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Speak Up!
A GUIDE TO PUBLIC SPEAKING

Sixth Edition

Douglas M. Fraleigh
California State University–Fresno

Joseph S. Tuman
San Francisco State University

With Illustrations by
Peter Arkle

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brief contents
THE BASICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
1 Introducing Public Speaking
2 Developing Your First Speech
3 Speech Ethics
4 Listening Skills
PREPARATION FUNDAMENTALS
5 Audience Analysis
6 Selecting Your Topic
7 Researching Your Speech
8 Using Supporting Materials for Your Speech
ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING
9 Organizing Your Speech
10 Introductions and Conclusions
11 Outlining Your Speech
LANGUAGE AND DELIVERY
12 Language and Style
13 Delivering Your Speech
14 Using Presentation Aids
TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
15 Mediated Public Speaking
16 Informative Speaking
17 Persuasive Speaking
18 Methods of Persuasion
19 Special-Occasion Speaking
20 Group Communication
21 Civic Engagement
APPENDICES
A Speech Choices Outline and Full-Length Speech
B Additional Sample Speeches

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CONTENTS
Brief Contents
Preface

THE BASICS OF PUBLIC SPEAKING

1 INTRODUCING PUBLIC SPEAKING
What Is Public Speaking?
Public Speaking Features Communication between a Speaker and an Audience
Public Speaking Is Audience Centered
Public Speaking Emphasizes the Spoken Word
Public Speaking Is Usually a Prepared Presentation
Why Study Public Speaking?
Using Public Speaking as a Student
Using Public Speaking in Your Career
Using Public Speaking in Your Community
Public Speaking: A Historical Tradition
Public Speaking: A Dynamic Discipline
From Linear to Transactional: Evolving Views of the Public Speaking Process
New Technologies, New Channels
Awareness of Audiences’ Diversity
Emphasis on Critical Thinking
A Focus on Free, Engaged, and Ethical Communication
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
2 DEVELOPING YOUR FIRST SPEECH
Why Prepare?
The Classical Approach to Speech Preparation
Preparing and Delivering Your First Speech
Analyze Your Audience
Select Your Topic
Determine Your Speech’s Rhetorical Purpose
Create a Thesis Statement
Determine Your Main Points
Develop Supporting Materials
Organize and Outline the Body of Your Speech
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Outline Your Introduction and Conclusion
Incorporate Transitions
Consider Your Word Choice
Consider Presentation Aids
Practice Your Speech
Deliver Your Speech
Overcoming Speech Anxiety
Prepare Early and Follow a Plan
Deliver Your Speech to Others
Try Imagined Interactions
Take Care of Yourself
Visualize Success
Use Relaxation Techniques
Check Out Some Apps
Volunteer to Speak First
Never Defeat Yourself
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
3 SPEECH ETHICS
Codes of Ethics: Absolute, Situational, and Culturally Relative
Legal Speech vs. Ethical Speech
Communicating Truthfully
Lying
Half-Truths
False Inference
Acknowledging the Work of Others
Quoting from a Source
Paraphrasing the Work of Others
Common Knowledge
Using Sound Reasoning
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
Being an Ethical Listener
Show Courtesy
Demonstrate an Open Mind
Hold the Speaker Accountable
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions

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Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
4 LISTENING SKILLS
The Listening Process
Listening vs. Hearing
Processing What You’ve Heard
Retaining What You’ve Processed
Listening Styles
The Culprits behind Poor Listening
Unprocessed Note Taking
Nonlistening
Interruptive Listening
Agenda-Driven Listening
Argumentative Listening
Nervous Listening
Becoming a Better Listener
Filter Out Distractions
Focus on the Speaker
Show That You Are Paying Attention
Maximizing Your Audience’s Listening
Anticipate Ineffective Listening before Your Speech
Encourage Active Listening during Your Speech
Listening When You Are in the Audience
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
PREPARATION FUNDAMENTALS
5 AUDIENCE ANALYSIS
Understanding Situational Characteristics
Size
Time
Location
Mobility
Incorporating Demographics
Age
Gender Identity
Sexual Orientation
Race and Ethnicity
Disability Status
Religious Orientation
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Socioeconomic Background
Political Affiliation
Putting the Demographic Pieces Together
Seeking Common Ground
Identifying Prior Exposure
Has My Audience Heard This Message Before?
Has My Audience Responded Positively to the Message?
Why Did the Previous Message Fail?
Identifying Audience Disposition
Gathering Information about Your Audience
Surveying Your Audience
Interviewing Your Audience
Considering and Observing Your Audience
Situational Audience Analysis
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
6 SELECTING YOUR TOPIC
Developing a Set of Potential Topics
Research
Brainstorming
Word Association
Mind Mapping
Selecting the Best Topic
Consider the Assignment
Consider Your Audience
Consider Your Knowledge and Interests
Consider the Speech Context
Choose a Topic and Stick with It
Refining Your Topic
Decide Your Rhetorical Purpose
Narrow Your Topic
Drafting Your Specific Purpose
Drafting Your Thesis Statement
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions

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Activities
7 RESEARCHING YOUR SPEECH
Research Is Essential
Research Works Best When You Have a Plan
Inventory Your Research Needs
Find the Sources You Need
Keep Track of Your Sources
Evaluating A Source’s Credibility
Expertise
Objectivity
Observational Capacity
Recency
Conducting Library Research
Books
Periodicals
Newspapers
Reference Works
Government Documents
Using the Internet
Benefits of Internet Research
Disadvantages of Internet Research
Evaluating the Credibility of Online Sources
Credibility of Social Media
Searching the World Wide Web
Interviewing Sources
Prepare for Your Interview
Set Up Your Interview
Plan Your Interview Questions
Conduct the Interview
Evaluate Your Notes
Presenting Evidence in Your Speech
Clearly Cite Your Sources
Present the Information Accurately
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
8 USING SUPPORTING MATERIALS FOR YOUR SPEECH
Why Use Supporting Materials?
Building Audience Interest
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Enhancing Audience Understanding
Strengthening Audience Memory
Winning Audience Agreement
Evoking Audience Emotion
Types of Supporting Materials
Examples
Definitions
Testimony
Statistics
Narratives
Analogies
Guidelines for Using Supporting Materials
Choose the Most Credible Proof
Use a Variety of Supporting Materials
Avoid Long Lists
Consider Your Audience
Respect the Available Time
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
ORGANIZING AND OUTLINING
9 ORGANIZING YOUR SPEECH
Selecting Your Main Points
Consider Your Purpose
Take Your Audience into Account
Select an Appropriate Number of Main Points
Organizing Your Supporting Materials
Subordination and Coordination
When a Subpoint Doesn’t Fit
Arranging Your Main Points
Spatial Pattern
Chronological (Temporal) Pattern
Causal Pattern
Comparison Pattern
Categorical (Topical) Pattern
Persuasive Speech Patterns
Using Organizing Words, Phrases, and Sentences
Transitions
Signposts
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Internal Previews and Internal Summaries
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
10 INTRODUCTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
Introducing Your Speech
Gain Your Audience’s Attention
Signal Your Thesis
Show Your Audience What’s in It for Them
Establish Your Credibility
Preview Your Main Points
Concluding Your Speech
Transition to Your Conclusion
Summarize Your Main Points
Finish with a Memorable Clincher
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Citical Thinking Questions
Activities
11 OUTLINING YOUR SPEECH
Two Stages of Outlining
The Detailed Outline
The Speaking Outline
Creating Your Detailed Outline
Outlining the Body of Your Speech
Outlining Your Introduction
Outlining Your Conclusion
Creating a List of References
Inserting the Title, Specific Purpose, and Thesis
A Sample Detailed Outline
Creating Your Speaking Outline
Elements of Your Speaking Outline
The Medium for Your Speaking Outline
A Sample Speaking Outline
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
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Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
LANGUAGE AND DELIVERY
12 LANGUAGE AND STYLE
The Importance of Language and Word Choice
Differences between Oral and Written Language
Denotative and Connotative Meaning
Denotative Meaning
Connotative Meaning
Presenting Your Message Clearly
Understandable Language
Concrete Words
Accurate Use of Words
Concise Language
Expressing Your Ideas Effectively
Repetition
Hypothetical Examples
Personal Anecdotes
Vivid Language
Figurative Language
Choosing Respectful and Unbiased Language
Use Respectful Language
Avoid Stereotypes
Use Gender-Neutral References
Make Appropriate References to Ethnic Groups
Steer Clear of Unnecessary References to Ethnicity, Religion, Gender, or Sexuality
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
13 DELIVERING YOUR SPEECH
Selecting the Right Mode of Delivery
Reading from a Manuscript
Memorizing from a Manuscript
Speaking from an Outline
Impromptu Speaking
Using Verbal Delivery Skills
Volume
Tone
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Rate of Delivery
Projection
Articulation
Pronunciation
Pausing
Using Nonverbal Delivery Skills
Eye Contact
Gestures
Physical Movement
Proxemics
Personal Appearance
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
14 USING PRESENTATION AIDS
Why Use Presentation Aids?
Presentation Aids Can Make Your Speech More Interesting
Presentation Aids Can Simplify a Complex Topic
Presentation Aids Can Help Your Audience Remember Your Speech
Types of Presentation Aids
The Speaker
Assistants
Objects
Animals and People
Visual Images
Graphs
Text-Based Visuals
Audio and Video
Using Technology Wisely
Using Presentation Software
Using Other Technology
Guidelines for Developing Presentation Aids
Consider the Forum
Consider Your Audience
Make Sure Your Aids Support Your Points
Keep Your Aids Simple and Clear
Rehearse with Your Presentation Aids
Using Presentation Aids during Your Speech
Make Sure Everyone Can See and Hear Your Aids

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Control Audience Interaction with Your Aids
Maintain Eye Contact
Remember the Purpose of Your Aids
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
TYPES OF PUBLIC SPEAKING
15 MEDIATED PUBLIC SPEAKING
The Rise of Mediated Communication
Advantages and Challenges of Mediated Presentations
Advantages of Mediated Presentations
Challenges of Mediated Presentations
Optimizing Delivery and Messages in Mediated Presentations
Delivery Considerations
Message Adaptations
Practicing Delivery and Recording
Recording Your Presentation
Video Technology
Setting and Background
Attire
Camera Positioning
Reviewing Your Speech Before You Submit
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
16 INFORMATIVE SPEAKING
Techniques for Informing
Definition
Explanation
Description
Demonstration
Narrative
Types of Informative Speeches
Objects
Individuals or Groups
Events
Processes
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Ideas
Developing Your Informative Speech
Analyzing Your Audience
Selecting a Technique for Informing
Selecting an Organizational Pattern
Focusing on Your Goal to Inform
Clarifying and Simplifying Your Message
Sample Informative Speech
Rachel Parish, Spider Silk: A Miracle Material Derived from . . . Goats?
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
17 PERSUASIVE SPEAKING
The Nature of a Persuasive Speech
Persuasive Speeches Attempt to Influence Audience Members
Persuasive Speeches Advocate Fact, Value, or Policy Claims
How Persuasion Works
The Importance of Central Route Processing
Which Route Will Audience Members Follow?
Tailoring Your Persuasive Message to the Audience
Adapting to Audience Disposition
Appealing to Your Audience’s Needs
Connecting to Your Listeners’ Values
Accounting for Audience Beliefs
Focusing on Peripheral Beliefs
Demonstrating How Your Audience Benefits
Acknowledging Listeners’ Reservations
Ethical Persuasion
Helping Your Audience Make an Informed Decision
Researching Your Facts
Noting Any Biases
Attributing Your Research Properly
Organizing Your Persuasive Speech
Organizing Fact Claims
Organizing Value Claims
Organizing Policy Claims
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
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Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
18 METHODS OF PERSUASION
Ethos: Your Credibility as a Speaker
Understanding the Elements of Credibility
Building Your Credibility
Avoiding Loss of Your Credibility
Logos: The Evidence and Reasoning behind Your Message
Using Evidence
Using Reasoning
Avoiding Logical Fallacies
Pathos: Evoking Your Listeners’ Emotions
Using Emotional Appeals
Ensuring Ethical Use of Pathos
Sample Persuasive Speech
Volodymyr Zelensky, Address to the U.S. Congress
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
19 SPECIAL-OCCASION SPEAKING
Types of Special-Occasion Speeches
General Guidelines for Special-Occasion Speeches
Appealing to Your Audience’s Emotions
Matching Your Delivery to the Mood of the Occasion
Adapting to Your Audience’s Expectations
Evoking Shared Values
Respecting Time Constraints
Strategies for Each Type of Special-Occasion Speech
Strategies for Speeches of Introduction
Strategies for Speeches of Presentation
Strategies for Speeches of Acceptance
Strategies for Speeches to Memorialize or Eulogize
Strategies for Speeches to Celebrate
Strategies for After-Dinner Speeches
Sample Special-Occasion Speech
Joseph Tuman, Swearing-in Ceremony for New U.S. Citizens
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
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Activities
20 GROUP COMMUNICATION
Effective Group Leadership
Selecting a Leader
Leading Meetings
Managing Conflict
Effective Group Membership
Three Types of Member Roles
Tips for Participating in a Small Group
Group Decision Making and the Reflective-Thinking Process
Define the Problem
Analyze the Problem
Establish Criteria for Solving the Problem
Generate Possible Solutions
Select the Best Solution
Delivering Group Presentations
Symposium
Panel Discussion
Single Group Representative
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
21 CIVIC ENGAGEMENT
Civic Engagement and Its Importance to Society
Civic Engagement Trends
Quality of Public Discourse
Protecting Democracy by Taking Action
How Civic Engagement Benefits Participants
Forums and Venues for Civic Engagement
Applying Public Speaking Skills to Civic Engagement
Developing Your Message
Organization
Language and Style
Preparation
Delivery
Sample Civic Engagement Speech
Tariq Jackson, School Libraries Are No Place for Censorship
SPEECH CHOICES: A Case Study
CHAPTER REVIEW
Key Terms
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Review Questions
Critical Thinking Questions
Activities
APPENDICES
A SPEECH CHOICES OUTLINE AND FULL-LENGTH SPEECH
Why Women Should Run for Office: Speech Choices Outline
Why Women Should Run for Office: Full-Length Speech
B ADDITIONAL SAMPLE SPEECHES
Sample Special-Occasion Speech
John McCain, Liberty Medal Ceremony
Sample Persuasive Speech
David Kruckenberg, Child Slavery and the Production of Chocolate
Sample Persuasive Speech
Anna Martinez, Extra Credit You Can Live Without
Notes
Glossary
Index

