
non-pathogenic organisms.

20. Toxic: Stuff that will kill you. A substance which is poisonous to living organisms.

21. pH: A measure of the acidity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being
the mid point or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the scale with 0 as the
point of greatest acid activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of the
scale with 14 as the point of greatest basic activity. For example, the acidity of a sample
with a pH of 5 is ten times greater than that of a sample with a pH of 6. A difference of 2
units, from 6 to 4, would mean that the acidity is one hundred times greater, and so on.
Normal rain has a pH of 5.6 – slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in
the earth's atmosphere by the rain.

22. Aesthetic: Attractive or appealing water or things in water that will not make you sick
but may appear to change the water’s color or taste.

23. Culinary: Having to do with cooking food. Potable water is often called culinary water.

24. Potable: Water that is free of objectionable pollution, contamination, or infective

agents. Generally speaking, we serve only potable water and not palatable water.
Palatable is pleasant tasting water.

25. What is hardness in water and what chemicals cause it?

Hardness: Water that contains high amounts of dissolved minerals, specifically calcium
and magnesium. Ion Exchange: A method of water softening where hardness causing
ions are exchanged with sodium ions; also effective in removing many inorganic
contaminants such as nitrates, copper, and lead; and treating aesthetic water problems.

26. What is Escherichia Coliform and what does it indicate in relation to drinking
water?
E. coli is a sub-group of the fecal coliform group. Most E. coli bacteria are harmless and
are found in great quantities in the intestines of people and warm-blooded animals. Some
strains, however, can cause illness. The presence of E. coli in a drinking water sample
almost always indicates recent fecal contamination meaning there is a greater risk that
pathogens are present.

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Total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli are all indicators of drinking water quality. The
total coliform group is a large collection of different kinds of bacteria. Fecal coliforms are
types of total coliform that mostly exist in feces. E. coli is a sub-group of fecal coliform.
When a water sample is sent to a lab, it is tested for total coliform. If total coliform is
present, the sample will also be tested for either fecal coliform or E. coli, depending on the
lab testing method.

27. What problems are associated with Hydrogen Sulfide in the water?
Hydrogen sulfide is a gas which, when dissolved in water, gives it a “rotten egg” odor.
Chlorination will remove this gas from the water but the effectiveness of the chlorine for
disinfection is lessened.

28. When Hydrogen sulfide reacts with chlorine, it produces Sulfuric acid and
elemental Sulfur: It is therefore recommended that aeration be applied prior to the
addition of chlorine for the most effective disinfection.

29. Why is it important to know what the turbidity of the water is when using
chlorine? To be careful not to overdose with chlorine or properly dose with chlorine.

30. What is the log removal for Cryptosporidium?

The LT1ESWTR extends further this necessary protection from Cryptosporidium to
communities of fewer than 10,000 persons. Today's rule for the first time establishes
Cryptosporidium control requirements for systems serving less than 10,000 persons by
requiring a minimum 2-log removal for Cryptosporidium.

The rule also strengthens filter performance requirements to ensure 2-log Cryptosporidium
removal, establishes individual filter monitoring to minimize poor performance in individual
units, includes Cryptosporidium in the definition of GWUDI, and explicitly considers
unfiltered system watershed control provisions. The rule also reflects a commitment to the
importance of maintaining existing levels of microbial protection in public water systems
as plants take steps to comply with newly applicable DBP standards.

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31. What is the log removal?
This log-reduction terminology was developed by engineers as a way to express levels of
decreased biological contamination in water by factors of 10 that could be easily converted
to percent reduction. The most commonly used logarithmic base is 10 because it is
compatible with our base-10 decimal system. The log of 10 in the base 10 logarithmic
system is 1 and the log of 100 is 2, with the log of 1000 being 3, etc. A 1-log reduction is
nine out of 10 and would be equivalent to a 90 percent reduction. A 2-log reduction would
be 99 out of 100 or 99 percent reduction and a 3-log reduction would be 999 out of 1000
or 99.9 percent reduction. A 99.99 percent reduction would be called a 4-log reduction.

32. What are the turbidity requirements for Direct and Conventional filtration
plants?
For conventional and direct filtration systems (including those systems utilizing in-line
filtration), the turbidity level of representative samples of a system's filtered water
(measured every four hours) must be less than or equal to 0.3 NTU in at least 95 percent
of the measurements taken each month. The turbidity level of representative samples of
a system's filtered water must not exceed 1 NTU at any time. Conventional filtration is
defined as a series of processes including coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation, and
filtration resulting in substantial particulate removal. Direct filtration is defined as a series
of processes including coagulation and filtration but excluding sedimentation resulting in
substantial particle removal.

33. What are chloramines, how are they formed, and do they have any beneficial
use?
Chloramines: Ammonia and Chlorine are combined. Cl2NH3 Yes, limited use and this
chemical will create less THMS than chlorine alone. Chloramine is a disinfectant used to
treat drinking water. It is formed by mixing chlorine with ammonia. Although it is a weaker
disinfectant than chlorine, it is more stable and extends disinfectant benefits throughout a
water utility's distribution system (a system of pipes water is delivered to homes through).
Some water systems use chloramine as a secondary disinfectant to maintain a disinfectant
residual throughout the distribution system so that drinking water remains safe as it travels
from the treatment facility to the customer.

Chloramine has been used by water systems for almost 90 years, and its use is closely
regulated. Since chloramine is not as reactive as chlorine, it forms fewer disinfection
byproducts.

Some disinfection byproducts, such as the trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids
(HAAs), may have adverse health effects and are closely regulated. Because a chloramine
residual is more stable and longer lasting than free chlorine, it provides better protection
against bacterial regrowth in systems with large storage tanks and dead-end water mains.
Chloramine, like chlorine, is effective in controlling biofilm, which is a coating in the pipe
caused by bacteria. Controlling biofilm also tends to reduce coliform bacteria
concentrations and biofilm-induced corrosion of pipes.

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Waterborne Microorganisms and Bacteria Appendix
This section will give a close-up and short explanation of the major
microorganisms found in water and in wastewater.

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Protozoa Section

The diverse assemblage of organisms that carry out all of their life functions within the
confines of a single, complex eukaryotic cell are called protozoa.

Paramecium, Euglena, and Amoeba are well-known examples of these major groups of
organisms. Some protozoa are more closely related to animals, others to plants, and still
others are relatively unique. Although it is not appropriate to group them together into a
single taxonomic category, the research tools used to study any unicellular organism are
usually the same, and the field of protozoology has been created to carry out this research.

The unicellular photosynthetic protozoa are sometimes also called algae and are
addressed elsewhere. This report considers the status of our knowledge of heterotrophic
protozoa (protozoa that cannot produce their own food).
Free-living Protozoa
Protozoans are found in all moist habitats within the United States, but we know little about
their specific geographic distribution. Because of their small size, production of resistant
cysts, and ease of distribution from one place to another, many species appear to be
cosmopolitan and may be collected in similar microhabitats worldwide (Cairns and
Ruthven 1972). Other species may have relatively narrow limits to their distribution.

Marine ciliates inhabit interstices of sediment and beach sands, surfaces, deep sea and
cold Antarctic environments, planktonic habitats, and the algal mats and detritus of
estuaries and wetlands.

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Protozoa

Protozoa are around 10–50 micrometer, but can grow up to 1 mm and can easily be seen
under a microscope. Protozoa exist throughout aqueous environments and soil. Protozoa
occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators, they prey upon unicellular or filamentous
algae, bacteria, and microfungi.

Protozoa play a role both as herbivores and as consumers in the decomposer link of the
food chain. Protozoa also play a vital role in controlling bacteria populations and biomass.
As components of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food source for
microinvertebrates. Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of bacterial and
algal production to successive trophic levels is important. Protozoa such as the malaria
parasites (Plasmodium spp.), trypanosomes and leishmania are also important as
parasites and symbionts of multicellular animals.

Most protozoa exist in 5 stages of life which are in the form of trophozoites and cysts. As
cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures
and harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for a
period of time.

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Being a cyst enables parasitic species to survive outside of the host, and allows their
transmission from one host to another. When protozoa are in the form of trophozoites
(Greek, tropho=to nourish), they actively feed and grow.

The process by which the protozoa takes its cyst form is called encystation, while the
process of transforming back into trophozoite is called excystation.

Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce
sexually, some asexually, and some both (e.g. Coccidia). An individual protozoan is
hermaphroditic.

Classification
Protozoa were commonly grouped in the kingdom of Protista together with the plant-like
algae and fungus-like water molds and slime molds. In the 21st-century systematics,
protozoans, along with ciliates, mastigophorans, and apicomplexans, are arranged as
animal-like protists. However, protozoans are neither Animalia nor Metazoa (with the
possible exception of the enigmatic, moldy Myxozoa).

Sub-groups
Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of their means of locomotion,
although this is no longer believed to represent genuine relationships:
* Flagellates (e.g. Giardia lambia)
* Amoeboids (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica)
* Sporozoans (e.g. Plasmodium knowlesi)
* Apicomplexa
* Myxozoa
* Microsporidia
* Ciliates (e.g. Balantidium coli)

There are many ways that infectious diseases can spread. Pathogens usually have
specific routes by which they are transmitted, and these routes may depend on the type
of cells and tissue that a particular agent targets. For example, because cold viruses infect
the respiratory tract, they are dispersed into the air via coughing and sneezing.

