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Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing,
Manufacturing & Chemistry

Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

R. Rathinamoorthy

Bacterial
Cellulose
Sustainable Material for Textiles
Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing,
Manufacturing & Chemistry

Series Editor
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu, Head of Sustainability, SgT and API,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/16490
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu •

R. Rathinamoorthy

Bacterial Cellulose
Sustainable Material for Textiles

123
Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu R. Rathinamoorthy
SgT Group and API Department of Fashion Technology
Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong PSG College of Technology
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

ISSN 2662-7108 ISSN 2662-7116 (electronic)

Sustainable Textiles: Production, Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry
ISBN 978-981-15-9580-6 ISBN 978-981-15-9581-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9581-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021
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The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721,
Singapore
Preface

The textile and fashion industry is one of the most polluting industries in the world.
Though several policies are proposed by various governments, we can see a huge
gap concerning the implementation. The sustainability of a textile product can be
brought in many ways like material, chemicals, production methods and also
through designs. However, the prevailing fast fashion concept and more frequent
trend change in the market act as a barrier in implementing those concepts. Out of
all sustainability issues, the use of unsustainable raw material contributes a large
amount of impact on the environment. Hence, the fashion and textile industries are
looking for potential alternative sustainable materials for its use. Bacterial cellulose
is one such sustainable material, which has suitable characteristics for clothing
applications.
In our research, we found numerous interesting aspects of bacterial cellulose.
Though quite a lot of research works performed in the biotechnology field, the
textile and fashion applications explored very little. We found enormous scope in
this area but, at the same time, lack of awareness among the researchers in the
textile and fashion domain. Hence, to provide insight and to enhance the under-
standing of the bacterial cellulose and its properties to the textile and fashion
fraternity, the contents are designed. The book is specifically in black and white by
focusing on textile and fashion students, faculty and researchers in mind. The
technical aspects of the production and analysis were detailed in such a way that the
non-biotechnological personals can also effectively comprehend the production
methods and other details related to microorganisms.
Chapter 1 of the book elucidates the impact of the fast fashion raw materials on
the various environment domains including material depletion, unethical wage,
water consumption, landfills, use of pesticides, etc. The chapter also addresses the
recent sustainable alternatives with huge potential in the textile and fashion fields
including mycelium and bacterial cellulose.
From the second chapter onwards, the main emphasis is given to the bacterial
cellulose. Chapter 2 details the identification and progression of bacterial cellulose
over time. Besides, it details various bacterial strains that are capable of producing

v
vi Preface

cellulose. The various production methods, influencing parameters like carbon,

nitrogen source, fermentation time, pH and other media components on cellulose
development are provided to enrich the readers’ knowledge.
Chapter 3 of the book specifically focuses on the characteristics of the bacterial
cellulose. It strengthens various properties like morphology, chemical, physical,
thermal and moisture management properties of the bacterial cellulose. Further,
huge stress is given in the latter part of the chapter, which particulars the
post-treatment process of bacterial cellulose. The post-treatment steps like scouring
(purification), bleaching, colouration and functionalisation with different chemicals
are very vital in the aspects of textile and fashion application. This content will
open new avenues in the reader's mind to use bacterial cellulose in clothing
applications.
The last chapter of the book recapitulates the application potential in the area of
clothing, accessories, leather alternatives and home textile products. The final part
of the last chapter details various other interrelated applications like wound
dressing, filtration, composites, etc., wherein the textile fabrics are commonly used.
While the previous Chaps. 1 and 2 are dealing with fundamentals of production, the
last two chapters will provide a lot of potential information to readers in the
technical aspect to nurture their future research.

Kowloon, Hong Kong Dr. Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu

Coimbatore, India Dr. R. Rathinamoorthy
Acknowledgements

At the very first place, the authors would like to thank God Almighty for giving
them the might, knowledge, ability and chance to undertake this book and to persist
and complete it satisfactorily.
Authors would like to know the students of PSG College of Technology,
Department of Fashion Technology, Ms. T. Kiruba and Ms. S. Raja
Balasaraswathi, for their tremendous contribution in the area of bacterial cellulose
development and characterisation.
Additionally, authors want to express their gratitude to their family members for
their great support and encouragement to bring out this book in a short span of time.