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chapter 1

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INTRODUCING PUBLIC SPEAKING

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Public Speaking in Action. Olympic gymnast Simone Biles told the Senate Judiciary Committee that she felt compelled and empowered to share her
experiences.

“With public speaking, you can advocate for what is important to you.”

Simone Biles was no stranger to performing on some of the world’s largest stages. As a gymnast, she had thrilled
countless spectators in packed arenas and viewers watching on TV as she won Olympic medals. On September 15,
2021, however, she faced a daunting challenge. Along with gymnasts McKayla Maroney, Maggie Nichols, and Aly
Raisman, Biles spoke to the Senate Judiciary Committee about the FBI’s failure to properly investigate former
Olympic and National Team doctor Larry Nasser—a man accused of sexually abusing hundreds of athletes who is
currently serving a sixty-year prison sentence. Each of the four gymnasts courageously shared her story and
provided powerful testimony, calling on the Senate Committee to hold accountable all who enabled the doctor’s
abuse.

It was not easy to speak up in this forum. Biles told the committee that she could “imagine no place that I would be
less comfortable right now than sitting here in front of you, sharing these comments.”1 Sexual victimization is
largely unreported, yet Biles said that she felt compelled and empowered to speak out: “I sit before you today to
raise my voice so that no little girl must endure what I, the athletes at this table, and the countless others who
needlessly suffered under Nassar’s guise of medical treatment . . . continue to endure today.”2 By having the courage
to speak out about her experiences, she showed other victims that they are not alone.

Public speaking may be challenging for many reasons—apprehension about being in front of an audience, anxiety
caused by a lack of preparation, or (as in the case of Biles) the context of the situation you are in. But Simone Biles’s
testimony also provides a compelling example of the importance of public speaking, and the power involved in
making your voice heard. Whether you are addressing a national audience or a local one, public speaking is a vital
skill for anyone looking to inform, influence, or persuade others. That’s why the goal of Speak Up! is to help you
learn to overcome any challenges and be prepared to speak, especially when it is really important for you to express
your message.

Because there are likely to be many times in life when it is important to speak out, public speaking is highly useful
in school, at work, and beyond. Each year, the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) surveys
employers to determine the competencies college graduates need for career readiness. One key competency is
communication, including public speaking skills and the ability to express ideas understandably to coworkers and
the public. That being said, a NACE survey noted that less than half of the employers surveyed rated recent college
graduates as proficient in communication.3 A public speaking course helps you master skills that will enable you
not only to advance in your career but also to excel in other courses (especially your major) and make valuable
contributions in other areas of your life—such as by taking an active role in the community.

Of course, for reasons noted above, you may find the thought of giving a speech terrifying. If so, you’re not alone. A
survey by Randolph H. Whitworth and Claudia Cochran found that public speaking is Americans’ number one fear,
and another researcher noted that many people find it “even scarier than rattlesnakes.”4 But you can learn to master

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public speaking—just as most people learn to read, ride a bicycle, or keep up with the latest technology. In our fifty-
plus years of teaching public speaking, we’ve seen thousands of students gain confidence and lose their fear of
public speaking as they acquire experience with it.

This book walks you through the steps you need to follow in order to create and deliver an effective speech—one
that will get a favorable response from your listeners. In the chapters that follow, we explain each step in clear
terms and show you how to make smart choices at each stage of the speech preparation process. We supplement
these explanations with illustrations and photos designed to help you grasp and remember key points, while often
entertaining you in the process.

But before we jump into the process of preparing and delivering an effective speech, we use this chapter to explore
the field of public speaking, beginning with an examination of the process itself. We then take a closer look at the
benefits of studying public speaking, survey its rich tradition, and finally consider contemporary trends in the study
of public speaking.

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what is public speaking?

What is public speaking, exactly? When done effectively, this activity has several characteristics that distinguish it
from other types of communication.

Public Speaking Features Communication between a Speaker and an

Audience
In public speaking, the speaker does most of the talking, while the audience primarily listens. However, that does
not mean audience members don’t respond to what they’re hearing. Audience members may smile, frown, or look
puzzled. Talented speakers recognize these signals and modify their message if needed—for example, clarifying a
point when they notice confused expressions on their listeners’ faces. Audience members might even respond with
more than just silent facial expressions. For instance, they may applaud the speaker or shout out words of
encouragement and appreciation if they’re pleased with or excited by the speaker’s message. Or they may boo or
heckle the speaker if they disagree with the message. However, in public speaking, even the most energetic
interjections are usually brief. For the majority of the speech, the speaker “has the floor.”