Once in the air, the viruses can infect another person who is unlucky enough to inhale air
containing the virus particles.

Agents vary greatly in their stability in the environment. Some viruses may survive for only
a few minutes outside of a host, while some spore-forming bacteria are extremely durable
and may survive in a dormant state for a decade or more.

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Eukaryote
Eukaryotes are organisms with complex cells, in which the genetic material is organized
into membrane-bound nuclei. They include the animals, plants, and fungi, which are
mostly multicellular, as well as various other groups called protists, many of which are
unicellular. In contrast, other organisms such as bacteria lack nuclei and other complex
cell structures, and are called prokaryotes. The eukaryotes share a common origin, and
are often treated formally as a super kingdom, empire, or domain. The name comes from
the Greek eus or true and karyon or nut, referring to the nucleus.

What are Protists?

 They are eukaryotes because they all have a nucleus.

 Most have mitochondria although some have later lost theirs. Mitochondria were
derived from aerobic alpha-proteobacteria (prokaryotes) that once lived within their
cells.

 Many have chloroplasts with which they carry on photosynthesis. Chloroplasts

were derived from photosynthetic cyanobacteria (also prokaryotes) living within
their cells.

Eukaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotes, typically with a thousand
times their volumes. They have a variety of internal membranes and structures, called
organelles, and a cytoskeleton composed of microtubules and microfilaments, which plays
an important role in defining the cell's organization.

Eukaryotic DNA is divided into several bundles called chromosomes, which are separated
by a microtubular spindle during nuclear division. In addition to asexual cell division, most
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eukaryotes have some process of sexual reproduction via cell fusion, which is not found
among prokaryotes.

Eukaryotic cells include a variety of membrane-bound structures, collectively referred to

as the endomembrane system. Simple compartments, called vesicles or vacuoles, can
form by budding off of other membranes. Many cells ingest food and other materials
through a process of endocytosis, where the outer membrane invaginates and then
pinches off to form a vesicle. It is probable that most other membrane-bound organelles
are ultimately derived from such vesicles.

The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane, with pores that allow material to move
in and out. Various tube- and sheet-like extensions of the nuclear membrane form what is
called the endoplasmic reticulum or ER, which is involved in protein transport. It includes
rough sections where ribosomes are attached, and the proteins they synthesize enter the
interior space or lumen. Subsequently, they generally enter vesicles, which bud off from
the smooth section. In most eukaryotes, the proteins may be further modified in stacks of
flattened vesicles, called Golgi bodies or dictyosomes.

Vesicles may be specialized for various purposes. For instance, lysosomes contain
enzymes that break down the contents of food vacuoles, and peroxisomes are used to
break down peroxide which is toxic otherwise.

Contractile Vacuoles
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In multicellular
organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most of a cell's
volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its osmotic pressure.

Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called flagella when long and
cilia when short. These are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. These
are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are supported by a bundle of
microtubules arising from a basal body, also called a kinetosome or centriole,
characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two singlets. Flagella also may
have hairs or mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes, and internal rods. Their
interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.

Centrioles
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They
generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids that give rise to various
microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are
often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from
the parent and the other derived from it.

Centrioles may also be associated in the formation of a spindle during nuclear division.
Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles. These include the
radiolaria and heliozoa, which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and
the haptophytes, which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

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Amoebas
Amoebas (Phylum Rhizopoda) are unicellular protists that are able to change their shape
constantly. Each species has its own distinct repertoire of shapes.

How does an amoeba locomote?

Amoebas locomote by way of cytoplasmic movement. (cytoplasm is the cell content
around the nucleus of the cell) The amoeba forms pseudopods (false feet) with which they
'flow' over a surface. The cytoplasma not only flows, it also changes from a fluid into a
solid state.

These pseudopods are also used to capture prey; they simply engulf the food. They can
detect the kind of prey and use different 'engulfing tactics'.

The image from the last page shows several cell organelles. Left from the center we can
see aspherical water expelling vesicle and just right of it, the single nucleus of this species
can be seen. Other species may have many nuclei. The cell is full of brown food vacuoles
and also contains small crystals.

Protozoa Information
Our actual knowledge of salinity, temperature, and oxygen requirements of marine
protozoa is poor (although some groups, such as the foraminifera, are better studied than
others), and even the broadest outlines of their biogeographic ranges are usually a
mystery.

In general, freshwater protozoan communities are similar to marine communities except

the specialized interstitial fauna of the sand is largely missing. In freshwater habitats, the
foraminifera and radiolaria common in marine environments are absent or low in numbers
while testate amoebae exist in greater numbers. Relative abundance of species in the
marine versus freshwater habitat is unknown.

Soil-dwelling protozoa have been documented from almost every type of soil and in every
kind of environment, from the peat-rich soil of bogs to the dry sands of deserts. In general,
protozoa are found in greatest abundance near the soil surface, especially in the upper 15
cm (6 in), but occasional isolates can be obtained at depths of a meter (yard) or more.

Protozoa do not constitute a major part of soil biomass, but in some highly productive
regions such as forest litter, the protozoa are a significant food source for the
microinvertebrates, with a biomass that may reach 20 g/m2 of soil surface area there.

Environmental Quality Indicators

Polluted waters often have a rich and characteristic protozoan fauna. The relative
abundance and diversity of protozoa are used as indicators of organic and toxic pollution
(Cairns et al. 1972; Foissner 1987; Niederlehner et al. 1990; Curds 1992).

Bick (1972), for example, provided a guide to ciliates that are useful as indicators of
environmental quality of European freshwater systems, along with their ecological
distribution with respect to parameters such as amount of organic material and oxygen
levels. Foissner (1988) clarified the taxonomy of European ciliates as part of a system for
classifying the state of aquatic habitats according to their faunas.
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Amoeba

Amoeba (sometimes amœba or ameba, plural amoebae) is a genus of protozoa that

moves by means of pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular
organism.

The word amoeba or ameba is variously used to refer to it and its close relatives, now
grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using pseudopods, otherwise
termed amoeboids.

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Paramecia

Paramecia are a group of unicellular ciliate protozoa formerly known as slipper

animalcules from their slipper shape. They are commonly studied as a representative of
the ciliate group. Simple cilia cover the body which allows the cell to move with a
synchronous motion (like a caterpilla).

There is also a deep oral groove containing inconspicuous compound oral cilia (as found
in other peniculids) that is used to draw food inside. They generally feed upon bacteria
and other small cells. Osmoregulation is carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles, which
actively expel water absorbed by osmosis from their surroundings.

Paramecia are widespread in freshwater environments, and are especially common in

scums. Paramecia are attracted by acidic conditions. Certain single-celled eukaryotes,
such as Paramecium, are examples for exceptions to the universality of the genetic code
(translation systems where a few codons differ from the standard ones).

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Symbiotic Protozoa

Parasites
Protozoa are infamous for their role in causing disease, and parasitic species are among
the best-known protozoa. Nevertheless, our knowledge has large gaps, especially of
normally free-living protozoa that may become pathogenic in immunocompromised
individuals.

For example, microsporidia comprise a unique group of obligate, intracellular parasitic

protozoa. Microsporidia are amazingly diverse organisms with more than 700 species and
80 genera that are capable of infecting a variety of plant, animal, and even other protist
hosts.

They are found worldwide and have the ability to thrive in many ecological conditions. Until
the past few years, their ubiquity did not cause a threat to human health, and few
systematists worked to describe and classify the species.

Since 1985, however, physicians have documented an unusual rise in worldwide

infections in AIDS patients caused by four different genera of microsporidia
(Encephalitozoon, Nosema, Pleistophora, and Enterocytozoon). According to the Centers
for Disease Control in the United States, difficulties in identifying microsporidian species
are impeding diagnosis and effective treatment of AIDS patients.

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Protozoan Reservoirs of Disease
The presence of bacteria in the cytoplasm of protozoa is well known, whereas that of
viruses is less frequently reported. Most of these reports simply record the presence of
bacteria or viruses and assume some sort of symbiotic relationship between them and the
protozoa.

Recently, however, certain human pathogens were shown to not only survive but also to
multiply in the cytoplasm of free-living, nonpathogenic protozoa. Indeed, it is now believed
that protozoa are the natural habitat for certain pathogenic bacteria. To date, the main
focus of attention has been on the bacterium Legionella pneumophila, the causative
organism of Legionnaires' disease; these bacteria live and reproduce in the cytoplasm of
some free-living amoebae (Curds 1992). More on this subject in the following pages.

Symbionts
Some protozoa are harmless or even beneficial symbionts. A bewildering array of ciliates,
for example, inhabit the rumen and reticulum of ruminates and the cecum and colon of
equids. Little is known about the relationship of the ciliates to their host, but a few may aid
the animal in digesting cellulose.

Data on Protozoa
While our knowledge of recent and fossil foraminifera in the U.S. coastal waterways is
systematically growing, other free-living protozoa are poorly known. There are some
regional guides and, while some are excellent, many are limited in scope, vague on
specifics, or difficult to use. Largely because of these problems, most ecologists who
include protozoa in their studies of aquatic habitats do not identify them, even if they do
count and measure them for biomass estimates (Taylor and Sanders 1991).

