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Right to Marriage of Sexual Minorities:
A Human Rights Perspective
NIKHILESH N
BA (Law) LL.B, LL.M, NET
Assistant Professor, Department of Law, Kannur University, Kerala
&
SHEEJA J
BS.c, LL.B, LL.M, NET
Assistant Professor, Department of Law, Kannur University, Kerala
About the Book
Distributors
SWAMY LAW HOUSE
6. Concluding Remarks
6.1. Introduction……………………………………………………………..139
Appendix .........................................................................................................146
Bibliography....................................................................................................170
PREFACE
The ‘civilized’ society has always kept gender minority communities at a
decent ‘social’ as well as ‘physical’ distance for a long time. The rule of law is
supreme and everyone is equal in the eyes of law. Yet, the transgender
community has to fight a constant battle against oppression, abuse and
discrimination from every quarter of the society, be it their own family and
friends or social institutions like schools colleges or other public places at
large. The life of a gender confused individual in the patriarchal society of
today is a daily battle against social ostracism and ridicule.
Recently Indian courts have come forward to uphold the rights of transgender
people who are also included in the category of sexual minorities. The
Supreme Court of India recognised them as the third gender and decided to
provide them equality in all governmental welfare schemes and assure them
two percent reservation in government employments. The striking down of
Section 377 as unconstitutional was also a positive step towards protection of
rights of sexual minorities.
Indian Parliament, in a bid to extend legal protection to the sexual minorities
has enacted various legislations. These legislations were meant to uphold the
rights of sexual minorities, however the real issue to be mooted is, how far has
the objectives of these legal interventions matched ground reality.
It is unfortunate that both the judiciary and legislature is silent on certain
important issues like the right to marriage, inheritance, civil union status and
so on of the sexual minorities. The sexual minorities can enjoy their
fundamental rights to the full only when these issues are also legally addressed.
Even though 29 countries in the world have, recognized the right to marriage
of sexual minorities those winds of change are yet to reach the Indian judicial
discourse. The prohibition of marriage of LGBT people on the basis of sexual
orientation and gender identity means discrimination against them and is also
violative of Right to Equality as granted by the Constitution of India.
i
The international principles particularly the Yogyakarta Principles is envisaged
as an international norm to prevent all forms of human right violations against
the sexual minorities. It also upheld the right to marriage and found family of
sexual minorities. India, in spite of being a signatory to that conference, has
failed to fully accept those international principles.
Within the purview of this book we have sought to analyse the State practices
of different jurisprudence regarding right to marriage of sexual minorities and
also the precedents of Indian and international courts in order to track the
changes in the interpretative logic regarding the concept of marriage, family,
etc. Study in this book is confined to six chapters including the concluding
remarks. In this book, we have attempted a study of the right to marriage of
sexual minorities, popularly called as LGBTQ in International scenario.
The first chapter introduces the status of sexual minorities in general under the
international jurisprudence and also studies the different international human
rights treaties, regional documents and enforcement mechanisms in the world.
It tries to identify the extent to which the above treaties give importance to the
protection of the human rights of LGBT.
The second chapter pin point to the key issue of marriage and it tries to identify
all the international instruments that recognize right to marriage of LGBTQ
community. It also examines the decisions and observations of different human
right enforcement bodies to protect the basic human rights, such as equality
and privacy of LGBT community, and thereby assured them right to marriage.
Among the decisions of the international bodies, the notable ones are Toonen
and Young. The contribution of ILGA for the protection of human rights of
sexual minorities is also a remarkable one.
The third chapter analyses the LGBTQ marriage in different civilised nations
and the changes brought about by them in their municipal laws to legalise the
same-sex marriage. The chapter also analyses the Acts, Ordinance and decisions
of the courts through which they have assured the right to marriage of sexual
minorities. One of the main points that we have identified from the foreign
ii
jurisprudence is that, their main issue regarding same sex marriage is how they
engage the social issue of the unavailability of governmental welfare
mechanisms to the sexual minorities, e.g., pension, education, insurance, etc.
The fourth chapter focuses on the status of sexual minorities in the Indian
juridical discourse. In India, as per the latest census there are 4.9 lakh of
transgendered people and they are treated worse than animals. Majority of
them are sex workers and many of them are vectors of HIV and other
contagious sexual diseases, they also suffer rampant police brutality. To
improve the standard of living of the transgendered people in India, their right
to marriage, procreation and family should be recognized by the State. The
right to marriage of sexual minorities in India discusses the evolution of the
concept of marriage in India and its development through the three different
periods of Indian history. In addition, it analyses different personal laws in
India and understands how far all these laws protect the right to marriage of
sexual minorities.