Public Speaking Is Audience Centered

In public speaking, presenters choose their messages with the audience’s interests and needs in mind. Good
speakers consider what topics would be appropriate for their audience on a particular occasion. They also develop
their messages in a way that their audience will find interesting and understandable.

For example, suppose you recently got hired as a product developer at a furniture company. You’ve asked to meet
with members of the company’s management team to discuss a new line of dorm furniture that you’d like to launch.
At the meeting, your goal will be to persuade your listeners to approve funding for this new furniture. In preparing
your speech, you determine what members of the management team care about most: the company’s profitability—
its ability to increase revenue while reducing costs. With that in mind, you develop explanations for how the
proposed campaign will enhance profitability (“This new line will increase sales by 10 percent over the next two
quarters, cut our expenses by 5 percent, and lead to a 6 percent increase in profitability”). You make sure to avoid
marketing-style language (“This new design is bold and provocative”) because you know that such language will
hold little interest for your business-oriented listeners.

Public Speaking Emphasizes the Spoken Word

Speakers can supplement their speeches with pictures, charts, videos, handouts, objects, or even a live
demonstration. However, public speakers devote most of their time to speaking to their audience. The spoken word
plays the central role in their message, although speakers use gestures, posture, voice intonation, eye contact, other
types of body language, and even presentation aids to heighten the effect of their words.

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Public Speaking Is Usually a Prepared Presentation
Few public speakers simply walk up to the lectern or podium and make up their talk on the spot. The best speakers
choose their topic in advance, carefully consider what they might say about that topic, and then select the best ideas
for the audience they will be addressing. They organize those ideas, choose their words carefully, and practice
delivering the speech before the big day. Even people who suspect that they may be called on to deliver an
impromptu speech—for example, at a community-service awards dinner—know how to quickly piece together a few
comments as they step to the front of the room; that way, they have an idea of what they will say when they begin
their speech.

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why study public speaking?

As you make your way through life—completing your degree, advancing in your career, establishing yourself in a
neighborhood or community—you will sometimes find yourself in situations in which you need to express your
ideas to others. By studying and practicing public speaking, you can learn to deliver effective presentations in each
of these contexts. Public speaking skills give you the power to share your ideas and bring about needed change in
the world around you.

Public speaking skills can also come in handy in everyday situations. As you become more comfortable with public
speaking, you will find yourself more confident about asking a question at a meeting or speaking up when hanging
out with new people. You will also be equipped to speak on the fly if you are asked to give a toast, accept an award,
or make a presentation at the last minute.

Using Public Speaking as a Student

Of course, you’ll need to start practicing your public speaking skills to get through this class. But the skills you
acquire by working your way through this book will help you as you complete your degree and participate in
additional educational opportunities throughout your life. Those later opportunities may include adult-education
workshops, higher-level degrees, or professional development courses. Instructors in all types of courses may ask
students to stand up on the first day of class and introduce themselves as well as explain what they hope to get out of
the class. You can check out an example of this type of presentation in the Speech Choices feature at the end of the
chapter.

Many instructors also require students to deliver oral presentations on research projects and other coursework.
Students with strong public speaking skills can share their findings more effectively than those with a limited
background in presenting speeches. Think about students who have given oral presentations in your classes. Most
likely you’ve noticed that those who give thoughtfully crafted and skillfully delivered presentations make a better
impression on the instructor and the rest of the class. Equally important, the information they offer is probably
more useful to listeners than the information delivered by less skilled speakers.

As you approach graduation, your college may require you to deliver an oral presentation to show what you have
learned. For example, engineering majors might have to explain their senior project to a panel of local construction
managers, or business majors might have to pitch an idea for a product to a faculty committee. Colleges are
increasingly having students submit an ePortfolio of their work as a way to assess student learning, often requiring
them to upload an oral presentation, among other assignments.5

Public speaking skills also enhance your ability to participate in campus activities. If you belong to an organization
or a club, team, sorority, or fraternity, you may want to speak out at a group meeting or represent your group before
the student senate or other campus organizations. When you present an effective speech to these audiences, you
boost your chances of achieving your goal—whether it’s persuading your sorority to take up a new social cause or
convincing the student senate to fund a campus job fair related to your major.

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Speaking Up on Campus. Juvanie Piquant, a student leader at the City University of New York, speaks out against a proposed tuition hike.

Using Public Speaking in Your Career

A knack for public speaking is one of the most important assets you can possess in the workplace. A 2021 NACE
survey found that almost three-fourths of the employers responding said that they look for verbal communication
skills on job applicants’ résumés.6 Employees agree that communication skills are important. In the survey “Making
the Grade? What American Workers Think Should Be Done to Improve Education,” 87 percent of the 1,014 U.S. adult
workers surveyed rated communication skills as very important for performing their jobs.7

The importance of public speaking is not limited to careers that might first come to mind, such as law or politics. As
Dr. Mónica Feliú-Mójer, director of communications and outreach for CienciaPR, notes, members of the scientific
community regularly present talks and interact with diverse audiences. This requires “transmitting your message
clearly and concisely,” “engaging your audience,” and answering the “why does it matter” question.8 No matter
which career path you choose, you’ll almost certainly need public speaking skills. Consider the following examples:

A firefighting trainer needs to provide more advanced workshops for firefighters as wildfires in the United
States reach record numbers. Yet due to the COVID-19 pandemic, face-to-face training is restricted in many
areas. The trainer develops virtual training presentations so that these vital workers can continue to gain the
skills they need.

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A city engineer addresses an angry crowd of citizens at a city council meeting following a news report that a
heavily traveled local bridge has safety issues. The engineer calmly reassures the public that repairs will be
made immediately and describes the repairs in a way that the audience can understand.
An information technology professional creates a podcast for a company’s sales force, explaining how to use
a new software app to track prospective customers.

As another example, baseball Hall of Famer Lou Gehrig was planning to major in engineering at Columbia
University before the Yankees came calling, and neither of those career paths are typically associated with public
speaking. Nevertheless, he delivered one of the most compelling presentations in American history. After being
diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), he was honored in a ceremony at Yankee Stadium. His eloquent
remarks, sometimes called “Baseball’s Gettysburg Address,” are perhaps even more memorable than his four Most
Valuable Player awards.9 If you’d like to view it, search for “Gehrig’s Farewell Address” on YouTube.

Using Public Speaking in Your Community

Beyond work or school, you may wear many different hats in your community. You might be active in service
organizations, athletic leagues, clubs, religious groups, or political committees. If you’re a parent, you may find
yourself taking on leadership roles in your children’s schools, sports teams, clubs, or other activities. You may also
decide to get involved in a social cause you feel passionate about. In each of these endeavors, public speaking skills
can help you.

