Unit II -Time Response Analysis

Time response
 The response given by the system which is function of the
time, to the applied excitation.
Types
The time response of a control system is divided into two parts.

1 Transient response ct(t)

2 Steady state response css(t)
. . . c(t)=ct(t) +cSS(t)
Where c(t)= Time Response

Total Response=Zero State Response +Zero Input Response

 What are the transient and steady state responses of a control system? [Nov/Dec
2012 ]----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2 Mark

Transient response
 The response of the system when the system changes from one
state to another.
Steady state response.
 The response of the system when it approaches infinity.

 Write any two test signals used to evaluate the performance of the
given system. .[Nov/Dec 2005] ------------------------------------2 Mark
 What are the various test signals used for analysis of systems ?

Standard Test Input Signals

 The signals are commonly used as reference inputs .

 The performance of a system can be evaluated with respect to
these test signals.
 Based on the information obtained the design of control
system is carried out.

 The commonly used test signals are

1. Step Input signals.

2. Ramp Input Signals.
3. Parabolic Input Signals.
 4. Impulse input signal.

Details of standard test signals

1. Step input signal (position function)
 It is the sudden application of the input at a specified time
Example:-
a. If the input is an angular position of a mechanical shaft a step input
represent the sudden rotation of a shaft.
b. Switching on a constant voltage in an electrical circuit.
c. Sudden opening or closing a valve.
r(t)

O t
When, A = 1, r(t) = u(t) = 1

The step is a signal who’s value changes from 1 value (usually 0) to another level
A in Zero time.

In the Laplace Transform form R(s) = A / S

Mathematically r(t) = u(t)

= 1 for t > 0
= 0 for t < 0

2. Ramp Input Signal (Velocity Functions):

It is constant rate of change in input that is gradual application of input.

Ex:- Altitude Control of a Missile

Slope = A

0 t

The ramp is a signal, which starts at a value of zero and increases linearly
with time.
 Mathematically r (t) = At for t ≥ 0
= 0 for t≤ 0.

In LT form R(S) = A
S2
If A=1, it is called Unit Ramp Input

Mathematically

r(t) = t u(t)

=
{ t for t ≥ 0
0 for t ≤ 0

In LT form R(S) = A = 1
S2 S2

3. Parabolic Input Signal (Acceleration function):

 The input which is one degree faster than a ramp type of input as shown in fig
(2 c) or it is an integral of a ramp .
 Mathematically a parabolic signal of magnitude

A is given by r(t) = A t2 u(t)

2 Slope = At
2
At for t ≥ 0 r(t)
= 2
0 for t ≤ 0
t

In LT form R(S) = A
S3
 If A = 1, a unit parabolic function is defined as r(t) = t2 u(t)
2
ie., r(t)

=
{ t2 for t ≥ 0
2
0 for t ≤ 0
In LT for R(S) = 1
S3
4. Impulse Input Signal :

 It is the input applied instantaneously (for short duration of time ) of very

high amplitude.

Eg: Sudden shocks i e, HV due lightening or short circuit.
It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.

 It is the pulse whose magnitude is infinite while its width tends to zero.
r(t)
ie., t 0 (zero) applied
momentarily
A

O t
∆t 0

Area of impulse = Its magnitude

 If area is unity, it is called Unit Impulse Input denoted as (t)

 Mathematically it can be expressed as

r(t) = A for t = 0
= 0 for t ≠ 0
 In LT form R(S) = 1 if A = 1

Standard test Input Signals and its Laplace Transforms.

r(t) R(S)
Unit Step 1/S
Unit ramp 1/S2
Unit Parabolic 1/S3
Unit Impulse 1

 Derive the unit step and unit ramp response of first order system and
plot the responses. [.[Nov/Dec 2004] ---------------------------------8Mark

First order system:-

The 1st order system is represent by the differential Eq:- a1dc(t )+aoc (t) = bor(t)------ (1)
dt

Where, e (t) = out put , r(t) = input, a0, a1 & b0 are constants.
Dividing Eq:- (1) by a0, then a1. d c(t ) + c(t) = bo.r (t)
a0 dt ao

T . d c(t ) + c(t) = Kr (t) ---------------------- (2)

dt

Where, T=time const, has the dimensions of time = a1 & K= static sensitivity = b0
a0 a0

Taking for L.T. for the above Eq:- [ TS+1] C(S) = K.R(S)

T.F. of a 1st order system is ; G(S) = C(S ) = K .