Parasitic protozoa of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife are better known although
no attempt has been made to compile this information into a single source. Large gaps in
our knowledge exist, especially for haemogregarines, microsporidians, and
myxosporidians (see Kreier and Baker 1987).

Museum Specimens
For many plant and animal taxa, museums represent a massive information resource. This
is not true for protozoa. In the United States, only the National Natural History Museum
(Smithsonian Institution) has a reference collection preserved on microscope slides, but it
does not have a protozoologist curator and cannot provide species' identification or
verification services. The American Type Culture Collection has some protozoa in culture,
but its collection includes relatively few kinds of protozoa.

Ecological Role of Protozoa

Although protozoa are frequently overlooked, they play an important role in many
communities where they occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators upon unicellular
or filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi, protozoa play a role both as herbivores
and as consumers in the decomposer link of the food chain.

As components of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food source for
microinvertebrates. Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of bacterial and
algal production to successive trophic levels is important.

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Factors Affecting Growth and Distribution
Most free-living protozoa reproduce by cell division (exchange of genetic material is a
separate process and is not involved in reproduction in protozoa).

The relative importance for population growth of biotic versus chemical-physical

components of the environment is difficult to ascertain from the existing survey data.
Protozoa are found living actively in nutrient-poor to organically rich waters and in fresh
water varying between 0°C (32°F) and 50°C (122°F). Nonetheless, it appears that rates
of population growth increase when food is not constrained and temperature is increased
(Lee and Fenchel 1972; Fenchel 1974; Montagnes et al. 1988).

Comparisons of oxygen consumption in various taxonomic groups show wide variation

(Laybourn and Finlay 1976), with some aerobic forms able to function at extremely low
oxygen tensions and to thereby avoid competition and predation. Many parasitic and a
few free-living species are obligatory anaerobes (grow without atmospheric oxygen). Of
the free-living forms, the best known are the plagiopylid ciliates that live in the anaerobic
sulfide-rich sediments of marine wetlands (Fenchel et al. 1977). The importance of
plagiopylids in recycling nutrients to aerobic zones of wetlands is potentially great.

Because of the small size of protozoa, their short generation time, and (for some species)
ease of maintaining them in the laboratory, ecologists have used protozoan populations
and communities to investigate competition and predation.

The result has been an extensive literature on a few species studied primarily under
laboratory conditions. Few studies have been extended to natural habitats with the result
that we know relatively little about most protozoa and their roles in natural communities.
Intraspecific competition for common resources often results in cannibalism, sometimes
with dramatic changes in morphology of the cannibals (Giese 1973). Field studies of
interspecific competition are few and most evidence for such species interactions is
indirect (Cairns and Yongue 1977).

Contractile Vacuoles
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In multicellular
organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most of a cell's
volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its osmotic pressure.
Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called flagella when long and
cilia when short.

These are variously involved in movement, feeding, and sensation. These are entirely
distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are supported by a bundle of microtubules arising
from a basal body, also called a kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as
nine doublets surrounding two singlets. Flagella also may have hairs or mastigonemes,
scales, connecting membranes, and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the
cell's cytoplasm.

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Centrioles
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They
generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids that give rise to various
microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and are
often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained from
the parent and the other derived from it.

Centrioles may also be associated in the formation of a spindle during nuclear division.
Some protists have various other microtubule-supported organelles. These include the
radiolaria and heliozoa, which produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and
the haptophytes, which have a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

Paramecium
Members of the genus Paramecium are single-celled, freshwater organisms in the
kingdom Protista. They exist in an environment in which the osmotic concentration in their
external environment is much lower than that in their cytoplasm. More specifically, the
habitat in which they live is hypotonic to their cytoplasm. As a result of this, Paramecium
is subjected to a continuous influx of water, as water diffuses inward to a region of higher
osmotic concentration.

If Paramecium is to maintain homeostasis, water must be continually pumped out of the

cell (against the osmotic gradient) at the same rate at which it moves in. This process,
known as osmoregulation, is carried out by two organelles in Paramecium known as
contractile vacuoles.

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 Protozoan Diseases
Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses, but still microscopic. They
invade and inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in
a dormant form, with a protective cell wall called a “cyst.” The cyst can survive in the
environment for long periods of time and be extremely resistant to conventional
disinfectants such as chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is therefore critical to
removing these organisms from water sources.

Giardiasis
Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been
referred to as “backpacker’s disease” and “beaver fever” because of the many cases
reported among hikers and others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms
include chronic diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy
stools, fatigue and weight loss.

The incubation period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of 7-10 days. Many
infections are asymptomatic (no symptoms).

Giardiasis occurs worldwide. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most
often in communities receiving their drinking water from streams or rivers without
adequate disinfection or a filtration system. The organism, Giardia lamblia, has been
responsible for more community-wide outbreaks of disease in the U.S. than any other
pathogen. Drugs are available for treatment but are not 100% effective.

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 Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide,
but was only recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in
humans is diarrhea, which may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with
cramping abdominal pain. General malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea, and vomiting
occur less often. Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in
most cases. The incubation period is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days.
Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified in human fecal specimens from more
than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission is fecal-oral, either by
person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for
Cryptosporidium infections.

All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common:
diarrhea. They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through
person-to-person or animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission,
being either foodborne or waterborne.

Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting disease, on occasion, they can
cause serious, even life threatening illness. Particularly vulnerable are persons with
weak immune systems such as those with HIV infections or cancer. By understanding
the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly constructed, operated
and maintained public water systems becomes obvious.

While water treatment cannot achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of
treatment must clearly be to produce drinking water that is as pathogen-free as
possible at all times. For those who operate water systems with inadequate source
protection or treatment facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease outbreak is
real. For those operating systems that currently provide adequate source protection
and treatment, operating and maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing
basis is critical to prevent disease.

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Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidium is a protozoan pathogen of the Phylum Apicomplexa and causes a

diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis. Other apicomplexan pathogens include the
malaria parasite Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis.
Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector, Cryptosporidium does not
utilize an insect vector and is capable of completing its life cycle within a single host,
resulting in cyst stages which are excreted in feces and are capable of transmission to a
new host.

A number of species of Cryptosporidium infect mammals. In humans, the main causes of

disease are C. parvum and C. hominis (previously C. parvum genotype 1). C. canis, C.
felis, C. meleagridis, and C. muris can also cause disease in humans. In recent years,
cryptosporidiosis has plagued many commercial Leopard gecko breeders. Several
species of the Cryptosporidium family (C. serpentes and others) are involved, and outside
of geckos it has been found in monitor lizards, iguanas, tortoises as well as several snake
species.

Cryptosporidiosis is typically an acute short-term infection but can become severe and
non-resolving in children and immunocompromised individuals. The parasite is
transmitted by environmentally hardy cysts (oocysts) that, once ingested, excyst in the
small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue. The genome of
Cryptosporidium parvum was sequenced in 2004 and was found to be unusual amongst
Eukaryotes in that the mitochondria seem not to contain DNA. A closely-related species,
C. hominis, also has its genome sequence available. CryptoDB.org is a NIH-funded
database that provides access to the Cryptosporidium genomics data sets.

When C. parvum was first identified as a human pathogen, diagnosis was made by a
biopsy of intestinal tissue (Keusch, et al., 1995).

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However, this method of testing can give false negatives due the "patchy" nature of the
intestinal parasitic infection (Flanigan and Soave, 1993). Staining methods were then
developed to detect and identify the oocysts directly from stool samples. The modified
acid-fast stain is traditionally used to most reliably and specifically detect the presence of
cryptosporidial oocysts.

There have been six major outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis in the United States as a result
of contamination of drinking water (Juranek, 1995). One major outbreak in Milwaukee in
1993 affected over 400,000 persons.

Outbreaks such as these usually result from drinking water taken from surface water
sources such as lakes and rivers (Juranek, 1995). Swimming pools and water park wave
pools have also been associated with outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. Also, untreated
groundwater or well water public drinking water supplies can be sources of contamination.

The highly environmentally resistant cyst of C. parvum allows the pathogen to survive
various drinking water filtrations and chemical treatments such as chlorination. Although
municipal drinking water utilities may meet federal standards for safety and quality of
drinking water, complete protection from cryptosporidial infection is not guaranteed. In
fact, all waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have occurred in communities where
the local utilities met all state and federal drinking water standards (Juranek, 1995).

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Giardia Lamblia

Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a

flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine,
causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive
disc, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream,
nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the
lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen of
the small intestine, and are anaerobes.

Giardia infection can occur through ingestion of dormant cysts in contaminated water, or
by the fecal-oral route (through poor hygiene practices). The Giardia cyst can survive for
weeks to months in cold water and therefore can be present in contaminated wells and
water systems, and even clean-looking mountain streams, as well as city reservoirs, as
the Giardia cysts are resistant to conventional water treatment methods, such as
chlorination and ozonolysis.

Zoonotic transmission is also possible, and therefore Giardia infection is a concern for
people camping in the wilderness or swimming in contaminated streams or lakes,
especially the artificial lakes formed by beaver dams (hence the popular name for
giardiasis, "Beaver Fever").

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As well as water-borne sources, fecal-oral transmission can also occur, for example in day
care centers, where children may have poorer hygiene practices.

Those who work with children are also at risk of being infected, as are family members of
infected individuals. Not all Giardia infections are symptomatic, so some people can
unknowingly serve as carriers of the parasite.