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Speaking Up in the Community. Sen. Tammy Duckworth

introduces rock star Joe Walsh at a VetsAid benefit concert.

For example, Tammy Duckworth, a Black Hawk helicopter pilot, received a Purple Heart for being wounded in
action after her aircraft was hit by a grenade near Baghdad, Iraq, in 2004. When she returned to the United States,
she decided to enter public service. Ms. Duckworth was appointed to a Department of Veterans Affairs post, where
she advocated for veterans’ issues, such as therapy for post–traumatic stress disorder. She next used her public
speaking skills on the campaign trail, earning election to the House of Representatives twice and then to the Senate
in 2016. She continues to be a passionate advocate for veterans and for women’s rights. Because Senate rules require
in-person voting, Ms. Duckworth made history when she cast a vote on the Senate floor, accompanied by her
newborn daughter, Maile.10

To play an active role in issues that concern you, you will also need to speak out. The health of a democratic, self-
governing society like ours depends on civic engagement, or active public participation in political affairs and
social and community organizations. Public speaking skills facilitate civic engagement. College students who
actively participate in public discussion or political activities are more likely to be confident in their ability to make
a difference in their communities.11

Throughout life, you may also be asked to speak in less formal situations—for example, by offering a wedding toast
or presenting an award to a friend or colleague who is retiring. In each of these cases, the skills you learn in a public
speaking class will help ensure that others hear and respect your views.

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public speaking: a historical tradition

For centuries, people around the world have studied the art and practice of public speaking and used public address
to inform, influence, and persuade others. As far back as the fifth century BCE, all adult male citizens in the Greek
city-state of Athens had a right to speak out in the assembly and vote on proposals relating to civic matters.
Sometimes as many as six thousand citizens attended these meetings.12 Indeed, the ancient Greeks were the first
people to think formally about and teach rhetoric, the craft of public speaking. Socrates and Plato are two of the
best-known examples of these rhetoricians. And in the fourth century BCE, the Greek scholar Aristotle wrote
Rhetoric, a systematic analysis of the art and practice of public speaking that still influences the study of the subject
today. The study of public speaking also arose in first-century BCE Rome, where senators vehemently debated the
issues of the day. Cicero, a Roman politician, was a renowned orator and a prolific writer on rhetoric, while another
noteworthy Roman rhetorician, Quintilian, emphasized the ideal of an ethical orator—the good person speaking
well.

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The tradition of public speaking is not limited to Greece and Rome: it’s been practiced in many regions throughout
history. From the time of Confucius in the fifth century BCE until the end of the third century BCE, China enjoyed
an intellectual climate whose energy rivaled that of ancient Greece.13 Scholars traveling throughout China
passionately advocated a variety of systems of political and economic philosophy. In fifteenth-century western
Africa, traveling storytellers recited parables and humorous stories, while in northeastern Africa, Islamic scholars
embarked on lecture tours attended by large crowds.14 On feast days in one African kingdom (near present-day
Mali), it was traditional for a bard to dress in a bird’s-head mask and deliver a speech encouraging the king to live up
to his predecessors’ high standards.15 In seventeenth-century India, a speaker’s words were valued over other
means of communication, and inscribed versions of the messages were referred to as “treasure houses of the
Goddess of Speech.”16 Indigenous Peoples in North America prized oratory, too; indeed, many deemed oratorical
ability a more important leadership quality than bravery in battle.17

The United States also has a rich history of public speaking. During the Great Awakening of the 1730s and 1740s,
preachers sought to revive waning religious zeal in the colonies, often preaching in fields to accommodate the many
listeners. During the American Revolution in the second half of the eighteenth century, colonists took to the streets
to passionately denounce British policies and call for independence. In the 1770s and 1780s, political leaders in each
of the states energetically debated the merits of ratifying the U.S. Constitution and the Bill of Rights.

In the nineteenth century, public speaking became a hallmark of American society, as people debated political
issues, expanded their knowledge, and even entertained one another. Political debates drew particularly large and
enthusiastic crowds, such as the debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during the Illinois Senate
election. More than fifteen thousand people gathered to hear the contenders in Freeport, Illinois—a town with just
five thousand residents.18

The antislavery movement of this time also used public speaking to drive major social change. Frederick Douglass, a
formerly enslaved person who moved audiences with his depictions of life under slavery, counted among the most
compelling antislavery speakers. Women also actively participated in the American Anti-Slavery Society, holding
offices and delivering public lectures. Angelina Grimké was one of these eloquent orators, who won audience
members’ commitment to the antislavery cause with graphic descriptions of the abuse experienced by enslaved
people that she witnessed while growing up in South Carolina. Other women—such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton,
Susan B. Anthony, and Lucy Stone—took leadership roles in the women’s suffrage movement, which arose in the
mid-1800s and continued into the early 1900s. These able orators used fiery speeches to convince Americans that
women deserved the right to cast a ballot at the polls—a radical notion at the time.19

During the twentieth century, public address continued to play a key role in American and world affairs, especially
from political leaders throughout both world wars and the Great Depression. In August 1963, 250,000 people
gathered near the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., to hear Martin Luther King Jr. deliver his “I Have a
Dream” speech, an address that instantly excited the imaginations of people around the world.20 In June of that
same year, President John F. Kennedy traveled to Berlin to speak to an audience of over 400,000, voicing his support
for those blocked in by the Berlin Wall—built by East German leaders after World War II to prevent immigration to
the West. Kennedy famously showed his solidarity with Berliners by declaring “Ich bin ein Berliner” (I am a
Berliner). Twenty-four years later, President Ronald Reagan traveled to the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin and

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challenged Russian leader Mikhail Gorbachev with the iconic words, “Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!” The wall
was finally opened in 1989.