The fifth chapter deals with different decisions of High Courts and Supreme
Court of India regarding sexual minorities such as, Naz Foundation, Legal
Service Authority, which assures the basic fundamental rights of sexual
minorities and also analyses the Koushal case which wrought havoc in the
basic human rights of sexual minorities. This chapter also gives a feather touch
to the recent Transgender Act and Transgender Rules.
The concluding chapter gives an overview of the right to marriage of sexual
minorities in India and understands that the present Act also does not provide
any adequate protection to the sexual minorities in India. In conclusion we
have suggested a few ideas to help legalize same sex marriages in India.
iii
Acknowledgement
I express my heart-felt gratitude to my Co-author Smt. Sheeja J.
for her continuous efforts and support instilling confidence in me to
complete this work. I am indebted to Dr. Saji K.S., Sri. Shine P.S. &
Prof. A. M. Gheevarghese for their valuable suggestions and advice. A
word of thanks is due to my family members who were supporting me to
complete this book. Lastly I express my heartfelt gratitude to the dearest
soul who inspired me for the completion of this work.
Nikhilesh. N
iv
ABBREVIATIONS
& And
@ At/alias
AC Appeal Cases
A-D Annual Digest and Reports of Public
International Law.
AIHC All India High Court Cases
AICHR ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on
Human Rights.
AIR All India Reporter
All. LJ Allahabad Law Journal
Am. Inst. Crim. L. & Criminology American institute of Criminal
Law & Criminology
Am.J. Int'l L American Journal of International Law
Anr. Another
Art./Arts Article/Articles
B.Y.I.L British Yearbook of International Law
Ch. D Chancery Division
Chinese JIL Chinese Journal of
International Law
Cir. Circuit
CJ Chief Justice
CJICL Cambridge Journal of International and
Comparative Law
Cr.P.C. Criminal Procedure Code
DB Division Bench
Doc. Document
edn. Edition
ECHR European Convention on Human Rights
v
Abbreviations
No. Number
Not. Notification
NSWLR New South Wales Law Report
OHCHR United Nations Office of the High
Commissioner for Human
Rights.
OAS Organization of American States.
Ors. Others
p. Page
P.C.I.J. Permanent Court of International Justice
para. Paragraph
PC Privy Council
SC Supreme Court
SCC Supreme Court Cases
SCJ Supreme Court Journal
SCR Supreme Court Reports
Sec./Secs. Section/Sections
SMA Special Marriage Act, 1954.
Suppl. Supplement
Tex. Int'l. L.J Texas International Law Journal
vii
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Title: Anghel-eno
Adrien Zograffin toinen kertomus
Language: Finnish
PANAIT ISTRATI
Anna Silfverblad
SISÄLLYS
Anghel-eno
Anghel-enon kuolema
Cosma
ANGHEL-ENO
Tänä alkuhuhtikuun iltana vietettiin Baldovinestin pienessä
kylässä, noin viiden kilometrin päässä Brailasta, Kristuksen
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»Nousen ullakolle…»
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seasta, ja lapset päästivät korviasärkevän kirkunan ja hyppelivät
tulen ympärillä kuin pienet punaiset paholaiset. Sitten hän ampui
metsästyspyssyllään kaksi laukausta ilmaan, sanoen kunkin
laukauksen jälkeen oikeauskoisen kristityn vakaumuksella:
Adrien vavahti kuin äiti olisi käskenyt hänen tarttua paljain käsin
käärmeeseen, ja sanoi:
*****
*****
*****
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Ihminen päättää…
»Ehkä ei, mutta kun pitää kauppaa valtatien varrella, kuten minä,
näkee kaikenlaista, ja nukkuukin vain toisella silmällä».
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Hänellä oli vielä jälellä poikansa, ainoa liekki, joka valaisi hänen
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liekkiin ja sammutti sen.
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Olisi luullut, että onnettomuuden mitta nyt oli täysi. Niin ei ollut.
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kaikkien nähden kenkäni anturaa!»
»Jos tuo yksin on syynä itkuusi, niin rauhoitu toki ja kerro minulle,
mitä käyntisi tarkoittaa».
Enon ääni oli yhtä välinpitämätön, kuin jos hän olisi sanonut:
»Leipä on pöydällä» tai: »Ulkona on pimeä».
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Pappi Stefan, jonka luona Adrien oli pistäytynyt ohi kulkiessaan, oli
kahdeksankymmenvuotias vanhus eikä enää hoitanut virkaansa.
Mutta hän palveli yhä seurakuntaansa, ollen kyläläisten kesken
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Juuri silloin ovi avautui kenenkään koputtamatta selkoselälleen, ja
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vaatteissaan, hartioilla kulunut viitta, jalassa kuivuneen loan
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