The life cycle begins with a non-infective cyst being excreted with feces of an infected
individual. Once out in the environment, the cyst becomes infective. A distinguishing
characteristic of the cyst is 4 nuclei and a retracted cytoplasm. Once ingested by a host,
the trophozoite emerges to an active state of feeding and motility. After the feeding stage,
the trophozoite undergoes asexual replication through longitudinal binary fission. The
resulting trophozoites and cysts then pass through the digestive system in the feces. While
the trophozoites may be found in the feces, only the cysts are capable of surviving outside
of the host.

Distinguishing features of the trophozoites are large karyosomes and lack of peripheral
chromatin, giving the two nuclei a halo appearance. Cysts are distinguished by a retracted
cytoplasm. This protozoa lacks mitochondria, although the discovery of the presence of
mitochondrial remnant organelles in one recent study "indicate that Giardia is not
primitively amitochondrial and that it has retained a functional organelle derived from the
original mitochondrial endosymbiont"

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Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica, another water-borne pathogen, can cause diarrhea or a more

serious invasive liver abscess. When in contact with human cells, these amoebae are
cytotoxic. There is a rapid influx of calcium into the contacted cell, it quickly stops all
membrane movement save for some surface blebbing. Internal organization is disrupted,
organelles lyse, and the cell dies. The ameba may eat the dead cell or just absorb nutrients
released from the cell.

On average, about one in 10 people who are infected with E. histolytica becomes sick
from the infection. The symptoms often are quite mild and can include loose stools,
stomach pain, and stomach cramping.

Amebic dysentery is a severe form of amebiasis associated with stomach pain, bloody
stools, and fever. Rarely, E. histolytica invades the liver and forms an abscess. Even less
commonly, it spreads to other parts of the body, such as the lungs or brain.

Scientific Classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Amoebozoa
Class: Archamoebae
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: E. histolytica

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Vorticella

Vorticella is a genus of protozoa, with over 100 known species. They are stalked inverted
bell-shaped ciliates, placed among the peritrichs. Each cell has a separate stalk anchored
onto the substrate, which contains a contracile fibril called a myoneme. When stimulated
this shortens, causing the stalk to coil like a spring. Reproduction is by budding, where the
cell undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the stalk.

Vorticella mainly lives in freshwater ponds and streams - generally anywhere protists are
plentiful. Other genera such as Carchesium resemble Vorticella but are branched or
colonial.

Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Ciliophora
Class: Oligohymenophorea
Subclass: Peritrichia
Order: Sessilida
Family: Vorticellidae
Genus: Vorticella

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Rotifer

The rotifers make up a phylum of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate

animals. They were first described by John Harris in 1696 (Hudson and Gosse, 1886).
Leeuwenhoek is mistakenly given credit for being the first to describe rotifers but Harris
had produced sketches in 1703. Most rotifers are around 0.1-0.5 mm long, and are
common in freshwater throughout the world with a few saltwater species. Rotifers may be
free swimming and truly planktonic, others move by inch worming along the substrate,
whilst some are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts. About 25 species are
colonial (e.g. Sinantherina semibullata), either sessile or planktonic.

Rotifers get their name (derived from Greek and meaning "wheel-bearer"; they have also
been called wheel animalcules) from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated
tufts around the mouth that in motion resemble a wheel. These create a current that
sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called the
mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia also pull
the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-living forms have pairs of
posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding.

Rotifers have bilateral symmetry and a variety of different shapes. There is a well-
developed cuticle which may be thick and rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or
flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape; such rotifers are respectively called loricate
and illoricate.

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Like many other microscopic animals, adult rotifers frequently exhibit eutely - they have a
fixed number of cells within a species, usually on the order of one thousand.

Males in the class Monogononta may be either present or absent depending on the
species and environmental conditions. In the absence of males, reproduction is by
parthenogenesis and results in clonal offspring that are genetically identical to the parent.

Individuals of some species form two distinct types of parthenogenetic eggs; one type
develops into a normal parthenogenetic female, while the other occurs in response to a
changed environment and develops into a degenerate male that lacks a digestive system,
but does have a complete male reproductive system that is used to inseminate females
thereby producing fertilized 'resting eggs'.

Resting eggs develop into zygotes that are able to survive extreme environmental
conditions such as may occur during winter or when the pond dries up. These eggs
resume development and produce a new female generation when conditions improve
again. The life span of monogonont females varies from a couple of days to about three
weeks.

Bdelloid rotifers are unable to produce resting eggs, but many can survive prolonged
periods of adverse conditions after desiccation. This facility is termed anhydrobiosis, and
organisms with these capabilities are termed anhydrobionts. Under drought conditions,
bdelloid rotifers contract into an inert form and lose almost all body water; when
rehydrated, however, they resume activity within a few hours.

Bdelloids can survive the dry state for prolonged periods, with the longest well-
documented dormancy being nine years. While in other anhydrobionts, such as the brine
shrimp, this desiccation tolerance is thought to be linked to the production of trehalose, a
non-reducing disaccharide (sugar), bdelloids apparently lack the ability to synthesize
trehalose.

Bdelloid rotifer genomes contain two or more divergent copies of each gene. Four copies
of hsp82 are, for example, found. Each is different and found on a different chromosome,
excluding the possibility of homozygous sexual reproduction.

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Various and Commonly found Wastewater Bugs

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Bacteria Section

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Bacterial Cell

Mitochondria

The bacterial cell is surrounded by a lipid membrane, or cell membrane, which encloses
the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients, proteins and other essential
components of the cytoplasm within the cell.

As they are prokaryotes, bacteria do not tend to have membrane-bound organelles in their
cytoplasm and thus contain few large intracellular structures. They consequently lack a
nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells,
such as the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.

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Bacteria Glossary
Type Characteristics
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; highly tolerant of acidic
Acetic acid
conditions; generate organic acids
Rod-shaped or filamentous, gram-positive, aerobic; common in soils;
Actinomycete essential to growth of many plants; source of much of original
antibiotic production in pharmaceutical industry
Spherical, sometimes in clusters or strings, gram-positive, aerobic and
anaerobic; resistant to drying and high-salt conditions;
Coccoid
Staphylococcus species common on human skin, certain strains
associated with toxic shock syndrome
Rod-shaped, form club or V shapes, gram-positive, aerobic; found in
Coryneform wide variety of habitats, particularly soils; highly resistant to drying;
include Arthrobacter, among most common forms of life on earth
Usually rod-shaped, can be gram-positive or gram-negative; have
Endospore- highly adaptable, heat-resistant spores that can go dormant for long
forming periods, possibly thousands of years; include Clostridium (anaerobic)
and Bacillus (aerobic)
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic but can live in certain anaerobic
Enteric conditions; produce nitrite from nitrate, acids from glucose; include
Escherichia coli, Salmonella (over 1000 types), and Shigella
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, mostly aerobic; glide on secreted slimy
Gliding
substances; form colonies, frequently with complex fruiting structures
Gram-positive, anaerobic; produce lactic acid through fermentation;
Lactic acid include Lactobacillus, essential in dairy product formation, and
Streptococcus, common in humans
Pleomorphic, spherical or rod-shaped, frequently branching, no gram
Mycobacterium stain, aerobic; commonly form yellow pigments; include
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, cause of tuberculosis
Spherical, commonly forming branching chains, no gram stain,
aerobic but can live in certain anaerobic conditions; without cell walls
Mycoplasma
yet structurally resistant to lysis; among smallest of bacteria; named
for superficial resemblance to fungal hyphae (myco- means 'fungus')
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; convert atmospheric nitrogen
Nitrogen-fixing
gas to ammonium in soil; include Azotobacter, a common genus
Rod-shaped, pleomorphic, gram-positive, anaerobic; ferment lactic
Propionic acid acid; fermentation produces holes in Swiss cheese from the
production of carbon dioxide
Rod-shaped (straight or curved) with polar flagella, gram-negative,
Pseudomonad aerobic; can use up to 100 different compounds for carbon and
energy
Spherical or rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; cause Rocky
Rickettsia Mountain spotted fever and typhus; closely related to Agrobacterium,
a common gall-causing plant bacterium

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 Filamentous, gram-negative, aerobic; 'swarmer' (colonizing) cells form
Sheathed and break out of a sheath; sometimes coated with metals from
environment
Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; include Bdellovibrio, predatory
Spirillum
on other bacteria
Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, mostly anaerobic; common in moist
environments, from mammalian gums to coastal mudflats; complex
Spirochete
internal structures convey rapid movement; include
Treponemapallidum, cause of syphilis
Sulfate- and
Commonly rod-shaped, mostly gram-negative, anaerobic; include
Sulfur-
Desulfovibrio, ecologically important in marshes
reducing
Sulfur- and Commonly rod-shaped, frequently with polar flagella, gram-negative,
iron-oxidizing mostly anaerobic; most live in neutral (nonacidic) environment
Rod- or comma-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; commonly with a
Vibrio single flagellum; include Vibrio cholerae, cause of cholera, and
luminescent forms symbiotic with deep-water fishes and squids

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Bacteriophage

A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek phagein, 'to eat') is any one of a number of
viruses that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form, phage.

Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. The
genetic material can be ssRNA (single stranded RNA), dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA
between 5 and 500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement.
Bacteriophages are much smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20 and
200 nm in size.