Speaking out remains an important tool for advocacy in the twenty-first century. Within minutes of the June 26,
2015, ruling that the Constitution guaranteed marriage equality, a crowd gathered outside the U.S. Supreme Court
building, where lead plaintiff Jim Obergefell addressed supporters and the Washington, D.C., Gay Men’s Chorus
sang the national anthem. And after the murder of George Floyd on May 25, 2020, many speakers delivered
passionate speeches during protests and rallies demanding justice for Mr. Floyd and other victims of police
violence. One example was Youa Vang, who had lost her own son, Fong Lee, to police violence in 2006. Speaking in
her native language at a Hmong for Black Lives rally, she noted that many in the Black community had supported
her after Fong’s death and called for her own community to demand justice for George Floyd.21

Today, new means of digital communication (social media, smartphones, videoconferences) allow people to use
technology to connect with distant audiences almost instantly. When public gatherings were restricted due to the
COVID-19 pandemic, many speeches were necessarily delivered virtually. For example, when National Women’s
Soccer Team Captain Megan Rapinoe addressed a congressional committee on Equal Pay Day in 2021, she spoke via
video. A survey of experts in technology, communications, and social change by Pew Research and Elon University
found a consensus that even after the pandemic, “larger segments of the population will rely on digital connections”
in a “‘tele-everything’ world.”22 Nevertheless, thousands and sometimes hundreds of thousands of people continue
to come to in-person rallies to hear speakers address issues ranging from women’s rights to immigration to gun
policy. From presidential State of the Union addresses to Academy Awards acceptance speeches to town hall
presentations, public speaking before a live audience remains an important part of our social fabric. Furthermore,
even when your presentation is virtual, using fundamental public speaking skills remains essential—though you
will face unique challenges when using technology to speak out. You will learn more about mastering these
challenges in Chapter 15 on mediated public speaking.

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public speaking: a dynamic discipline

Clearly, public speaking has a long history, and many of the principles taught by ancient scholars such as Aristotle
are still relevant today. However, it’s also a dynamic discipline that has evolved to reflect changes in society. In this
section, we highlight several of these major changes—new ways of depicting the public speaking process, ever-
expanding channels for communication, greater awareness of audiences’ diversity, new emphasis on the
importance of critical thinking in preparing a speech, and increasing attention to ethics in public address.

From Linear to Transactional: Evolving Views of the Public Speaking

Process
At the dawn of the modern communication disciplines, scholars viewed all forms of communication—including
public speaking—as a linear process. In their view, a speech was a one-way flow of ideas from speaker to audience.
That is, speakers “injected” listeners with their ideas, much as a doctor injects a patient with a vaccine.

A linear model includes several key elements. Specifically, a person with an idea to express is the source, and the
ideas that this person conveys to the audience constitute the message. The source must encode the message, which
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involves choosing verbal and nonverbal symbols to express the ideas. Verbal symbols are the words that the source
uses. Nonverbal symbols are the means of making a point without the use of words, such as hand gestures, eye
contact, and facial expressions. In a particularly poignant example of nonverbal communication, activist X
González remained silent for six-plus minutes during a speech at the Washington, D.C., March for Our Lives rally—
the length of the mass shooting that took the lives of seventeen of their classmates at Marjory Stoneman Douglas
High School.

The source communicates the encoded message through a channel, the medium of delivery. For example, to deliver
their message, speakers can use their voices to address a small group, rely on a microphone or the broadcast
airwaves to give a speech to a huge crowd, or even podcast a speech so that it can be heard at different times in
different locations. Increasingly, speeches can be experienced through different channels. Presentations for TED,
99U, and the Moth, for example, can be viewed live and also accessed online.

We Are Both Channels. At left, comedian Jon Stewart takes a serious approach, speaking to a live audience after passage of the 9/11
Victims’ Compensation Fund Act. At right, an Elvis impersonator officiates a vow renewal ceremony virtually.

In the linear model, sources communicate their message to one or more receivers, who try to make sense of the
message by decoding. To decode, receivers process the source’s verbal and nonverbal symbols and form their own
perception of the message’s meaning.

Noise (also called interference) is a phenomenon that disrupts communication between source and receiver. Noise
may be caused by external sources (for example, when a speech is drowned out by a fleet of jets roaring overhead).
But noise can also originate internally—within the source or the source’s listeners. For instance, a student giving an
oral presentation in class might forget key elements of her speech if she is preoccupied with a recent argument with
a coworker. Meanwhile, her audience members might have difficulty focusing on her message if they, too, are
distracted by their own thoughts and concerns, such as a push alert on their smartphone.

Today, scholars have modified this view to consider communication—including public speaking—to be transactional
and not a one-way activity. Although many of the elements of the linear model remain in play, a transaction is a
communicative exchange in which all participants continuously send and receive messages.23 For example, suppose
you’re about to deliver a speech. As you organize your notes at the lectern, you notice a man yawning in the front
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row of your audience. In this case, the man is both a receiver of your message and a sender of his own message: “I
hope you’re not planning to talk for two hours.”

Participants in a public speaking transaction can also send and receive messages by providing feedback in the form
of verbal or nonverbal responses. An audience member who shouts “That’s right!” in response to a compelling point
in a speech is giving feedback. People listening to a speech can also provide nonverbal feedback. For example, an
audience member can lean forward to express interest, nod vigorously to show agreement, fold her arms to signal
disagreement, or adopt a puzzled look to convey confusion. Audiences may use the like or comment feature to
provide feedback during a virtual speech.

In the transactional model of communication, the participants in a public speaking exchange seek to create shared
meaning—a common understanding with little confusion and few misinterpretations.24 Good public speakers don’t
merely try to get their point of view across to their audience. Instead, they strive to improve their own knowledge,
seek understanding, and develop agreements when they communicate with others.25

For example, suppose an audience member nods when the speaker says, “Hackers took personal data from more
than 530 million Facebook user profiles in 106 countries and posted it on a public site.”26 The speaker must assume
the role of receiver and decode the message behind that nod. The nod could mean either “I agree” or “Well, duh, we
all know that. Move on!” To better decode the message, a speaker may look for additional cues, such as signs of
understanding or boredom on the faces of other audience members. Imagine that the speaker determines that the
nod conveys agreement that this potential loss of privacy is a serious problem. They might respond by saying,

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“Because we agree that using Facebook can put our privacy at risk, let’s take a look at how we can protect ourselves.”
Audience members then smile and nod. Now, audience and speaker have created shared meaning.

New Technologies, New Channels

For thousands of years, public speaking was conducted exclusively face-to-face. Whether it was our ancient
ancestors planning a hunt around a campfire or Susan B. Anthony calling for equal rights for nineteenth-century
women, speaker and audience were at the same location.

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The rise of new communication technologies changed this, providing speakers with ever-expanding options for
bringing their message to an audience. In 1923, Calvin Coolidge delivered the first presidential address broadcast on
radio, and just twenty-four years later, President Harry S. Truman delivered the first televised presidential address.27
In the late twentieth century, the development of the Internet introduced even more channels for public speaking
and many more continue to be developed today.28 Speakers can now present live speeches to remote audiences
using technologies such as Zoom, Google Meet, or RingCentral. During the COVID-19 pandemic, you probably
participated in remote learning at your college or high school using these types of technologies. Communicators
can also create podcasts or make digital recordings of their speeches available on platforms such as YouTube.