R(S) 1+TS

If K=1, Then G(S) = 1 . [ It’s a dimensionless T.F.]

1+TS ……I

This system represents RC ckt. A simplified block diagram is as shown.;

R(S)+ 1 C(S)
TS
-

Unit step response of 1st order system:-

Let a unit step i\p u(t) be applied to a 1st order system,

Then, r (t)=u (t) & R(S) = 1 . ---------------(1)
S
W.K.T. C(S) = G(S). R(S)
C(S) = 1 . 1 . = 1 . T . ----------------- (2)
1+TS S S TS+1

Taking inverse L.T. for the above Eq:-

then, C(t)=u (t) – e –t/T ; t.>0.------------- (3) slope = 1 .
T
At t=T, then the value of c(t)= 1- e –1 = 0.632. c (t)

The smaller the time const. T. the

faster the system response. 0.632 1 – e –t/T
The slope of the tangent line at at t= 0 is 1/T.
Since dc = 1 .e -t/T = 1 . at t .=0. ------------- (4)
dt T T t
T
From Eq:- (4) , We see that the slope of the response curve c(t) decreases monotonically
from 1 . at t=0 to zero. At t= 
T

Step response of 2nd order system:

The T.F. = C(s) = Wn2 Based on value

R(s) 3 +2 WnS+ Wn2
2

The system may be,

Under damped system (0< <1)

Critically damped system (=1)
Over damped system (>1)

1) Under damped system :- (0< <1)

In this case C(s) can be written as
R(s)

C(s) = Wn2
R(s) (S+ wn + jwd ) (S+ wn - jwd )

Where wd = wn 1- 2 The Freq. wd is called damped natural frequency

For a unit step i/p :- [ R(t)= 1  R(S) = 1/S]

C(S) = Wn2 . X R (S) = Wn2 . = 1 .

(S +2  Wn S+ Wn )
2 2
(S +2  WnS+ Wn2)
2
S

C(S) = 1 . S+2Wn .
S S +2 WnS+ Wn
2 2

= 1 . S+Wn . __  Wn . --------------- (5)

S (S+  Wn)2 + Wd2 (S+  Wn2 + Wd2)

C(S) = 1 . S+Wn . __  . Wd .
S (S+ Wn) + Wd
2 2
 1- 2
(S+  Wn) 2 + Wd2

Taking ILT, C(t) = 1-e-Wnt COS Wdt +  . Sin Wdt ------------ (6)
 1- 2
 The error signal for this system is the difference b/w the I/p & o/p.

 e(t) = r(t)  c(t) .

= 1 c(t)

= e-Wnt COS Wdt +  . Sin Wdt --------------------- (7)

 1- 2 t > o.

At t = , error exists b/w the i/p & o/p.

If the damping ratio = O, the response becomes undammed & oscillations continues
indefinitely.
The response C(t) for the zero damping case is ,

c(t) =1-1(COS wnt) =1- COS wnt ; t > O --------------------- (8)

 From Eq:- (8) , we see that the W n represents the undamped natural frequency of
the system.
 If the linear system has any amount of damping the undamped natural frequency
cannot be observed experimentally.

 Wd =wn 1 2 This frequency is always lower than the undammed natural

frequency. An increase in  would reduce the damped natural frequency W d . If
 is increased beyond unity, the response over damped & will not oscillate.

Critically damped case:- ( =1).

If the two poles of C(S) are nearly equal, the system may be approximated by a
R(S)
Critically damped one.

For a step I/p R(S) = 1/S

 C(S) = Wn2 .  1 .
S +2  Wn S+ Wn2
2
S

= 1 . 1 . Wn .
S (S + Wn) ( S+ Wn)2

= 1 . Wn2 .
S ( S + Wn )2S
Taking I.L.T.,

C(t) = 1 – e -Wnt (1+wnt)

 Over damped system :- ( > 1)

If this case, the two poles of C(S) are negative, real and unequal.
R(S)
For a unit step I/p R(S) = 1/S , then,

C(S) = Wn2 .
(S+  Wn + Wn   - 12
) ( S+ Wn - Wn  2 – 1)

Taking ILT, C(t) = 1+ 1 . e ( +  2 – 1) Wn t.