Phages are estimated to be the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the
biosphere. Phages are ubiquitous and can be found in all reservoirs populated by bacterial
hosts, such as soil or the intestine of animals.

One of the densest natural sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up
to 9×108 virions per milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to
70% of marine bacteria may be infected by phages.

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Release of Virions
Phages may be released via cell lysis or by host cell secretion. In the case of the T4 phage,
in just over twenty minutes after injection upwards of three hundred phages will be
released via lysis within a certain timescale. This is achieved by an enzyme called
endolysin which attacks and breaks down the peptidoglycan.

In contrast, "lysogenic" phages do not kill the host but rather become long-term parasites
and make the host cell continually secrete more new virus particles. The new virions bud
off the plasma membrane, taking a portion of it with them to become enveloped viruses
possessing a viral envelope. All released virions are capable of infecting a new bacterium.

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Salmonella

Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium. It is found in many turtles and other reptiles. In

clinical laboratories, it is usually isolated on MacConkey agar, XLD agar, XLT agar, DCA
agar, or Önöz agar. Because they cause intestinal infections and are greatly outnumbered
by the bacteria normally found in the healthy bowel, primary isolation requires the use of
a selective medium, so use of a relatively non-selective medium such as CLED agar is not
often practiced.

Numbers of salmonella may be so low in clinical samples that stools are routinely also
subjected to "enrichment culture", where a small volume of stool is incubated in a selective
broth medium, such as selenite broth or Rappaport Vassiliadis soya peptone broth,
overnight.

These media are inhibitory to the growth of the microbes normally found in the healthy
human bowel, while allowing salmonellae to become enriched in numbers. Salmonellae
may then be recovered by inoculating the enrichment broth on one or more of the primary
selective media. On blood agar, they form moist colonies about 2 to 3 mm in diameter.

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When the cells are grown for a prolonged time at a range of 25—28°C, some strains
produce a biofilm, which is a matrix of complex carbohydrates, cellulose and proteins.

The ability to produce biofilm (a.k.a. "rugose", "lacy", or "wrinkled") can be an indicator of
dimorphism, which is the ability of a single genome to produce multiple phenotypes in
response to environmental conditions. Salmonellae usually do not ferment lactose; most
of them produce hydrogen sulfide which, in media containing ferric ammonium citrate,
reacts to form a black spot in the center of the creamy colonies.

Classification
Salmonella taxonomy is complicated. As of December 7, 2005, there are two species
within the genus: S. bongori (previously subspecies V) and S. enterica (formerly called
S. choleraesuis), which is divided into six subspecies:
* I—enterica
* II—salamae
* IIIa—arizonae
* IIIb—diarizonae
* IV—houtenae
* V—obsolete (now designated
S. bongori)
* VI—indica

There are also numerous (over 2500)

serovars within both species, which are
found in a disparate variety of
environments and which are associated
with many different diseases.

The vast majority of human isolates

(>99.5%) are subspecies S. enterica. For
the sake of simplicity, the CDC
recommends that Salmonella species be
referred to only by their genus and
serovar, e.g.

Salmonella Typhi instead of the more

technically correct designation,
Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica
serovar Typhi.

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Shigella dysenteriae

Shigella dysenteriae is a species of the rod-shaped bacterial genus Shigella. Shigella can
cause shigellosis (bacillary dysentery). Shigellae are Gram-negative, non-spore-forming,
facultatively anaerobic, non-motile bacteria.

S. dysenteriae, spread by contaminated water and food, causes the most severe
dysentery because of its potent and deadly Shiga toxin, but other species may also be
dysentery agents. Shigella infection is typically via ingestion (fecal–oral contamination);
depending on age and condition of the host as few as ten bacterial cells can be enough
to cause an infection. Shigella causes dysentery that result in the destruction of the
epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa in the cecum and rectum. Some strains produce
enterotoxin and Shiga toxin, similar to the verotoxin of E. coli O157:H7. Both Shiga toxin
and verotoxin are associated with causing hemolytic uremic syndrome.

Shigella invades the host through epithelial cells of the large intestine. Using a Type III
secretion system acting as a biological syringe, the bacterium injects IpaD protein into cell,
triggering bacterial invasion and the subsequent lysis of vacuolar membranes using IpaB
and IpaC proteins. It utilizes a mechanism for its motility by which its IcsA protein triggers
actin polymerization in the host cell (via N-WASP recruitment of Arp2/3 complexes) in a
"rocket" propulsion fashion for cell-to-cell spread.

The most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, and
straining to have a bowel movement. The stool may contain blood, mucus, or pus (e.g.
dysentery). In rare cases, young children may have seizures. Symptoms can take as long
as a week to show up, but most often begin two to four days after ingestion. Symptoms
usually last for several days, but can last for weeks. Shigella is implicated as one of the
pathogenic causes of reactive arthritis worldwide.
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Top Photo: This technician is using Colilert which is a commercially available enzyme-
substrate liquid-broth medium (IDEXX Laboratories, Inc.) that allows the simultaneous
detection of total coliforms and Escherichia coli (E. coli). It is available in the most-
probable number (MPN) or the presence/absence (PA) format. The MPN method is
facilitated by use of a specially designed disposable incubation tray called the Quanti-
Tray®.

Bottom Photo: Another method is using a petri dish with a filter membrane. The broth and
membrane used vary depending on the sample type for water or wastewater.

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Escherichia Coli Section
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Fecal coliform bacteria are microscopic organisms that live in the intestines of warm-
blooded animals. They also live in the waste material, or feces, excreted from the intestinal
tract. When fecal coliform bacteria are present in high numbers in a water sample, it means
that the water has received fecal matter from one source or another. Although not
necessarily agents of disease, fecal coliform bacteria may indicate the presence of
disease-carrying organisms, which live in the same environment as the fecal coliform
bacteria.

Reasons for Natural Variation

Unlike the other conventional water quality parameters, fecal coliform bacteria are living
organisms. They do not simply mix with the water and float straight downstream. Instead
they multiply quickly when conditions are favorable for growth, or die in large numbers
when conditions are not. Because bacterial concentrations are dependent on specific
conditions for growth, and these conditions change quickly, fecal coliform bacteria counts
are not easy to predict. For example, although winter rains may wash more fecal matter
from urban areas into a stream, cool water temperatures may cause a major die-off.
Exposure to sunlight (with its ultraviolet disinfection properties) may have the same effect,
even in the warmer water of summertime.

Expected Impact of Pollution

The primary sources of fecal coliform bacteria to fresh water are wastewater treatment
plant discharges, failing septic systems, and animal waste. Bacteria levels do not
necessarily decrease as a watershed develops from rural to urban. Instead, urbanization
usually generates new sources of bacteria. Farm animal manure and septic systems are
replaced by domestic pets and leaking sanitary sewers.

In fact, stormwater runoff in urbanized areas has been found to be surprisingly high in
fecal coliform bacteria concentrations. General coliforms, E. Coli, and Enterococcus
bacteria are the "indicator" organisms generally measured to assess microbiological
quality of water.
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However, these aren't generally what get people sick. Other bacteria, viruses, and
parasites are what we are actually worried about because it is so much more expensive
and tedious to do so; actual pathogens are virtually never tested for.

Coliform Standards (in colonies/100ml)

Drinking water..................................................................1FC
Total body contact (swimming).............................................200FC
Partial body contact (boating)..............................................1000FC
Threatened sewage effluent ................................not to exceed 200 FC
*Total coliform (TC) includes bacteria from cold-blooded animals and various soil
organisms. According to recent literature, total coliform counts are normally about 10
times higher than fecal coliform (FC) counts.

Indicator Connection Varies

Over the course of a professional lifetime pouring over indicator tests, in a context where
all standards are based on indicators, water workers tend to forget that the indicators are
not the things we actually care about. Infection rates are around 5% in the US, and
approach 100% in areas with poor hygiene and contaminated water supplies.

Keep in the back of your mind that the ratio of indicators to actual pathogens is not
fixed. It will always be different, sometimes very different. Whenever you are trying to form
a mental map of reality based on water tests, you should include in the application of your
water intuition an adjustment factor for your best guess of the ratio between indicators and
actual pathogens.

What are these indicators? More information in the Laboratory section.

 General coliforms indicate that the water has come in contact with plant or animal
life. General coliforms are universally present, including in pristine spring water.
They are of little concern at low levels, except to indicate the effectiveness of
disinfection. Chlorinated water and water from perfectly sealed tube wells is the
only water I've tested which had zero general coliforms. At very high levels they
indicate there is what amounts to a lot of compost in the water, which could easily
include pathogens (Ten thousand general coliform bacteria will get you a beach
closure, compared to two or four hundred fecal coliforms, or fifty enterococcus).
 Fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, indicate that there are mammal or bird feces
in the water.
 Enterococcus bacteria also indicate that there are feces from warm blooded
animals in the water. Enterococcus are a type of fecal streptococci. They are
another valuable indicator for determining the amount of fecal contamination of
water. According to studies conducted by the EPA, enterococci have a greater
correlation with swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness in both marine and
fresh waters than other bacterial indicator organisms, and are less likely to "die off"
in saltwater.

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Membrane Filter Total Coliform Technique
The membrane filter total Coliform technique is used at Medina County for drinking water
quality testing. The following is a summary of this test. A sampling procedure sheet is
given to all sample takers by Medina County.

