CEL - 359 RAILWAY ENGINEERING

Dr. Akhilesh Nautiyal

Assistant Professor

Department of Civil Engineering

National Institute of Technology, Uttarakhand

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Chapter – 4

Rails

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 Contents
• Function of rails • Rail manufacture

• Types of rail • Rail Wear

• Requirement for an ideal rail section • Type of wear on rails

• Standard rail section • Measurement of wear

• Weight of rails • Methods to reduce wear

• Length of rails • Causes of rail failure

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 Contents
• Theories for the Development of Creep • Measures to Reduce Creep

• Causes of Creep • Effects of a rail joint

• Effects of Creep • Requirements of an Ideal Rail Joint

• Measurement of Creep • Types of Rail Joints

• Adjustment of Creep • Types of welded rails

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 Function of rails
Rails are made of high-carbon steel which act as steel girders and carry the axle load.

• To provide a continuous and level surface for the movement of trains.

• To provide a smooth pathway with very little friction.

• To serve as a lateral guide for the wheels.

• To bear the stresses developed due to vertical loads transmitted to them through axles and wheels of rolling
stock as well as due to braking and thermal forces.

• To carry out the function of transmitting the load to a large area of the formation through sleepers and the
ballast.

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 Types of Rail
1) Double Headed rail (D.H. rail)

• Made of an I or dumb-bell section, were used in the beginning.

Fig. Double Headed Rail
• Main idea: When the head gets worn out the rail can be inverted and reused.

• In the lower part, the indentations were so formed that the smooth running over
that surface at the top was impossible so the idea failed.

2) Bull Headed rail (B.H. rail)

• Almost similar shape but with more metal in the head to better withstand wear and tear.

• Major drawback: Chairs were required for fixing it to the sleepers. Fig. Bull Headed Rail

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 Types of Rail
3) Flat Footed rail (F.F. rail)

• Also called a vignole rail, with an inverted T-type cross section.

• It can be fixed directly to the sleepers with the help of spikes.

• Advantage: More economical design, giving greater strength and lateral

stability to the track as compared to a BH rail for a given cross-sectional
area.

• It has been standardized for adoption on Indian Railways.

Fig. Flat Footed Rail

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 Requirement for an Ideal Rail Section
• Most economical section consistent with strength, stiffness, and durability.

• The centre of gravity should preferably be very close to the mid-height of the rail so that the maximum
tensile and compressive stresses are equal.

• Economical and balanced distribution of metal in its various components so that each of them can fulfil its
requirements properly.

• Head: Adequate depth to allow for vertical wear. Also, sufficiently wide for a wider running surface and
desired lateral stiffness.

• Web: Sufficiently thick to withstand stresses arising due to the loads, after allowing normal corrosion.

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Requirement for an Ideal Rail Section
• Foot: Sufficient thickness to withstand vertical and horizontal forces and wide enough for stability against
overturning, after allowing for loss due to corrosion.

• The design of the foot should be such that it can be economically and efficiently rolled.

• Fishing angles: Must ensure proper transmission of loads from the rails to the fish plates. The fishing
angles should be such that the tightening of the plate does not produce any excessive stress on the web of
the rail.

• Height of the rail: Adequate so that the rail has sufficient vertical stiffness and strength as a beam.

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 Standard rail section
• The rail is designated by its weight per unit length.

• The standard rail sections in use on Indian Railways are 60 kg, 52 kg, 90 R, 75 R, 60 R and 50 R. (R stands for revised British
specifications)

• Every rail rolled has a brand on its web, which is repeated at intervals.

• As per IRS–T–12–88, the brand marks are as follows: IRS-52 kg – 710 – TISCO – II 1991 → OB
IRS-52-kg: Number of IRS rail section, i.e., 52 kg 710: Grade of rail section, i.e., 710 or 880

TISCO: Manufacturer’s name, e.g., Tata Iron and Steel Co. II 1991: Month and year of manufacture (February 1991)

→ : An arrow showing the direction of the top of the ingot OB: Process of steel making, e.g., open hearth basic (OB)
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Fig. Standard flat-footed rail section

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 Weight of rails
➢ Weight of a rail and its section depend upon various considerations, the heaviest axle load
that the rail has to carry plays the most important role.