Although technological innovation presents many options for speakers to reach audiences, face-to-face public
speaking is unlikely to go the way of the passenger pigeon or landline phone anytime soon. If you, like most of us,
have had a text message misinterpreted, then you know the risks of remote communication firsthand. The
connection that is created when speaker and audience are physically present is very powerful. As Mina Chang, CEO
of Linking the World, explained, “Prioritization of speed over face time grossly underestimates the power of human
interaction and the importance of face-to-face communication.” This is because “you do business with people, not
entities. The beauty of communication is found in the nuance that’s only felt in face-to-face conversations.”29

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Awareness of Audiences’ Diversity
Effective public speakers consider the diversity of their audience members and craft a message that respects the
diversity of that audience and of society as a whole. There are multiple dimensions of diversity to consider,
including age, gender identity, ethnicity, disability status, and sexual orientation. We elaborate on how speakers
should take diversity into account when crafting and presenting their message throughout this text (for example,
see Chapter 5, Audience Analysis), but we look at a couple of specific examples here to begin.

Gender identity is one dimension of diversity. The Human Rights Campaign defines gender identity as “one’s
innermost concept of self as male, female, a blend of both or neither.”30 A wide variety of people, including those
who identify as nonbinary (not identifying as exclusively male or female) may use pronouns other than he/him or
she/her. For example, the singer Demi Lovato uses the pronouns they/them, because these pronouns allow them “to
feel most authentic and true to the person I both know I am and still am discovering.”31 Lovato used Twitter to share
a video disclosing this decision.

Demi Lovato Shares Their Gender Identity via Video. Demi

Lovato selected a mediated channel, a Twitter video, to explain
how their pronouns best reflect their identity. This choice let
Lovato reach a wide audience, with over 7 million views.

Ethnicity, another dimension of diversity, refers to the cultural background that is usually associated with shared
religion, national origin, and language. By cultural background, we mean the values, traditions, and rules for living
that are passed from generation to generation.32 Culture is learned, and it influences all aspects of a person’s life,
including not only religion and language but also behaviors such as food choices, dress, and ways of communicating
with others.

In the United States, public speakers have increasingly needed to consider the range of cultures represented by
their audience members as the nation has grown more culturally diverse. The U.S. Census Bureau calculates a
diversity index, which indicates the chance that any two people in the country who are chosen at random will be

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from different ethnic or racial groups. In 2020 that index was 61.1 percent, meaning that about three of every five
pairs of people will be from different groups—an increase from 54.9 percent in 2010.33 This diversity is likely to
continue increasing over time. According to the Pew Research Center, based on current immigration patterns, 88
percent of U.S. population growth through 2065 will be from immigrants and their descendants. Immigrants to the
United States are coming from diverse nations, with China, Mexico, India, and the Philippines contributing the
most people in 2018.34

Effective public speakers must be sensitive to the diversity of their audience. This means they avoid biased language
and ethnic jokes, and they use appropriate terms to refer to audience characteristics such as gender identity,
ethnicity, and physical ability. Savvy speakers make an effort to recognize the diversity in their audience and
customize their presentation so it will be interesting and meaningful to each of the people or groups who are
represented.

Emphasis on Critical Thinking

In addition to encouraging greater attention to diversity awareness, scholars of public speaking have begun
emphasizing the importance of critical-thinking skills for speakers who are preparing presentations. Critical
thinking refers to the analysis and evaluation of ideas based on reliability, truth, and accuracy. When you are
engaged in critical thinking, you carefully evaluate the evidence and reasoning presented in the message.35 You also
are open-minded about your own ideas and assumptions and subject them to the same analysis that you apply to
others’ viewpoints.

Before you present ideas to an audience, you should feel confident that those ideas are reasonable. Rather than
assuming that your beliefs are true, suspend judgment and consider other perspectives. For example, suppose you
are interested in speaking about a law that requires companies to pay for new countermeasures to keep customers’
personal data safe from hackers. You could research the perspectives of information technology professionals,
businesses affected by the law, consumer protection organizations, legal scholars, and economists. Carefully
consider the ideas of each group, and modify your opinions when new ideas make sense.

To use critical thinking, you would also evaluate the probable truth of the claims you plan to make. Anybody can
make a claim, but not all claims are based on careful analysis. For example, if you are researching the ability of new
technology to keep information safe from hackers, the views of a highly regarded cybersecurity consultant are more
likely to be accurate than those of an angry customer who posted a rant on social media.

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A Focus on Free, Engaged, and Ethical Communication

Public speaking also involves careful consideration of the rights and responsibilities that come into play when
individuals are free to express their ideas in a public forum. Freedom of expression—the right to share one’s ideas
and opinions free from government censorship—is vital in a democratic society, where self-governance depends on
both the free flow of information and open debate.

Actively exercising your freedom of speech through civic engagement is equally essential to a democratic society.
Supreme Court justice Louis Brandeis, one of the most eloquent defenders of freedom of expression, wrote that the
founders of this nation believed that “the greatest menace to freedom is an inert people; that public discussion is a
political duty; and that this should be a fundamental principle of the American government.”36 The National
Communication Association has endorsed this principle, too, by including “Influence Public Discourse” as a
learning outcome for communication students.37 We saw this principle in action at the beginning of the chapter,
with the compelling example of Simone Biles, McKayla Maroney, Maggie Nichols, and Aly Raisman. It is our hope
that you will use the knowledge and experience you gain from studying public speaking to “Speak Up!” on issues
that are important to you. Chapter 21 focuses on this vital skill.