The samples are taken in sterile 100 mL containers. These containers, when used for
chlorinated water samples, have a sodium thiosulfate pill or solution to dechlorinate the
sample.

The sample is placed in cold storage after proper sample taking procedures are
followed. (See sample
procedures below)

The samples are taken to the

laboratory with a chain of
custody to assure no
tampering of samples can
occur.

These samples are logged in

at the laboratory.

No longer than 30 hours can

lapse between the time of
sampling and time of test
incubation. (8 hours for
heterotrophic, non-potable 6
hours, others not longer than
24 hours)

All equipment is sterilized by oven and autoclave.

Glassware in oven at 170oC + 10oC with foil (or other suitable wrap) loosely fitting and
secured immediately after sterilization.

Filtration units in autoclave at 121oC for 30 minutes.

Use sterile petri dishes, grid, and pads bought from a

reliable company – certified, quality assured - test for
satisfactory known positive amounts.

Incubators – 35oC + .5oC (60% relative humidity)

M-endo medium is prepared and heated to near

boiling removed from heat cooled to 45oC pH
adjusted to 7.2 + .2 and immediately dispensed 8ml to
plates. Keep refrigerated and discard after 2 weeks.

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Plates can be stored in a dated box with expiration date and discarded if not used. No
denatured alcohol should be used. Everclear or 95% proof alcohol or absolute methyl
may be used for sterilizing forceps by flame.

Procedure:
1. Counters are alcohol wiped.
2. Bench sheets are filled out.
3. Samples are removed from refrigeration.
4. Sterile wrapped utensils are placed on counters.
5. Filtration units are placed onto sterile membrane filters by aseptic technique using
sterile forceps.
6. Sterile petri dishes are labeled.
7. The samples closures are clipped.
8. The sample is shaken 25 times 1 foot in length within 7 seconds.
9. 100 mL is filtered and rinsed with sterile distilled water 3 times.
10. The membrane filter is aseptically removed from filter holder.
11. A sterile padded petri dish is used and the membrane filter is rolled onto the pad
making sure no air bubbles form.
12. The sterile labeled lid is placed on the petri dish.
13. 2 blanks and a known is run with each series of samples.
14. The samples are placed in the 35oC + .5oC incubator stacked no higher than 3 for
22 – 24 hours (Humidity can be maintained by saturated paper towels placed under
containers holding petri dishes.)
15. After 22- 24 hours view the petri dishes under a 10 –15 power magnification with
cool white fluorescent light.
16. Count all colonies that appear pink to dark red with a metallic surface sheen – the
sheen may vary in size from a pin head to complete coverage.
17. Report as Total Coliform per 100 mL.
18. If no colonies are present report as <1 coliform/100mL.

Anything greater than 1 is over the limit for drinking water for 2 samples taken 24 hours
apart. Further investigation may be necessary – follow Standard Methods accordingly.

Photograph and Credits to Mary McPherson

AranTM Aqua Analytical Laboratory Director.

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Escherichia coli EPEC
Two types of pathogenic Escherichia coli, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and
enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), cause diarrheal disease by disrupting the intestinal
environment through the intimate attachment of the bacteria to the intestinal epithelium.

E. coli O157:H7
E. coli O157:H7 (bacterium) found in human feces. Symptoms vary with type caused
gastroenteritis.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an emerging cause of foodborne illness. An estimated 73,000

cases of infection and 61 deaths occur in the United States each year. Infection often
leads to bloody diarrhea, and occasionally to kidney failure. Most illnesses have been
associated with eating undercooked, contaminated ground beef. Person-to-person
contact in families and child care centers is also an important mode of transmission.
Infection can also occur after drinking raw milk and after swimming in or drinking sewage-
contaminated water.

Consumers can prevent E. coli O157:H7 infection by thoroughly cooking ground beef,
avoiding unpasteurized milk, and washing hands carefully. Because the organism lives in
the intestines of healthy cattle, preventive measures on cattle farms and during meat
processing are being investigated.

What is Escherichia coli O157:H7?

E. coli O157:H7 is one of hundreds of strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli. Although
most strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and animals, this
strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness.

E. coli O157:H7 was first recognized as a cause of illness in 1982 during an outbreak of
severe bloody diarrhea; the outbreak was traced to contaminated hamburgers. Since then,
most infections have come from eating undercooked ground beef.

The combination of letters and numbers in the name of the bacterium refers to the specific
markers found on its surface and distinguishes it from other types of E. coli.

Currently, there are four recognized classes of enterovirulent E. coli (collectively referred
to as the EEC group) that cause gastroenteritis in humans. Among these is the
enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) strain designated E. coli O157:H7. E. coli is a normal
inhabitant of the intestines of all animals, including humans. When aerobic culture
methods are used, E. coli is the dominant species found in feces.

Normally E. coli serves a useful function in the body by suppressing the growth of harmful
bacterial species and by synthesizing appreciable amounts of vitamins. A minority of
E. coli strains are capable of causing human illness by several different mechanisms.

E. coli serotype O157:H7 is a rare variety of E. coli that produces large quantities of one
or more related, potent toxins that cause severe damage to the lining of the intestine.
These toxins [verotoxin (VT), shiga-like toxin] are closely related or identical to the toxin
produced by Shigella dysenteriae.

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How does E. coli or other fecal coliforms get in the water?
E. coli comes from human and animal wastes. During rainfalls, snow melts, or other types
of precipitation, E. coli may be washed into creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or
groundwater. When these waters are used as sources of drinking water and the water is
not treated or inadequately treated, E. coli may end up in drinking water.

How is water treated to protect me from E. coli?

The water can be treated using chlorine, ultra-violet light, or ozone, all of which act to kill
or inactivate E. coli. Systems using surface water sources are required to disinfect to
ensure that all bacterial contamination such as E. coli. is inactivated. Systems using
ground water sources are not required to disinfect, although many of them do.

How does the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulate E. coli?

According to EPA regulations, a system that operates at least 60 days per year, and
serves 25 people or more or has 15 or more service connections, is regulated as a public
water system under the Safe Drinking Water Act. If a system is not a public water system
as defined by EPA regulations, it is not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act,
although it may be regulated by state or local authorities.

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the EPA requires public water systems to monitor for
coliform bacteria. Systems analyze first for total coliform, because this test is faster to
produce results. Any time that a sample is positive for total coliform, the same sample
must be analyzed for either fecal coliform or E. coli. Both are indicators of contamination
with animal waste or human sewage.

The largest public water systems (serving millions of people) must take at least 480
samples per month. Smaller systems must take at least five samples a month unless the
state has conducted a sanitary survey – a survey in which a state inspector examines
system components and ensures they will protect public health – at the system within the
last five years.

Systems serving 25 to 1,000 people typically take one sample per month. Some states
reduce this frequency to quarterly for ground water systems if a recent sanitary survey
shows that the system is free of sanitary defects.

Some types of systems can qualify for annual monitoring. Systems using surface water,
rather than ground water, are required to take extra steps to protect against bacterial
contamination because surface water sources are more vulnerable to such
contamination. At a minimum, all systems using surface waters must
disinfect. Disinfection will kill E. coli O157:H7.

What can I do to protect myself from E. coli O157:H7 in drinking water?

Approximately 89 percent of Americans are receiving water from community water
systems that meet all health-based standards. Your public water system is required to
notify you if, for any reason, your drinking water is not safe. If you wish to take extra
precautions, you can boil your water for one minute at a rolling boil, longer at higher
altitudes. To find out more information about your water, see the Consumer Confidence
Report from your local water supplier or contact your local water supplier directly. You
can also obtain information about your local water system on the EPA's website at
www.epa.gov/safewater/dwinfo.htm.

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Positive Tests
If you draw water from a private well, you can contact your state health department to
obtain information on how to have your well tested for total coliforms, and E. coli
contamination. If your well tests positive for E. coli, there are several steps that you should
take: (1) begin boiling all water intended for consumption, (2) disinfect the well according
to procedures recommended by your local health department, and (3) monitor your water
quality to make certain that the problem does not recur. If the contamination is a recurring
problem, you should investigate the feasibility of drilling a new well or install a point-of-
entry disinfection unit, which can use chlorine, ultraviolet light, or ozone.

How is E. coli O157:H7 spread?

The organism can be found on a small number of cattle farms and can live in the intestines
of healthy cattle. Meat can become contaminated during slaughter, and organisms can be
thoroughly mixed into beef when it is ground. Bacteria present on a cow's udders or on
equipment may get into raw milk. Eating meat, especially ground beef that has not been
cooked sufficiently to kill E. coli O157:H7 can cause infection. Contaminated meat looks
and smells normal. Although the number of organisms required to cause disease is not
known, it is suspected to be very small.

Among other known sources of infection are consumption of sprouts, lettuce, salami,
unpasteurized milk and juice, and swimming in or drinking sewage-contaminated water.

Bacteria in diarrheal stools of infected persons can be passed from one person to another
if hygiene or hand washing habits are inadequate. This is particularly likely among toddlers
who are not toilet trained. Family members and playmates of these children are at high
risk of becoming infected. Young children typically shed the organism in their feces for a
week or two after their illness resolves. Older children rarely carry the organism without
symptoms.