S  – 1 (+   – 1)
2 2

1 . e ( +  2 – 1) Wn t.
S  – 1 (+  2 – 1)
2

C(t) = 1+ Wn . e-S1t . - e-S2t . ;t>O

S 2 – 1 S1 S2

Where S1 = ( +  2 – 1) Wn

S2 = ( -  2 – 1) Wn
 Define rise time .[Nov/Dec
2004,2008]-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------- -------------------------------2 Mark
 List out any four time domain specifications..[Nov/Dec 2006] -2 Mark
 What are the time domain specifications? [May/June 2009 ]-----2 Mark
 Define peak time.[Nov/Dec 2012 ]-----------------------------------2 Mark

Time response (Transient) Specification (Time domain) Performance :-

 Delay time (td)
Rise time (tr)
Peak time (tp)
Max over shoot (Mp)
Settling time (ts)

1) Delay time :- (td)

 It is the time required for the response to reach 50% of its final value
for the 1st time.

2) Rise time :- (tr)

 It is the time required for the response to rise from 10% and 90% or
0% to 100% of its final value.
 For under damped system, second order system the 0 to 100% rise time is
commonly used. For over damped system, the 10 to 90% rise time is
commonly used.

3) Peak time :- (tp)

 It is the time required for the response to reach the 1 st of peak of the
overshoot.

4) Maximum over shoot :- (MP)

  It is the maximum peak value of the response curve measured from
unity.
 The amount of max over shoot directly indicates the relative stability of
the system.

5) Settling time :- (ts)

 It is the time required for the response curve to reach & stay with in a
range about the final value of size specified by absolute percentage of
the final value (usually 5% to 2%).
 The settling time is related to the largest time const., of C.S.

 What is the expression for unit step response of second order under
damped system? .[Nov/Dec 2004] -------------------------------2 Mark
 Derive the expression for peak time from the expression of second order
under damped system. .[Nov/Dec 2004] -------------------------------8 Mark
 Discuss the unit step response of second order system. ? [April/May
2010 ]----------------------------------------------------------------------8 Mark

Transient response specifications of second order system :-

W. K.T. for the second order system,

T.F. = C(S) = Wn2 . ------------------------------(1)

R(S) S +2  WnS+ Wn
2 2

Assuming the system is to be underdamped (< 1)

Rise time tr
W. K.T. C(tr) = 1- e-Wnt Cos Wdtr +  . sin wdtr
 1-2
Let C(tr) = 1, i.e., substituting tr for t in the above Eq:

Then, C(tr) = 1 = 1- e-Wntr Cos wdtr +  . sin wdtr

 1-2

Cos wdtr +  . sin wdtr = tan wdtr = -  1-2 = wd .

 1-2  

jW

Thus, the rise time tr is , jWd

 tr = 1 . tan-1 -wd = -  secs Wn  1-2  Wn

Wd  wd
When  must be in radians. - 
Wn

Peak time :- (tp) S- Plane

Peak time can be obtained by differentiating C(t) W.r.t. t and equating that
derivative to zero.
dc = O = Sin Wdtp Wn . e-Wntp
dt t = t p  1-2
Since the peak time corresponds to the 1st peak over shoot.
 Wdtp =  = tp =  .
Wd

The peak time tp corresponds to one half cycle of the frequency of damped
oscillation.

 Write the expression of maximum peak overshoot for a second order

system. .[May/June 2006] -----------------------------------------2 Mark

Maximum overshoot :- (MP)

The max over shoot occurs at the peak time.

i.e. At t = tp =  .
Wd
Mp = e –(/ Wd)  or e –( / 1-2) 
Settling time :- (ts)
An approximate value of ts can be obtained for the system O <  <1 by using
the envelope of the damped sinusoidal waveform.

Time constant of a system = T = 1 .

Wn
Setting time ts = 4x Time constant.
= 4x 1 . for a tolerance band of +/- 2% steady state.
Wn

Delay time :- (td)

 The easier way to find the delay time is to plot Wn td VS . Then
approximate the curve for the range O<< 1 , then the Eq. becomes,
Wn td = 1+0.7 
 td = 1+0.7 
Wn

PROBLEMS:

(1) Consider the 2nd order control system, where  = 0.6 & Wn = 5 rad / sec, obtain
the rise time tr, peak time tp, max overshoot Mp and settling time ts When the
system is subject to a unit step i/p.,

Given :-  = 0.6, Wn = 5rad /sec, tr = ?, tp = ?, Mp = ?, ts = ?