vii
Contents

1 Sustainability and Fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Impacts of Fast Fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Overproduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.2 Material Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.3 Reduced Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.4 Unethical Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.5 Environmental and Health Hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Raw Materials—The Major Cause for Unsustainability . . . . . . . . 5
1.3.1 Impact of Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.2 Impact of Synthetic Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.3 Impact of Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.4 Impact of Regenerated Cellulosic Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.5 Impact of Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 Sustainable Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.1 Citrus Fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4.2 Pineapple Fibre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.3 Mycelium Leather . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4.4 Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2 Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Chemical and Physical Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3 Cellulose Producing Bacteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4 Bacterial Cellulose—Production Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4.1 Static Culture Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.2 Agitated Culture Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.3 Bioreactors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5 Cellulose Production Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

ix
x Contents

2.6 Factors Influencing Bacterial Cellulose

Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 28
2.6.1 Role of Carbon Source on Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 31
2.7 Role Nitrogen Source on Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 39
2.8 Role of Media pH on Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 43
2.9 Role of Oxygen Supply in Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 45
2.10 Role of Other Nutrients in Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 47
2.11 Role of Temperature on Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 50
2.12 Role of Fermentation Time on Bacterial Cellulose
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 51
2.13 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 52
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 53
3 Characteristics of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Morphological Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.2.1 Effect of In-Situ Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.2.2 Effect of Ex-Situ Modification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3 Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.1 FTIR Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.2 XRD Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.4 Thermal Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4.1 Thermo-gravimetric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.4.2 Differential Scanning Calorimetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.6 Moisture-Related Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.6.1 Water Holding Capacity/Water Absorption/Swelling/
Water Retention Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 78
3.6.2 Water Vapour Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 80
3.6.3 Wettability or Water Contact Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 81
3.7 Purification and Bleaching of Bacterial
Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.7.1 Purification of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.7.2 Bleaching of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.8 Colouration Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.8.1 In-Situ Dyeing of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.8.2 Ex-Situ Dyeing of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.9 Drying Characteristics of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Contents xi

3.9.1 Oven-Drying Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

3.9.2 Freeze-Drying Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.9.3 Tray Drying Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.9.4 Room Temperature Drying Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.9.5 Supercritical CO2 Drying (SCD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.9.6 Hot Air-Drying Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.9.7 Vacuum Drying Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.9.8 Microwave Oven Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.10 Functionalisation with Plasticisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.10.1 Use of Plasticisers (Ex-Situ Applications) . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.10.2 Use of Functional Components (As Composites) . . . . . . 120
3.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4 Applications of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.2 Clothing Application of Bacterial Cellulose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3 Bacterial Cellulose as Leather Alternative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.1 Fashion Accessories (Shoes and Bags) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
4.3.2 Home Textile Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.4 Applications in Healthcare and Medical
Industries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4.1 Wound Dressing Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.4.2 Cardiovascular Implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.4.3 Cartilage/Meniscus Implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.4.4 Drug Delivery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.5 Scaffolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.4.6 Bone and Connective Tissue Repair . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4.7 Dental and Oral Implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4.8 Neural Implants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
4.4.9 Artificial Cornea/Contact Lens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5 Other Engineering Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5.1 Food Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.5.2 Filtration Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.5.3 Electrical and Sensor Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5.4 Paper Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.5.5 Other Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
About the Authors

Dr. Subramanian Senthilkannan Muthu currently works for SgT Group as Head
of Sustainability, and is based out of Hong Kong. He earned his Ph.D. from The
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and is a renowned expert in the areas of
Environmental Sustainability in Textiles and Clothing Supply Chain, Product Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Product Carbon Footprint Assessment (PCF) in
various industrial sectors. He has five years of industrial experience in textile
manufacturing, research and development and textile testing and seven years of
experience in life cycle assessment (LCA), carbon and ecological footprints
assessment of various consumer products. He has published more than 75 research
publications, written numerous book chapters and authored/edited multiple books
in the areas of Carbon Footprint, Recycling, Environmental Assessment and
Environmental Sustainability.