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What illness does E. coli O157:H7 cause?
E. coli O157:H7 infection often causes severe bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps;
sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea or no symptoms. Usually little or no
fever is present, and the illness resolves in 5 to 10 days. Hemorrhagic colitis is the name
of the acute disease caused by E. coli O157:H7.

In some persons, particularly children under 5 years of age and the elderly, the infection
can also cause a complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome, in which the red blood
cells are destroyed and the kidneys fail. About 2%-7% of infections lead to this
complication. In the United States, hemolytic uremic syndrome is the principal cause of
acute kidney failure in children, and most cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome are caused
by E. coli O157:H7.

How is E. coli O157:H7 infection diagnosed?

Infection with E. coli O157:H7 is diagnosed by detecting the bacterium in the stool. Most
laboratories that culture stool do not test for E. coli O157:H7, so it is important to request
that the stool specimen be tested on sorbitol-MacConkey (SMAC) agar for this organism.
All persons who suddenly have diarrhea with blood should get their stool tested for E. coli
O157:H7.

How is the illness treated?

Most persons recover without antibiotics or other specific treatment in 5-10 days. There is
no evidence that antibiotics improve the course of disease, and it is thought that treatment
with some antibiotics may precipitate kidney complications. Antidiarrheal agents, such as
loperamide (Imodium), should also be avoided.

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Legionnaire’s Disease Legionella Section
Introduction Genus: Legionella Species: pneumophila
The first discovery of bacteria from genus Legionella came in 1976 when an outbreak of
pneumonia at an American Legion convention led to 29 deaths. The causative agent, what
would come to be known as Legionella pneumophila, was isolated and given its own
genus. The organisms classified in this genus are Gram-negative bacteria that are
considered intracellular parasites. The disease has two distinct forms:
 Legionnaires' disease, the more severe form of infection which
includes pneumonia, and

 Pontiac fever, a milder illness.

What have been the water sources for Legionnaires' disease?

The major source is water distribution systems of large buildings,
including hotels and hospitals. Cooling towers have long been
thought to be a major source for Legionella, but new data suggest
that this is an overemphasized mode of transmission. Other sources include mist
machines, humidifiers, whirlpool spas, and hot springs. Air conditioners are not a source
for Legionnaires' disease. They were suspected to be the source in the original
American Legion outbreak in a Philadelphia hotel, but new data now suggests that the
water in the hotel was the actual culprit.

Legionnaire’s disease is caused most commonly by the inhalation of

small droplets of water or fine aerosol containing Legionella
bacteria. Legionella bacteria are naturally found in environmental
water sources such as rivers, lakes and ponds and may colonize man-
made water systems that include air conditioning systems, humidifiers,
cooling tower waters, hot water systems, spas and pools.

How do people contract Legionella?

The most popular theory is that the organism is aerosolized in water and
people inhale the droplets containing Legionella. However, new
evidence suggests that another way of contracting Legionella is more
common. "Aspiration" is the most common way that bacteria enter into the lungs to cause
pneumonia.

Aspiration means choking such that secretions in the mouth get past the choking reflexes
and instead of going into the esophagus and stomach, mistakenly, enter the lung. The
protective mechanisms to prevent aspiration is defective in patients who smoke or have
lung disease. Aspiration now appears to be the most common mode of transmission.

Legionella may multiply to high numbers in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, air
washers, humidifiers, hot water heaters, spas, fountains, and plumbing fixtures. Within
one month, Legionella can multiply, in warm water-containing systems, from less than 10
per milliliter to over 1,000 per milliliter of water. Once high numbers of Legionella have
been found, a relatively simple procedure for disinfecting water systems with chlorine and
detergent is available. This procedure is not part of a routine maintenance program
because equipment may become corroded.
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Property owners have been sued for the spread of Legionella, resulting in expensive
settlements. Regular monitoring with a battery of DFA monoclonal antibodies for several
serogroups and species of Legionella morphologically intact bacteria provides a means
for exercising 'reasonable care' to deter potential litigation.

Currently, there are no United States government regulations concerning permissible

numbers of legionella in water systems and there are no federal or state certification
programs for laboratories that perform legionella testing of environmental samples.

Epifluorescence Microscopy DFA Method

The epifluorescence microscopy DFA method that most labs use was published in the
British Journal, Water Research 19:839-848, 1985 "Disinfection of circulating water
systems by ultraviolet light and halogenation", R. Gilpin, et al. so we can count viable-but-
nonculturable (VBNC) legionella.

Most labs will provide a quantitative epifluorescence microscopic analysis of your cooling
tower and potable water samples for 14 serogroups of Legionella pneumophila and 15
other Legionella species (listed below).

Legionella anisa Legionella bozemanii sg 1 & 2

Legionella dumoffi Legionella feeleii sg 1 & 2
Legionella gormanii Legionella hackeliae sg 1 & 2
Legionella jordanis Legionella longbeachae sg 1& 2
Legionella maceachernii Legionella micdadei
Legionella oakridgensis Legionella parisiensis
Legionella pneumophila sg 1-14 Legionella sainthelensi
Legionella santicrucis Legionella wadsworthii

Heterotrophic bacterial CFU are often inversely proportional to numbers of Legionella in

cooling tower samples, in our experience. Routine biocide treatments will not eradicate
Legionella bacteria in the environment, only in laboratory studies.

Culture methods are good during outbreaks for bio-typing; but culture methods lack
sensitivity for routine, quantitative monitoring. Many factors will inhibit growth or
identification of legionella on BCYE with or without antimicrobial agents, heat or acid
treatment.

Culture methods will not identify non-culturable legionella that can still cause outbreaks
(non-culturable, viable legionella have been reported in several peer-reviewed
journals). Only DFA tests performed by trained laboratory personnel can identify these
legionellae. Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests using a battery of monoclonal
antibodies provide more useful routine monitoring information than culture methods.
Legionella species of bacteria cause Legionnaire's disease. They are gram negative (but
stain poorly), strictly aerobic rods.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration recommend routine maintenance of water-containing equipment. Most
State health departments recommend monthly testing for Legionella as part of a routine
maintenance program.
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Viruses
Viruses are acellular microorganisms. They are made up of only genetic material and a
protein coat. Viruses depend on the energy and metabolic machinery of the host cell to
reproduce. A virus is an infectious agent found in virtually all life forms, including humans,
animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist of genetic material—either
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA)—surrounded by a protective
coating of protein, called a capsid, with or without an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are
between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria and hence are too small to be seen by
light microscopy.

Viruses vary in size from the largest poxviruses of about 450 nanometers (about 0.000014
in) in length to the smallest polioviruses of about 30 nanometers (about 0.000001 in).
Viruses are not considered free-living, since they cannot reproduce outside of a living cell;
they have evolved to transmit their genetic information from one cell to another for the
purpose of replication. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they infect, causing
disease in infected organisms.

A few viruses stimulate cells to grow uncontrollably and produce cancers. Although many
infectious diseases, such as the common cold, are caused by viruses, there are no cures
for these illnesses.

The difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the large number of variant
viruses that can cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to disable a virus
without disabling healthy cells. However, the development of antiviral agents is a major
focus of current research, and the study of viruses has led to many discoveries important
to human health.

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Individual viruses, or virus particles, also called virions, contain genetic material, or
genomes, in one of several forms. Unlike cellular organisms, in which the genes always
are made up of DNA, viral genes may consist of either DNA or RNA. Like cell DNA, almost
all viral DNA is double-stranded, and it can have either a circular or a linear arrangement.
Almost all viral RNA is single-stranded; it is usually linear, and it may be either segmented
(with different genes on different RNA molecules) or non-segmented (with all genes on a
single piece of RNA).

Capsids
The viral protective shell, or capsid, can be either helical (spiral-shaped) or icosahedral
(having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are composed of repeating units of one or a few
different proteins. These units are called protomers or capsomers. The proteins that make
up the virus particle are called structural proteins. Viruses also carry genes for making
proteins that are never incorporated into the virus particle and are found only in infected
cells. These viral proteins are called nonstructural proteins; they include factors required
for the replication of the viral genome and the production of the virus particle.

Capsids and the genetic material (DNA or RNA) they contain are together referred to as
nucleocapsids. Some virus particles consist only of nucleocapsids, while others contain
additional structures.

Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses are enclosed in a lipid envelope acquired
when the virus buds through host-cell membranes. Inserted into this envelope are
glycoproteins that the viral genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus
particles to susceptible host cells.

Bacteriophages
The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their hosts.
Some bacteriophages resemble an insect with an icosahedral head attached to a tubular
sheath. From the base of the sheath extend several long tail fibers that help the virus
attach to the bacterium and inject its DNA to be replicated, direct capsid production, and
virus particle assembly inside the cell.

Viroids and Prions

Viroids and prions are smaller than viruses, but they are similarly associated with disease.
Viroids are plant pathogens that consist only of a circular, independently replicating RNA
molecule.

The single-stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to form a rod-like structure. The only
known mammalian pathogen that resembles plant viroids is the deltavirus (hepatitis D),
which requires hepatitis B virus proteins to package its RNA into virus particles. Co-
infection with hepatitis B and D can produce more severe disease than can infection with
hepatitis B alone. Prions are mutated forms of a normal protein found on the surface of
certain animal cells.