Wd = Wn  1- 2 = 5  1-(0.6) 2 = 4

 = Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3.

tr =  -,  = tan-1 Wd = tan-1 4 = 0.927 rad

Wd  3
tr = 3.14 – 0.927 = 0.55sec.
4

tp =  = 3.14 = 0.785 sec.

Wd 4

 .  = e  / Wd 

MP = e  1- 2
MP = e (3/4) x 3.14 = 0.094 x 100 = 9.4%

ts :- For the 2% criteria.,

ts = 4 . = 4 . = 1.33 sec.
Wn 0.6x5

For the 5% criteria.,

ts = 3 = 3 = 1 sec
 3
2) The open loop T.F. of a unity feed back system is given by G(S) = K . where,
S(1+ST)
 T&K are constants having + Ve values.By what factor (1) the amplitude gain be
reduced so that (a) The peak overshoot of unity step response of the system is reduced
from 75% to 25% (b) The damping ratio increases from 0.1 to 0.6.

Solution: G(S) = K .
S(1+ST)
Let the value of damping ratio is, when peak overshoot is 75% & when peak
overshoot is 25%

Mp =  . 

e  1-  2

ln 0. 75 =  .  0.0916 =  .
  1- 2  1- 2
1 = 0.091 (0.0084) (1-2) = 2
2 = 0.4037 (1.0084 2) = 0.0084
 = 0.091

k .
2
S+ST .
w.k.t. T.F. = G(S) = 1+ K . = K .
2 2
1+ G(S) . H(S) S+ST S + S T+K
T.F. = K/T .
S2 + S + K .
T T

Comparing with std Eq :-

Wn = K . , 2 Wn = 1 .
T T

Let the value of K = K1 When = 1 & K = K2 When  = 2.

Since 2 Wn = 1 . ,  = 1 . = 1 .
T 2TWn 2 KT

1 .
 1 . = 2  K1T = K2 .
2 1 K1
2 K2T

0.091 = K2 .  K2 . = 0.0508
0.4037 K1 K1
 K2 = 0.0508 K1

a) The amplitude K has to be reduced by a factor = 1 . = 20

0.0508
b) Let  = 0.1 Where gain is K1 and
 = 0.6 Where gain is K2
 0.1 = K2 . K2 . = 0.027  K2 = 0.027 K1
0.6 K1 K1

The amplitude gain should be reduced by 1 . = 36

0.027

3).Find all the time domain specification for a unity feed back control system whose open
loop T.F. is given by

G(S) = 25 .
S(S+6)

Solution:
25 .
G(S) = 25 .  G(S) . = S(S+6) .
S(S+6) 1 + G(S) .H(S) 1 + 25 .
S(S+6)
= 25 .
S2 + ( 6S+25 )

W2n = 25 ,  Wn = 5, 2 Wn = 6   = 6 . = 0.6

2x5
Wd = Wn  1- 2 = 5  1- (0.6) = 4
2

tr =  - ,  = tan-1 Wd  = Wn = 0.6 x 5 = 3

Wd 

 = tan-1 ( 4/3 ) = 0.927 rad.

tp =  . = 3.14 = 0.785 sec.

Wd 4

MP =  .  = 0.6 . x3.4 = 9.5%

e  1- 2 e 1- 0.62
ts = 4 . for 2% = 4 . = 1.3 ………3sec.
Wn 0.6 x 5

4) The closed loop T.F. of a unity feed back control system is given by
Determine (1) Damping ratio  (2) Natural
undamped response frequency Wn. (3) Percent
peak over shoot Mp (4) Expression for error
resoponse.
 C(S) = 5 .
2
R(S) S + 4S +5

Solution:

C(S) = 5 . , Wn2 = 5  Wn = 5 = 2.236

R(S) S2 + 4S +5

2Wn = 4   = 4 . = 0.894. Wd = 1.0018

2 x 2.236

MP =  .  = 0.894 . X 3.14 = 0.19%

e  1- 2 e  1-(0.894)2
W. K.T. C(t) = e-Wnt Cos Wdtr +  . sin wdtr
 1-2
= e-0.894x2.236t Cos 1.0018t + 0.894 . sin 1.0018t
 1-(0.894)2

5) A servo mechanism is represent by the Eq:-

d2 + 10 d = 150E , E = R- is the actuating signal calculate the

dt2 dt value of damping ratio, undamped and damped
frequency of ascillation.