➢ Thumb rule for defining the maximum axle load with relation to the rail section:

Maximum axle load = 560 × sectional weight of rail in lbs per yard or kg per metre

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 Weight of rails
➢ For rails of 90 lbs per yard,

Maximum axle load = 560 × 90 lbs = 50,400 lbs or 22.5 t

➢ For rails of 52 kg per m,

Maximum axle load = 560 × 52 kg = 29.12 t

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 Length of rails
➢ Longer rails have lesser no. of joints and fittings, lesser cost of construction and
maintenance, are economical and provide smooth and comfortable rides.
➢ The length of a rail is restricted due to:
(a) Lack of facilities for transport of longer rails, particularly on curves.
(b) Difficulties in manufacturing very long rails.
(c) Difficulties in acquiring bigger expansion joints for long rails.
(d) Heavy internal thermal stresses in long rails.

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 Length of rails
• Indian Railways has standardized a rail length of 13 m for B.G. and 12 m for
M.G. & N.G. tracks.
• Indian Railways is also planning to use 26 m, and even longer, rails in its track
system.

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 Rail Manufacture
• The steel used for the manufacture of rails is made by the open hearth or duplex
process and should not have a wide variation in its chemical composition.
• Four stages of rail manufacturing are :
(a) Steel manufacturing process using a basic oxygen/electric arc furnace,
including argon rinsing and degassing.
(b) Continuous casting of blooms.
(c) Rail rolling process including controlled cooling.
(d) Rail finishing including eddy current testing, ultrasonic testing, and finishing
work. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dabJPCndzNA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AffPPXke9mA
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 Rail Wear
➢ Due to the passage of moving loads and friction b/w rail and wheel, the rail head gets worn out in the course
of service.

➢ Factors causing wear and tear of the vertical and lateral planes of the rail head are:

• Impact of moving loads,

• The effect of the forces of acceleration, deceleration, and braking of wheels,
• The abrasion due to rail–wheel interaction,
• The effects of weather conditions such as changes in temperature, snow, and rains,
• The presence of materials such as sand,
• The standard of maintenance of the track.

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 Rail Wear
• Lateral wear occurs more on curves because of the lateral thrust exerted on the outer rail by
centrifugal force.

• A lot of the metal of the rail head gets worn out, causing the weight of the rail to decrease.

• The rail head should not wear to such an extent that there is the possibility of a worn flange
of the wheel hitting the fish plate.

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 Type of wear on rails
• Vertical wear - On top of the rail head.

• Lateral wear - On the sides of the rail head.

• Battering of rail ends - On the ends of the rail.
Wear is more prominent at some special locations of the track like –
(a) On sharp curves, due to centrifugal forces.
(b) On steep gradients, due to the extra force applied by the engine.
(c) On approaches to railway stations, possibly due to acceleration and deceleration.
(d) In tunnels and coastal areas, due to humidity and weather effects.
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 Measurement of wear
➢ By weighing the rail.

➢ By profiling the rail section with the help of lead strips.

➢ By profiling the rail section with the help of needles.

➢ By using special instruments designed to measure the profile of the rail and
record it simultaneously on graph paper.

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 Methods to Reduce Wear
To reduce vertical wear and lateral wear on straight paths and curves.

• Better maintenance of the track to ensure good packing as well as proper

alignment and use of the correct gauge.

• Reduction in the number of joints by welding.

• Use of heavier and higher UTS rails, which are more wear resistant.

• Use of bearing plates and proper adzing in case of wooden sleepers.

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 Methods to Reduce Wear
➢ Lubricating the gauge face of the outer rail in case of curves.

➢ Providing check rails in the case of sharp curves.

➢ Interchanging the inner and outer rails.

➢ Changing the rail by carrying out track renewal.

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 Causes of Rail Failure
•Inherent defects in the rail - Manufacturing defects like faulty chemical
composition, harmful segregation, etc.

•Defects due to fault of the rolling stock and abnormal traffic effects - Flat spots
in tyres, engine burns, etc.

•Excessive corrosion of rails - Due to weather conditions, presence of corrosive

salts, exposure to moisture and humidity. It leads to the development of cracks in
regions with a high concentration of stresses.

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 Causes of Rail Failure
• Badly maintained joints - Improper packing of joint sleepers and loose fittings.

• Defects in welding of joints - Improper composition of the thermit weld metal or a

defective welding technique.

• Improper maintenance of track - Ineffective or careless maintenance of the track or

delayed renewal of the track.

• Derailments - Damages caused to the rails during derailment.