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Although you are guaranteed the right to express your ideas freely, as a public speaker you also have a responsibility
to express your ideas ethically. Ethics refers to a group’s shared beliefs about what behaviors are correct or
incorrect. Protecting freedom of expression and encouraging the ethical use of that right are increasingly important
concerns in the field of public discourse. The principles endorsed by the National Communication Association
include the following:

“We advocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the integrity of communication.”
“We endorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and tolerance of dissent to achieve the informed
and responsible decision making fundamental to a civil society.”38

Concerns about free expression and ethics are not a new consideration in public speaking. In the first century CE,
the Roman rhetorician Quintilian argued that parents and teachers should strive to produce “the good person
speaking well.” That is, communicators should be virtuous, moral, and focused on the public good, in addition to
being effective orators.39 Today, as unethical communication has increased in the United States, people have
stepped up their demands for ethical public speaking. Americans are tired of politicians, lawyers, and
multimillionaire CEOs who blatantly lie to the public. Recent polling indicates Americans’ low level of trust in
society’s major institutions—not only the usual suspects, such as big business and politicians, but also the Supreme
Court, technology companies, and the medical system.40 The online world also has led to new modes of unethical
communication, such as trolling (posting incendiary comments to start arguments), catfishing (misrepresenting
one’s identity to online contacts), and disseminating fake news (spreading falsified or “grossly distorted” news
stories).41

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Consequently, ethics have begun playing an increasingly prominent role in the study of communication, as well as
in other disciplines. As it turns out, there’s far more to public speaking than just presenting your message in a way
that induces your audience to agree with you and take the actions you have advocated. You must also treat your
listeners ethically. That means telling the truth, helping your audience make a well-informed decision about your
topic, avoiding manipulative reasoning, and incorporating research materials properly in your speech. We discuss
ethical public speaking further in Chapter 3.

speech choices
A CASE STUDY: RAFAELA

What can you do to prepare and present an effective speech? What practices might hold you back? Throughout this book,
we’ll consider Rafaela—a college student enrolled in her first public speaking class. We’ll follow Rafaela as she moves
through every step in the speechmaking process, from picking a topic to working on her delivery. You can use her ideas and
try to avoid her pitfalls as you prepare your own speeches. At the end of the book, you can see Rafaela’s final outline and
speech.

To introduce Rafaela let’s take a look at the introductory biographical speech she had to give on the second day of class. It
was to be a five-minute speech, and the instructor left it up to each person how much detail to share about themselves.
Rafaela decided to keep some of her information basic—she’d mention her major and the fact that she wanted to go into
sports medicine—but she would also share a few more personal tidbits, including that she researches her family history for
fun, attends church on the weekends, and loves using Instagram to keep up with her favorite female comedians. Rafaela
made a few cuts when her speech ran long during a practice run-through, and she ended up finishing up in under five
minutes—just about right.

your turn:

Now that you’ve seen how Rafaela’s choices influenced her speech, it’s time to consider similar choices you’ll need to make
for a speech of your own. Making speech choices involves asking and answering a series of questions related to your
assignment. In the case of an introductory speech, those questions might include the following:

How formal does my self-introduction need to be?

What should I talk about? Are there specific questions our instructor asked us to address? What’s the most
interesting or relevant information I can share with the class to help them get to know me?
How much time will I have to speak? How can I make sure I won’t run long or short?

Making choices in response to questions like these will help you craft an introductory speech that meets your instructors’
requirements—and stays faithful to your ideas and interests.

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chapter review

“With public speaking, you can advocate for what is important to you.”

In this chapter, we introduced the field of public speaking. Key elements of public speaking are communication
between speaker and audience, a focus on the audience by the speaker, an emphasis on the spoken word, and a
prepared presentation. We also examined the benefits of mastering public speaking—in the classroom, on the job,
in the community, and in everyday situations.

Next, we turned to the rich tradition of public speaking, citing examples from across time and from around the
world.

We also examined the ways in which public speaking as a discipline has evolved to reflect changes in society. We
provided examples of several contemporary developments in the field—new ways of viewing the public speaking
process; the effects of changing technologies; an emphasis on understanding an audience’s diversity; the usefulness
of critical thinking when planning a speech; and the importance of protecting, exercising, and making ethical use
of freedom of expression.

Key Terms
civic engagement
rhetoric
source
message
encode
verbal symbol
nonverbal symbol
channel
receiver
decode
noise (interference)
transaction
feedback
shared meaning
gender identity
nonbinary
ethnicity
cultural background
critical thinking
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freedom of expression
ethics

Review Questions
1. Describe the four basic characteristics that distinguish public speaking from other forms of
communication.
2. Name and explain three ways in which becoming a competent public speaker can positively affect your
life and career.
3. Define civic engagement, and explain how it is an important part of democratic self–government.
4. Describe the historical tradition of public speaking. Offer some examples of rhetoric playing a role in
world events.
5. What is the transactional model of communication? How does it differ from the linear model?
6. How is new technology changing the nature of public speaking?
7. Why is it important to consider diversity when analyzing an audience?
8. In what ways can you employ critical thinking in a public speaking situation?
9. Why is it important for speakers to behave ethically?

Critical Thinking Questions

1. In what ways might becoming a more effective and confident speaker affect your life? How could it affect
your performance in your classes? Help you in your career? Enable you to make a difference in your
community?
2. What kinds of public speaking situations are you exposed to on a daily basis? What kind of feedback do
you provide to the speakers? How might this feedback affect each speaker’s message?
3. How would you prepare for a speech assignment if you were going to deliver it in a classroom? Would
your preparation change if you were recording your speech at home and posting it on YouTube?
4. Consider your public speaking class as an audience. In what ways are the people in the group alike? In
what ways are they diverse?
5. In the 1970s, many women began using Ms. as an alternative to Mrs. or Miss. How is the use of they/them
for nonbinary people similar to the change to Ms.? Are there ways the later change is different?
6. Think of a time you believed that a speaker was being honest with the audience and another time when
you thought a speaker was being dishonest. What differences between the two speakers led you to these
conclusions?
7. Name one person whom you believe to be an effective public speaker. What are the main characteristics
that make that speaker effective?

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Activities
1. Review the illustration “A Model of Communication” on page 16. Then think of an example where a
speaker’s message could be misinterpreted. Answer the following questions: What was the speaker’s
message? How might an audience member decode a different message from the one that the speaker
intended? What feedback might that audience member give to the speaker? Could the speaker clarify
their idea to help create shared meaning?
2. In small groups, develop a list of situations in which you could suddenly be called on to give an
unanticipated speech. For example, the occasion might be a wedding toast, a tribute at the retirement
party of a favorite teacher, a presentation of an award, or a plea to the city council about an issue that
concerns you. Have each group member select one situation and prepare a brief (one-minute) speech to
deliver to the group.
3. Consider a career of interest to you. Then identify a scenario for that career in which you may be called
on to speak. Jot down two or three main ideas that you would express in that speech.
4. Search for and watch soccer star Megan Rapinoe’s speech at the White House on Equal Pay Day, March
24, 2021. What diverse audiences do you think Rapinoe was addressing in her speech?

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