Soutions:- d2 + 10 d = 15 ( r -  ) , = 150r – 150.

dt2 dt

Taking L.T., [S2 + 10S + 150]  (S) = 150 R (S).

 (S) = 150 .
2
R(S) S + 10S + 15O

Wn2 = 150  Wn = 12.25. ………………………….rad sec .1

2Wn = 10   = 10 . = 0.408.
2 x 12.25
 Wd =Wn  1 -  2 = 12.25  1- (0.408)2 = 11.18. rad 1sec.

 What is meant by velocity error?[Nov/Dec 2005] ---------------2 Mark

1. To express the steady state error for ramp input

2. Dimension of this error is same as system error

Steady state Error :-

Steady state errors constitute an extremely important aspect of system

performance.
The state error is a measure of system accuracy.
These errors arise from the nature of i/p’s type of system and from non-linearties
of the system components.
The steady state performance of a stable control system is generally judged by its
steady state error to step, ramp and parabolic i/p.

Consider the system shown in the fig.

G(S)
R(S) E(S) C(S)

H(S)

C(S) = G(S) . …………………………(1)

R(S) 1+G(S) . H(S)

The closed loop T.F is given by (1). The T.F. b/w the actuating error signal e(t)
and the i/p signal r(t) is,

E(S) = R(S) – C(S) H(S) = 1 – C(S) . H(S)

R(S) R(S) R(S)

= 1 – G(S) . H(S) . = 1 + G(S) . H(S) – G(S)H(S)

1 + G(S) . H(S) 1+G(S) . H(S)

= 1 .
1 + G(S) . H(S)
 Where e(t) = Difference b/w the i/p signal and the feed back signal

 E(S) = 1 . .R(S) ……………………….(1)

1 + G(S) . H(S)

The steady state error ess may be found by the use of final value theorem
and is as follows;

ess = lt e(t) = lt SE(S)

t S O

Substituting (1), ess = lt S.R(S) . ……………….(2)

SO 1+G(S) . H(S)

Eq :- (2) Shows that the steady state error depends upon the i/p R(S) and the forward
T.F. G(S) and loop T.F G(S) . H(S).

The expression for steady state errors for various types of standard test signals are
derived below;
1) Steady state error due to step i/p or position error constant (Kp):-

The steady state error for the step i/p is

I/P r(t) = u(t). Taking L.T., R(S) = 1/S.
From Eq:- (2), ess = lt S. R(s) . = 1 .
SO 1 +G(S). H.S 1 + lt G(S). H(S)
SO

lt G(S) . H(S) = Kp
(S  O )
Where Kp = proportional error constant or position error const.
 ess = 1 .
1 + Kp
(1 + Kp) ess = 1  Kp = 1 - ess
ess

Note :- ess = R . for non-unit step i/p

1 + Kp
 2) Steady state error due to ramp i/p or static velocity error co-efficient (Kv) :-
The ess of the system with a unit ramp i/p or unit velocity i/p is
given by,

r ( t) = t. u(t) , Traking L -T, R(S) = 1/S2

Substituting this to ess Eq:-

 ess = lt S . . 1 . = lt 1 .
2
S O 1 + G(S) . H(s) S S  O S +S G(S) H(s)S

lt = SG(S) . H(S) = Kv = velocity co-efficient then

S O

ess = lt 1 .  ess = 1 .
S O S + Kv Kv

Velocity error is not an error in velocity , but it is an error in position error due to
a ramp i/p

3) Steady state error due to parabolic i/p or static acceleration co-efficient (Ka) :-

The steady state actuating error of the system with a unit parabolic i/p

(acceleration i/p) which is defined by r(t) + 1 . t2 Taking L.T. R(S)= 1 .

2 S3

ess = lt S . 1 . lt 1 .
S O 1 + G(S) . H(S) S3 S O
2 2
S + S G(S) . H(S)

2
lt S G(S) . H(S) = Ka.
S O

 ess = lt 1 . = 1 .
2
S O S + Ka Ka

Note :- ess = R . for non unit parabolic.

Ka
Types of feed back control system :-

The open loop T.F. of a unity feedback system can be written in two std, forms;

 Time constant form

  Pole Zero form,
 G(S) = K(TaS +1) (TbS +1)…………………..
Sn(T1 S+1) (T2S + 1)……………….