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 Theories for the Development of Creep
Creep is defined as the longitudinal movement of the rail with respect to the sleepers. Rails have a tendency to
gradually move in the direction of dominant traffic.
1) Wave Motion Theory –
• Wave motion is set up in the resilient track due to moving loads, causing deflection in the rail under the load.
• Portion immediately under the wheel gets slightly depressed due to the wheel load leading to wavy formation.
• When the wheels move forward, the depressions also move with them and the
previously depressed portion springs back to the original level.
• This wave motion tends to move the rail forward with the train.
• The ironing effect of the moving wheels on the wave formed in the rail
causes a longitudinal movement of the rail in the direction of traffic
resulting in the creep of the rail.

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2) Percussion Theory –
• Creep is developed due to the impact of wheels at the rail end ahead of a joint.
• As the wheels of the moving train leave the trailing rail at the joint, the rail gets pushed forward causing it to move in the
longitudinal direction of traffic, and creep develops.
• The continuous movement of several of wheels passing over the joint
pushes the facing or landing rail forward, thereby causing creep.

3) Drag Theory –
The backward thrust of the driving wheels pushes the rail backwards,
while the thrust of the other wheels pushes the rail in the direction of
motion resulting in the longitudinal movement, thereby causing creep.

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 Causes of Creep
• Ironing effect of the wheel - The ironing effect of moving wheels on the waves formed in the rail tends to
cause the rail to move in the direction of traffic, resulting in creep.

• Starting and stopping operations - When a train starts, the backward thrust of wheels push the rail
backwards. When train stops, the effect of the applied brakes push the rail forward, causing creep in one or
the other direction.

• Changes in temperature - Results in expansion and contraction of rail. Creep occurs frequently during hot
weather conditions.

• Unbalanced traffic – Creep develops in the direction of predominant traffic in single-line and double-line
section.

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• Poor maintenance of track –

(a) Improper securing of rails to sleepers.

(b) Limited quantities of ballast resulting in inadequate ballast resistance to the movement of sleepers.

(c) Improper expansion gaps.

(d) Badly maintained rail joints.

(e) Rail seat wear in metal sleeper track.

(f) Rails too light for the traffic carried on them.

(g) Yielding formations that result in uneven cross levels.

(h) Other miscellaneous factors such as lack of drainage, and loose packing, uneven spacing of sleepers.

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 Effects of Creep
• Sleepers out of square - Sleepers move out of their position affecting the gauge and alignment of the track, resulting in
unpleasant rides.

• Disturbance in gaps - The expansion gaps widen or closes resulting jammed joints, creating stresses in the fish plates
and bolts and affecting smooth working of the switch expansion joints in the case of long welded rails.

• Distortion of points and crossings – Difficulty in maintaining correct gauge and alignment of the rails at points and
crossings.

• Difficulty in changing rails - The new rail might be either too short or too long because of creep.

• Effect on interlocking - Interlocking mechanism of the points and crossings gets disturbed.

• Possible buckling of track – Due to excessive creep and negligence in maintenance of the track.

• Other effects - Breaking of bolts and kinks in the alignment.

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 Measurement of Creep

•With the help of a device called creep indicator.

•Creep in excess of 150 mm (6 in.) should not be permitted on any track

and not more than six consecutive rails should be found jammed in a
single-rail track at one location.

• There should be no creep in approaches to points and crossings.

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 Measurement of Creep

• It consists of two creep posts, which are generally rail pieces that are driven at 1-km intervals on either side of the track.

• Their top level is generally kept at the same level as the rail.

• Using a chisel, a mark is made at the side of the bottom flange of the rail on either side of the track.

• A fishing string is then stretched between the two creep posts and the distance between the chisel mark and the string is taken
as the amount of creep

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 Adjustment of Creep
• When creep is in excess of 150 mm it should be adjusted by pulling the rails back.

• This work is carried out after the required engineering signals have been put up and the necessary caution
orders are given.

• Steps involved are:

(a) Survey of the expansion gaps and present position of rail joints.

(b) The total creep proposed to be adjusted and the correct expansion gap to be kept are decided in advance.

(c) The fish plates at one end are loosened and those at the other end are removed. Sleeper fittings, i.e.,
spikes or keys, are also loosened or removed.

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d) Rails are then pulled back one by one with the help of a rope attached to a hook. The rail joints
should remain central and suspended on the joint sleepers.

e) It is a slow process since only one rail is dealt with at a time and can be done only for short isolated
lengths of a track. Normally, about 40–50 men are required per kilometre.

f) For longer lengths, five rail lengths are tackled at a time. Here, instead of pulling the rails with a
rope, a blow is given to them using a cut rail piece of a length of about 5 m.