Virus Classification
Viruses are classified according to their type of genetic material, their strategy of
replication, and their structure. The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more than
4000 viruses into 71 virus families. Hundreds of other viruses remain unclassified because
of the lack of sufficient information.

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Hepatitis

There are five types of hepatitis -- A through E -- all of which cause inflammation of the
liver. Type D affects only those who also have hepatitis B, and hepatitis E is extremely
rare in the United States.

 Type A hepatitis is contracted through anal-oral contact, by coming in contact

with the feces of someone with hepatitis A, or by eating or drinking hepatitis A
contaminated food or water.
 Type B hepatitis can be contracted from infected blood, seminal fluid, vaginal
secretions, or contaminated drug needles, including tattoo or body-piercing
equipment. It can also be spread from a mother to her newborn.
 Type C hepatitis is not easily spread through sex. You're more likely to get it
through contact with infected blood, contaminated razors, needles, tattoo and
body-piercing equipment, or manicure or pedicure tools that haven't been
properly sanitized, and a mother can pass it to her baby during delivery.
 Type D hepatitis can be passed through contact with infected blood,
contaminated needles, or by sexual contact with an HIV-infected person.
 Type E hepatitis is most likely to be transmitted in feces, through oral contact, or
in water that's been contaminated.

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Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino acids
that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of eubacteria. The sugar
component consists of alternating residues of β-(1,4) linked N-acetylglucosamine and N-
acetylmuramic acid residues. Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide chain of
three to five amino acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide chain of
another strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer.

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Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a

phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name
"cyanobacteria" comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: kyanós = blue). They are a
significant component of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in
many areas of the ocean, but are also found on land.

Cyanobacteria include unicellular and colonial species. Colonies may form filaments,
sheets or even hollow balls. Some filamentous colonies show the ability to differentiate
into several different cell types: vegetative cells, the normal, photosynthetic cells that are
formed under favorable growing conditions; akinetes, the climate-resistant spores that
may form when environmental conditions become harsh; and thick-walled heterocysts,
which contain the enzyme nitrogenase, vital for nitrogen fixation. Heterocysts may also
form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) wherever nitrogen is
necessary.

Heterocyst-forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able to fix nitrogen
gas, which cannot be used by plants, into ammonia (NH3), nitrites (NO2) or nitrates (NO3),
which can be absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic acids.

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The rice paddies of Asia, which produce about 75% of the world's rice, could not do so
were it not for healthy populations of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in the rice paddy
fertilizer too.

Many cyanobacteria also form motile filaments, called hormogonia, that travel away from
the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. The cells in a hormogonium
are often thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile chain
may be tapered. In order to break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium often
must tear apart a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium.

Each individual cell of a cyanobacterium typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall. They
differ from other gram-negative bacteria in that the quorum sensing molecules
autoinducer-2[4] and acyl-homoserine lactones are absent. They lack flagella, but
hormogonia and some unicellular species may move about by gliding along surfaces. In
water columns some cyanobacteria float by forming gas vesicles, like in archaea.

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Chlorine Charts

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Math Conversion Factors
1 PSI = 2.31 Feet of Water LENGTH
1 Foot of Water = .433 PSI 12 Inches = 1 Foot
1.13 Feet of Water = 1 Inch of Mercury 3 Feet = 1 Yard
454 Grams = 1 Pound 5,280 Feet = 1 Mile
1 Gallon of Water = 8.34 Pounds AREA
1 mg/L = 1 PPM 144 Square Inches = 1 Square Foot
17.1 mg/L = 1 Grain/Gallon 43,560 Square Feet = 1 Acre
1% = 10,000 mg/L VOLUME
694 Gallons per Minute = MGD 1000 Milliliters = 1 Liter
1.55 Cubic Feet per Second = 1 MGD 3.785 Liters = 1 Gallon
60 Seconds = 1 Minute 231 Cubic Inches = 1 Gallon
1440 Minutes = 1 Day 7.48 Gallons = 1 Cubic Foot of Water
.746 kW = 1 Horsepower 62.38 Pounds = 1 Cubic Foot of Water

Dimensions

SQUARE: Area (sq.ft) = Length X Width

Volume (cu.ft) = Length (ft) X Width (ft) X Height (ft)

CIRCLE: Area (sq.ft) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft)

CYLINDER: Volume (Cu. ft) = 3.14 X Radius (ft) X Radius (ft) X Depth (ft)

PIPE VOLUME: .785 X Diameter 2 X Length X 7.48

SPHERE: (3.14) (Diameter)3 Circumference = 3.14 X Diameter

(6)

Flow Rate
Multiply —> to get
to get <— Divide
cc/min 1 mL/min
3
cfm (ft /min) 28.31 L/min
3
cfm (ft /min) 1.699 m3/hr
cfh (ft3/hr) 472 mL/min
cfh (ft3/hr) 0.125 GPM
GPH 63.1 mL/min
GPH 0.134 cfh
GPM 0.227 m3/hr
GPM 3.785 L/min
oz/min 29.57 mL/min

General Conversions

POUNDS PER DAY= Concentration (mg/L) X Flow (MG) X 8.34

PERCENT EFFICIENCY = In – Out X 100

In

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 0
TEMPERATURE: F = (0C X 9/5) + 32 9/5 =1.8
0
C = (0F - 32) X 5/9 5/9 = .555

CONCENTRATION: Conc. (A) X Volume (A) = Conc. (B) X Volume (B)

FLOW RATE (Q): Q = A X V (Quantity = Area X Velocity)

FLOW RATE (gpm): Flow Rate (gpm) = 2.83 (Diameter, in)2 (Distance, in)
Height, in
% SLOPE = Rise (feet) X 100
Run (feet)

ACTUAL LEAKAGE = Leak Rate (GPD)

Length (mi.) X Diameter (in)

VELOCITY = Distance (ft)

Time (Sec)

N = Manning’s Coefficient of Roughness

R = Hydraulic Radius (ft.)
S = Slope of Sewer (ft/ft.)

HYDRAULIC RADIUS (ft) = Cross Sectional Area of Flow (ft)

Wetted pipe Perimeter (ft)

WATER HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960

BRAKE HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Efficiency

MOTOR HORSEPOWER = Flow (gpm) X Head (ft)

3960 X Pump Eff. X Motor Eff.

MEAN OR AVERAGE = Sum of the Values

Number of Values

TOTAL HEAD (ft) = Suction Lift (ft) X Discharge Head (ft)

SURFACE LOADING RATE = Flow Rate (gpm)

(gal/min/sq.ft) Surface Area (sq. ft)

MIXTURE = (Volume 1, gal) (Strength 1, %) + (Volume 2, gal) (Strength 2,%)

STRENGTH (%) (Volume 1, gal) + (Volume 2, gal)

INJURY FREQUENCY RATE = (Number of Injuries) 1,000,000

Number of hours worked per year

DETENTION TIME (hrs) = Volume of Basin (gals) X 24 hrs

Flow (GPD)

FLUORIDE ION PURITY = (Molecular weight of Fluoride) (100%)

(%) Molecular weight of Chemical

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INJURY FREQUENCY RATE = (Number of Injuries) 1,000,000
Number of hours worked per year

DETENTION TIME (hrs) = Volume of Basin (gals) X 24 hrs

Flow (GPD)

BY-PASS WATER (gpd) = Total Flow (GPD) X Plant Effluent Hardness (gpg)
Filtered Hardness (gpg)

HARDNESS
HARDNESS (mg/L as CaCO3) = A (mls of titrant) X 1000
Mls of Sample

Ca HARDNESS as mg/L CaCo3 = 2.5 X (Ca, mg/L)

Mg HARDNESS as mg/L CaCo3 = 4.12 (Mg, mg/L)

ALKALINITY TOTAL = Mls of Titrant X Normality X 50,000

(mg/L) Mls of Sample

EXCHANGE CAPACITY (grains) = Resin Volume (cu. ft) X Removal Capacity

HARDNESS TO GRAIN/GALLON = Hardness (mg/L) X gr./gal

17.1 mg/L

LANGELIER INDEX = pH - pHs

CHEMICAL ADDITION

CHEMICAL FEED RATE = Chemical Feed (ml/min)

(gpm) 3785 ml/gal

CHLORINE DOSE (mg/L) = Chlorine Demand (mg/L) + Chlorine Residual (mg/L)

POLYMER % = Dry Polymer (lbs.)

Dry Polymer (lbs.) + Water (lbs.)

DESIRED PAC = Volume (MG) X Dose (mg/L) X 8.34

(lbs./MG) 1 MG

PAC (lbs./gal) = PAC (mg/L) X 3.785 (1/gallon)

1000 (mg/g) X 454 (g/lb.)

FILTRATION
FILTRATION RATE = Flow Rate (gpm)
(gpm/sq. ft) Surface Area (sq. ft)

BACKWASH PUMPING RATE = Filter Area (sq. ft) X Backwash Rate (gpm/sq. ft)
(gpm)

FILTRATION RATE = Flow Rate (gpm)

(gpm/sq. ft) Filter Area (sq. ft)

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Glossary References
Benenson, Abram S., editor. 1990. Control of Communicable Diseases in Man. 15th ed.
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Foster, Laurence, M.D. 1985. “Waterborne Disease - It’s Our Job to Prevent It”. PIPELINE
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Prevention of Waterborne Disease Outbreaks. Ed. Gunther F. Craun. Cincinnati: U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency.

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