Transport in Porous Media

Momentum Equations in Porous Media

Pressure gradient (or) pressure difference across the porous media causes the fluid to

flow from high pressure to low pressure zone with a velocity (Hence, the cause is pressure

difference, and the consequence of it is the fluid flowing with velocity). The magnitude of

velocity at which the fluid flows within the porous media depends on the type(s) of

forces/effects that acts on the fluid such as viscous drag, viscous shear, inertial force,

gravitational force and capillary force. These forces/effects that acts on the fluid are in turn,

depends on: (i) fluid properties (e.g., density, viscosity); (ii) rock properties (e.g., pore space,

pore throat opening, porosity, permeability, presence/absence of fractures); and (iii) magnitude

of pressure gradient. Hence to summarize, the magnitude of pressure gradient, along with fluid

and rock properties decide the type(s) of forces/effects that acts on the fluid, which in turn,

dictates the magnitude of fluid velocity within the porous media. This relation between pressure

gradient/pressure difference and the velocity at which the fluid flows due to different

forces/effects is expressed mathematically by using momentum equations. Hence, momentum

equations in porous rock relates the pressure gradient, flow velocity, fluid properties and rock

properties. These momentum equations are used to calculate the velocity of fluid flow in porous

rock from known pressure gradient or vice versa.

For porous media applications, particularly in the field of petroleum engineering, different

types of momentum equations were available to calculate the flow velocity in reservoir rock

(porous rock) from a known pressure gradient. Upon calculating the flow velocity using

momentum equations, it will be subsequently used to calculate the transport (since advection

and dispersion processes are function of fluid velocity) of solutes/tracers (polymers,

surfactants, microbes, ions) within the reservoir during Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR)
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applications. The major different types of momentum equations (or mathematical models) that

are used in porous media are as follows:

1. Darcy’s equation

2. Darcy-Brinkman equation

3. Darcy-Forccheimer equation

Among these available momentum equations, it is very important to select an appropriate

equation to model and simulate the flow and transport processes within a reservoir. For

instance, while predicting the performance of EOR applications and fluid flow near

injection/production wells, the accuracy of such prediction studies significantly depends on

the magnitude of fluid velocity. Hence, to calculate the magnitude of fluid velocity with

better accuracy for a given reservoir system, the selection of an appropriate momentum

equation is necessary. Now, the selection of appropriate (or) suitable momentum equation

for a reservoir system depends on: magnitude of pressure gradient; presence/absence of

fractures within reservoir; pore space; permeability; fluid viscosity; and fluid density.

Before we discuss about each of the momentum equations, first we will understand the

forces/effects that will act on the fluid, while the fluid flows between the solid surfaces as

shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. Schematic showing velocity profile of fluid flowing between solid boundaries

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 From Fig. 1, it is considered that due to pressure gradient, the fluid with viscosity,

𝜇 (𝑁𝑠𝑚−2) and density, 𝜌 (𝐾𝑔𝑚−3 ) flows between two solid surfaces, which are separated

by small distance. As a result, the fluid flow develops a parabolic velocity profile between

the solid surface as shown in Figure 1. It is also observed from Fig.1 has two zones marked,

i.e., Zone A and Zone B.

In Zone A, the fluid velocity at the boundary is zero (no slip boundary condition),

because of the frictional resistance offered by the solid boundary on the fluid, where the

fluid is unable to undergo shear deformation. However, with the increase in distance from

the boundary, the frictional resistance on the fluid decreases, which results in the increase

in fluid velocity as the distance from boundary increases. Thus, the fluid in this entire Zone

A flows under the effect of boundary, where the fluid flow is dragged/resisted due to the

frictional resistance offered by the boundary. In addition to frictional resistance, the other

factor that governs the flow in both Zone A and Zone B is the fluid viscosity. It is found

that with increase in viscosity of fluid, the fluid exhibits more resistance to shear

deformation, which results in decrease in fluid flow velocity and vice versa. Finally, it is

inferred from Zone A that viscosity of fluid governs the fluid flow, and such fluid flow

subsequently experiences drag due to frictional boundary effects. Hence, the fluid flow in

Zone A is termed as Viscous Drag.

With further moving of distance from Zone A to Zone B (i.e., transitioning from Zone

A to Zone B), the fluid flows in Zone B with completely free from solid boundary effect

(i.e., free from drag effects). Hence, the Zone B is termed as free flow zone. In this zone,

the fluid flows by purely by shear deformation, and completely free from boundary drag

effects. Hence, the velocity of fluid flow in Zone B will be relatively higher than velocity

in Zone A. This behavior of fluid flow in Zone B is termed as Viscous Shear.