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 Measures to Reduce Creep
• Rails should be held firmly to the sleepers and adequate ballast resistance should be available.

• All spikes, screws, and keys should be driven home. The toe load of fastenings should always be slightly
more than the ballast resistance.

• Creep anchors, at least eight must be provided per panel. The ‘fair T’ and ‘fair V’
anchors, have been standardized for use. It should fit snugly against the sleeper
for it to be fully effective.

• Track should be well maintained —sleepers properly packed and crib and
shoulder ballast well compacted.

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 Effects of a Rail Joint
• A rail joint is the weakest link in the track, there is a break in the continuity of the rail in both the horizontal
and the vertical planes due to the presence of the expansion gap and imperfection in the levels of rail heads.
• Maintenance effort - Due to the impact of moving loads on the joint, the packing under the sleeper loosens
and the geometry of the track gets distorted. 30% extra labor required.
• Lifespan - Due to extra stresses created by the impact of moving loads rail ends gets battered, hogged and
fracture occurs at joints due to fatigue stresses.
• Noise effect - Noise pollution created due to rail joints makes rail travel uncomfortable.
• Sabotage chances - Potential danger of the removal of fish plates at rail joints and rails by miscreants and
greater susceptibility to sabotage.
• Impact on quality – Due to excessive wear and tear of track components and rolling stock caused by rail
joints.
• Fuel consumption – Due to rail joints extra effort is required by the locomotive to haul the train over these
joints.

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 Requirements of an Ideal Rail Joint
• Holding the rail ends – Should hold both the rail ends in their precise location in both horizontal and vertical
planes to provide continuity in the track and avoid wheel jumping or the deviation of the wheel from its normal path
of movement.

• Strength - Should have the same strength and stiffness as the parent rails it joins.
• Expansion gap - Should provide an adequate expansion gap for the free expansion and contraction of rails caused
by changes in temperature.
• Flexibility - Should provide flexibility for the easy replacement of rails, whenever required.
• Provision for wear - Should provide for the wear of the rail ends, occurring under normal operating conditions.
• Elasticity - Should provide adequate elasticity as well as resistance to longitudinal forces to ensure a trouble-free
track.
• Cost - The initial as well as maintenance costs of an ideal rail joint should be minimal.

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 Types of Rail Joints
The nomenclature of rail joints depends upon the position of the sleepers or the joints.

1) Classification According to Position of Sleepers

• Supported joint –

The ends of the rails are supported directly on the sleeper.

The support tends to slightly raise the height of the rail ends
and the run on the joint becomes hard. Due wear and tear of
the sleeper maintenance is quite a problem.

Example: The duplex sleeper.

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• Suspended joint -

The ends of the rails are suspended b/w two sleepers and some portion of the rail
is cantilevered at the joint.

Due to cantilever action, the packing under the sleepers of the joint becomes loose
particularly due to the hammering action of the moving train loads. It is most
common type adopted worldwide and in India.

• Bridge joints –

It is similar to suspended joint except that the two sleepers on either side of a bridge joint are connected by means of a
metal flat or a corrugated plate known as a bridge plate. Generally not used in India.

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 2) Classification Based on the Position of the Joint

• Square joint –

The joints in one rail are exactly opposite to the joints in the other rail.
Most common in India.

• Staggered joint –

The joints in one rail are somewhat staggered and are not opposite the joints
in the other rail.

Preferred on curved tracks because they hinder the centrifugal force that
pushes the track outward.

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 Types of welded rails
Welded rails provide sufficient restraint at the ends of rail and better degree of fixity of rail to the sleeper
so that the stresses (both thermal and creep) produced are resisted by sleeper fasteners. Types are as
follows:

1) Short Welded Rails (SWR) –

• If 3, 5 or 10 rail lengths are welded together at both the ends of the track, the rails are known as Short
Welded Rails.

• Due to temperature variation SWR contracts or expands through its entire length.

• SWR of 3 rail length is standardized by Indian Railways.

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2) Long Welded Rail (LWR) –

• If minimum rail length of 200m (for B.G.) or 300m (for M.G.) is welded at both the ends. The rail is
known as Long Welded Rail (LWR).

• LWR is the one whose central part does not undergo any longitudinal movement and only end portions are
effected due to temperature variation.

• The maximum LWR length allowed is 1000m.

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Thank You

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