Where K = open loop gain.

Above Eq:- involves the term S n in denominator which corresponds to no,

of integrations in the system.

 A system is called Type O, Type1, Type2, if n = 0, 1, 2,

………….. Respectively.
 The Type no., determines the value of error co-efficient.
 As the type no., is increased, accuracy is improved; however
increasing the type no., aggregates the stability error.
 A term in the denominator represents the poles at the origin in
complex S plane.
 The steady state errors co-efficient for a given type have definite
values. This is illustration as follows.

1) Type – O system :- If, n = 0, the system is called type – 0, system. The

steady state error are as follows;

. .
Let, G(S) = K . [ . H(s) = 1]
S+1

ess (Position) = 1 . = 1 .= 1 .
1 + G(O) . H(O) 1+K 1 + Kp
. .
. Kp = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt K . = K
S O S O S+1

ess (Velocity) = 1 . = 1 .= 
Kv O
Kv = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt S K . = O.
SO S O S+1

ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 .= 
Ka O
Ka = lt S2 G(S) . H(S) = lt S2 K . = O.
SO S O S+1

2) Type 1 –System :- If, n = 1, the ess to various std, i/p, G(S) = K .

 S (S + 1)

ess (Position) = 1 . = O
1+
Kp = lt G(S) . H(S) = lt K . = 
S O S O S( S + 1)

Kv = lt S K . = K
S O S(S+1)
ess (Velocity) = 1 .
K

ess (acceleration) = 1 . = 1 .= 
O O
2
Ka = lt S K . = O.
SO S (S + 1)

3) Type 2 –System :- If, n = 2, the ess to various std, i/p, are , G(S) = K .
2
S (S + 1)
Kp = lt K .= 
2
SO S (S + 1)

.
. . ess (Position) = 1 . = O

Kv = lt S K .= 
SO S2 (S + 1)
.
. . ess (Velocity) = 1 . = O

2
Ka = lt S K . = K.
SO S2 (S + 1)
.
. . ess (acceleration) = 1 .
K

3) Type 3 –System :- Gives Kp = Kv = Ka =  & ess = O.

Problem

1. Consider the feedback type 1 system represented by

.
Calculate steady state constants and stead state errors .
Solution:
The position constant is defined as

2. Find the steady state errors for the following transfer function assuming unity
feedback:

Solution

The same will be true of the ramp input. But

In order to reduce to zero, we need a .

 Enumerate the advantages of generalized error coefficient. [May/June

2006] -----------------------------------------------------------------------2 Mark

1. It gives error signal as a function of time

 2. Used to determine steady state error for any input

 What is meant by order of the system ? .[Nov/Dec 2006] ------2 Mark

Order of a system.
 The order of the differential equation governing the system..
Damping ratio.
 its the ratio of actual damping to critical damping.

 Explain the following types of controllers employed in control

systems.[Nov/Dec 2012]------------------------------------------------16 Mark
1. Proportional controller
2. Proportinal plus integral controller
3. PID controller
4. Integral controller

Controller
 The controller is provided to modify the error signal for better control
action
Different types of controllers.
Proportional controller
PI controller
PD controller
PID controller

Proportional controller
 It is device that produces a control signal which is proportional to
the input error signal.

PI controller

 It is device that produces a control signal consisting of two terms –

one proportional to error signal and the other proportional to the
integral of error signal.

PD controller

 PD controller is a proportional plus derivative controller which

produces an output signal consisting of two time -one proportional
to error signal and other proportional to the derivative of the signal.
Steady state error.
 The value of error as time tends to infinity.
Drawback of static coefficients.
 The main draw back of static coefficient is that it does not show
the variation of error with time and input should be standard
input.
step signal.
 A signal whose value changes from zero to A at t= 0 and remains
constant at A for t>0.
ramp signal
 A signal whose value increases linearly with time from an
initial value of zero at t=0.
 the ramp signal resembles a constant velocity.
parabolic signal.
 A signal whose value varies as a square of time from an initial
value of zero at t=0.
 This parabolic signal represents constant acceleration input to the
signal.

Three constants associated with a steady state error.

Positional error constant
Velocity error constant
Acceleration error constant
Advantages of generalized error co-efficient.
i) Steady state is function of time.
ii) Steady state can be determined from any type of input