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The thickness of Zone A and Zone B depends on: distance between the solid boundaries;

magnitude of pressure gradient, fluid density; and viscosity. For instance, if a viscous fluid

(e.g., oil, water) flows under relatively lesser pressure gradient between the solid

boundaries which are separated at a relatively lesser distance, then as a result, the fluid will

flow at a velocity depending only on viscous drag (i.e., Zone A) . Whereas, in another case,

if a fluid with relatively lesser viscosity (e.g., gas) flows under relatively higher pressure

gradient between the solid boundaries which are separated by relatively larger distance,

then as a result, the fluid would flow at a velocity depending on the net effect of viscous

drag (i.e. Zone A) and viscous shear (i.e., Zone B).

Now, we will discuss about the different momentum equations that were used in porous

media/ petroleum reservoir.

(i) Darcy’s Equation:

In reservoir engineering, while modelling fluid flow in reservoirs, Darcy’s equation is

widely used to calculate/determine the fluid velocity for a known pressure gradient. In

Darcy’s equation, the flow due to pressure gradient represents the viscous drag. This is

because, in petroleum reservoirs, generally the flow of oil and water (viscous flow) happens

at relatively lesser pressure gradient (at the distance far away from injection/production

well) within relatively very small pore spaces (measuring between nanometer to

millimeter). Hence, within the reservoirs, the entire fluid flowing within the pore space

experiences drag force from the surrounding rock grains, thereby limiting the velocity of

fluid flow in reservoirs. Thus, the fluid flow within the petroleum reservoir represents the

viscous drag. The resultant velocity in porous media/petroleum reservoirs under the effect

of viscous drag for a known pressure gradient is calculated using Darcy’s equation as given

in Eq. 1.

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 𝜇
∇𝑃 = − 𝑢 …………………….(Eq. 1)
𝑘

Here, in Eq. (1): ∇𝑃 represents pressure gradient in 𝑁𝑚−2 ; 𝜇 represents fluid viscosity in

𝑁𝑠𝑚−2 ; 𝑘 represents permeability of porous media/reservoir in 𝑚2 ; 𝑢 represents fluid

velocity in 𝑚𝑠 −1 .

(ii) Darcy-Brinkman Equation:

In case of pore space within the reservoir is relatively larger, then the flow zone within the

pore space transits from viscous drag flow zone (Zone A) to viscous shear flow zone (Zone

B) (i.e., transitioning from boundary dominant flow to free flow). Hence, the fluid

experiences both viscous drag and viscous shear while flowing. So, in order to calculate

fluid velocity in reservoirs with relatively larger pore space under a known pressure

gradient, Darcy-Brinkmann Equation is used, which considers the net effect of viscous drag

and viscous shear during flow. Darcy-Brinkman Equation is given by Eq. (2) as follows:

𝜇
∇𝑃 = − 𝑘 𝑢 + 𝜇∇2 𝑢 ……………………….(Eq. 2)

First and second term in RHS of Eq. (2) represents the viscous drag and viscous shear term

respectively. The viscous drag effect restricts the fluid flow, while viscous shear effect

promotes the fluid flow within the pores. Hence, their net effect on fluid flow is calculated

using Eq. (2)

(iii) Darcy-Forccheimer Equation:

Darcy-Forccheimer Equation is used to calculate the flow velocity from known pressure

gradient, when the inertial force comes into effect along with viscous drag during the fluid

flow in fractured porous media. The Darcy-Forccheimer equation is given by Eq. (3)

𝜇
∇𝑃 = − 𝑘 𝑢 − 𝜌𝑢2 …..…………(Eq. 3)

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First and second term in RHS of Eq. (3) represents the viscous drag and inertial force term

respectively. The inertial force becomes prominent, when the less viscous fluid (gas) flows

under higher pressure gradient (near injection/production wells) through fractures. Hence,

in such cases, Darcy-Forccheimer Equation is a suitable equation to calculate the velocity

of fluid flow. It is to be noted that the inertial force term in RHS of Eq. (3) is the same

quadratic pressure gradient term we will get while we deriving single phase flow in porous

media (), and it is generally neglected in that derivation, by assuming that it has negligible

effect on flow. However, in case of gas flow near injection/production wells, this non-linear

velocity term has to be retained for better prediction. Hence during well testing of gas wells,

this non-linear velocity term is included.