Dr. R. Rathinamoorthy, working as an Associate Professor in the Department of

Fashion Technology, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India from 2009.
He had completed his Ph.D. on “Medical Textiles” in 2016. Recently he received
the “Young Achiever Award” for the year 2019 by the Institute of Engineers India
(IEI), coimbatore chapter. In 2017, He also received a national-level “Young
Engineer award for the year 2016–17” in Textile Engineering domain, by Institute
of Engineers India (IEI), Kolkata, West Bengal, India. He is having a google H
index of 11 and a Scopus H index of 7 with more than 400 citations. He had
published 19 national and 53 international research articles in various refereed and
non-refereed journals. He had presented three international conference papers
and two national seminars. He authored 5 technical books in the area of Apparel
and fashion technology field and 19 book chapters with various international
publishers like Woodhead Publisher, Springer Verlag, Springer Nature, Springer
Singapore, Taylor & Francis and Elsevier publishers to his credit. In 2011, he had
sanctioned a research project from University Grants Commission for the tune of
Rs.10.15 Lakhs and successfully completed it in 2013. He also sanctioned a minor
project to the worth of rupees 0.15 lakhs under PSG STEP, an Initiative by DST,
NSTEDB, Government of India.

xiii
xiv About the Authors

He has eleven years of teaching experience in the area of Textile and Fashion
discipline. He also has one year industrial experience as an industrial engineer. His
research interest is on sustainable material for textile and fashion industries. He is
currently working on bacterial cellulose and other biomaterials to identify their
potential in the fashion industry as a sustainable alternative to existing conventional
materials.
Chapter 1
Sustainability and Fashion
Issues with Raw Material

1.1 Introduction

For the past few years, the most fascinating topic which is getting greater acceleration
in the global fashion market is ‘fast fashion’. Actually, the term ‘fast fashion’ refers to
the clothing that quickly moves from catwalk to stores with the purpose of mimicking
the current luxury trends. It is an approach to make the fashion trends available for
the normal consumers quickly and cheaply. This is the concept by which normal
people can also be fashionable as the celebrity and high fashion models with trendy
clothes which are being sold at affordable price. To understand better, it refers the fast
production of cheap clothes inspired by great fashion houses where the production
is made faster so that the time taken to reach the customer will get reduced. Fast
fashion is also called ‘McFashion’ which has the meaning of fast and convenient
fashion which is made possible by the fast production and affordable price. This
fast fashion system is being fuelled mainly by cheaper clothing, increase in the
hungriness for fashionable clothing and increase in the purchasing power of the
people. Cheaper clothing attracts middle-class people to go with the trend. Most of
the fashion companies are adopting fast fashion strategy by replicating streetwear
and fashion week trends as they appear in real time. They are managed to sell trends
at greater speed at affordable price. The increase in the clothes consumption and
a decrease in the trend cycle duration make the consumer to prefer low-quality
and trendy clothes. From the consumers’ point of view, the three main reasons that
make the prevalence of fast fashion are that it is cheaper, trendy and disposable.
The concept is executed efficiently by promoting the continuous cycle of planned
production, distribution, disposal and replacement of fashion products. The main
elements of fast fashion are reported in Fig. 1.1 as mentioned in the literature [1].
The quick response strategy is one of the common supply chain strategies and
extensively used in firms that produce fast fashion material. It integrates the customer
requirements and production capacity to meet the market needs on time. This process
integrates all parts of the supply chain and assures quality. Further, it shares the

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2021 1
S. S. Muthu and R. Rathinamoorthy, Bacterial Cellulose, Sustainable Textiles: Production,
Processing, Manufacturing & Chemistry,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-9581-3_1
2 1 Sustainability and Fashion

Fig. 1.1 Main elements of fast fashion [1]

information with vendors and retailers through online mode, and so, no work in
progress delays at any stage of the manufacturing process. The design is one of the
important restrictions for the shorter production cycle. Hence, the second element
either generalises the design or delays the customer’s buying behaviour until the
design in the retail store for sale. The term agility represents the flexibility of the
manufacturing firm to develop different styles and mass quantities as the market
requires, usually in a short span of time. In order to achieve this effect, the supply
chain connection should be more market-sensitive to achieve customer requirements
whenever the demand arises. This further allows the vendors and manufacturers to
be virtually connected and update the real-time data. Hence, the unnecessary work in
progress avoided and complete integrated network connection make the production
possible at any place. Finally, the assortment, it is a retailing practice which makes
the customer not to get bored among the existing collection. As the fast fashion
collection launched in a shorter time, the dynamic assortment of production makes
the customer’s shopping experience more interesting and invites them for frequent
shopping [1]. This enables the manufacturers and brands to deliver the product on
time to the market. A recent research report indicated that the environmental impact
from the apparel manufacturing companies will increase by 80% in 2025 if the same
level of per capita consumption follows [2]. Now, the fast fashion giants are offering
products on a weekly basis, and they call it as microseason, over 3–4 seasons per year.
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