CHAPTER H

METHODOLOGYI

2.0 Phase I

This phase consisted of identifying the tools existing tools, check their utility, adapt or
construct a new measure.

2.1 Development of the tool

2.1.1 Assessment and Review of the Existing Measures to Identify Learning

Difficulty

After identifying existing tools to check their utility in the Indian context, the
adaptation or construction of the diagnostic toohissundertaken. Some of the tools looked at
before construction of our tool in the Indian context:

2.1.1.1 The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale Fourth Edition (SB: FE)

It is a standardized test that measures intelligence and cognitive abilities in children

and adults, from age two through mature adulthood.

Purpose

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is originally developed to help place children in

appropriate educational settings. It can help determine the level of intellectual and cognitive
functioning in preschoolers, children, adolescents and adults, and assist in the diagnosis of a
learning difficulty, developmental delay, mental retardation, or giftedness. It is used to
provide educational planning and placement, neuropsychological assessment, and research.
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is generally administered in a school or clinical setting.
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is considered to be one of the best and most
widely used intelligence tests available. It is especially useful in providing intellectual
assessment in young children, adolescents, and young adults. The test has been criticized for.

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not being comparable for all age ranges. This is because different age ranges are administered
different subtests. Additionally, for very young preschoolers, it is not uncommon to receive a
score of zero due to test difficulty or the child's unwillingness to cooperate. Consequently, it
is difficult to discriminate abilities in this age group among the lower scorers.
Administration and interpretation of results of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
requires a competent examiner who is trained in psychology and individual intellectual
assessment, preferably a psychologist.

Description

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale has a rich history. It is a descendant of the Binet-
Simon scale which is developed in 1905 and became the first intelligence test. The Stanford-
Binet Intelligence Scale is developed in 1916 and is revised in 1937,1960, and 1986. The
present edition is published in 1986. The Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale is currently being
revised and the Fifth Edition is expected to be available in the spring of2003.
Administration of the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale typically takes between 45 to
90 minutes, but can take as long as two hours, 30 minutes. The older the child - more subtests
administered, the longer the test generally takes to complete. The Stanford-Binet Intelligence
Scale is comprised of four cognitive area scores which together determine the composite
score and factor scores. These area scores include: Verbal Reasoning, Abstract/Visual
Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, and Short-Term Memory. The composite score is
considered to be what the authors call the best estimate of "g" or "general reasoning ability"
and is the sum of all of subtest scores. General reasoning ability or "g" is considered to
represent a person's ability to solve novel problems. The composite score is a global estimate
of a person's intellectual functioning.
The test consists of 15 subtests, which are grouped into the four area scores. Not all
subtests are administered to each age group; but six subtests are administered to all age
levels. These subtests are: Vocabulary, Comprehension, Pattern Analysis, Quantitative, Bead
Memory, and Memory for Sentences. The number of tests administered and general test
difficulty is adjusted based on the test taker's age and performance on the sub-test that
measures word knowledge. The subtest measuring word knowledge is given to all test takers
and is the first subtest administered.
The following is a review of the specific cognitive abilities that the four area scores
measure. The Verbal Reasoning area score measures verbal knowledge and understanding

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obtained from the school and home learning environment and reflects the ability to apply
verbal skills to new situations. Examples of subtests comprising this factor measure skills
which include: word knowledge, social judgment and awareness, ability to isolate the
inappropriate feature in visual material and social intelligence, and the ability to differentiate
essential from non-essential detail.
The Abstract/Visual Reasoning area score examines the ability to interpret and
perform mathematic operations, the ability to visualize patterns, visual/motor skills, and
problem-solving skills through the use of reasoning. An example of a subtest which
determines the Abstract/Visual Reasoning score is a timed test that involves tasks such as
completing a basic puzzle and replicating black and white cube designs.
The Quantitative Reasoning area score measures: numerical reasoning, concentration,
and knowledge and application of numerical concepts. The Quantitative Reasoning area is
combined with the Abstract/Visual Reasoning area score to create an Abstract/Visual
Reasoning Factor Score.
The Short-Term Memory score measures concentration skills, short-term memory,
and sequencing skills. Subtests comprising this area score measure visual short-term memory
and auditory short term memory involving both sentences and number sequences. In one
subtest that measures visual short-term memory, the participant is presented with pictures of a
bead design, and asked to replicate it from memory.

Results

The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is a standardized test, which means that a large sample
of children and adults were administered the exam as a means of developing test norms. The
population in the sample is representative of the population of the United States based on age,
gender, race or ethnic group, geographic region, community size, parental education,
educational placement (normal versus special classes) etc. From this sample, norms were
established. Norms are the performance of a comparison group of subjects—that nature of the
group should be specified, and this usually constitutes a normal group so that the
performance of the tested individual can be compared to this group and thus evaluated.
The numbers of correct responses on the given subtests are converted to a SAS score
or Standard Age Score which is based on the chronological age of the test subject. This score
is similar to an I.Q. score. Based on these norms, the Area Scores and Test Composite on the
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale each have a mean or average score of 100 and a standard

47
deviation of 16. For this test, as with most measures of intelligence, a score of 100 is in the
normal or average range. The standard deviation indicates how above or below the norm a
child's score is. For example, a score of 84 is one standard deviation below the norm score of
100. Based on the number of correct responses on a given subtest, an age-equivalent is
available to help interpret the person's level of functioning.
Test scores provide an estimate of the level at which a child is functioning based on a
combination of many different subtests or measures of skills. A trained psychologist is
needed to evaluate and interpret the results, determine strengths and weaknesses, and make
overall recommendations based on the findings and observed behavioral observations.

2.1.1.2 WISC (Indian adaptation)

Malin’s Intelligence Scale for Indian Children, Indian adaptation of WISC [MISIC] (1955)
Includes both verbal and performance scales. Age - 6 to 15.11 years. Administration time is
2-254 hours. The Indian adaptation covers only 10 years from 6 to 15.11.

Verbal - 5

Information; Arithmetic; Similarity; Vocabulary; Digit Span.

Performance -7

Picture completion; Block design; Object assembly; Coding; Mazes.

The Indian adaptation omits the picture arrangement of the performance scale as it
proved to be culturally biased both as to content as well to form. These sub tests may
be administered in any order convenient for rapport. Only 10 tests - 5 from each group -are
required for complete for complete scoring. In case more or fewer tests are taken appropriate
score pro rating is called for. For safe validity however not less than four sub tests of each
group should be taken. The verbal group has an alternate in Digit Span test in case of spoilage
or when the regional vernacular test drops the vocabulary test in the upper age levels. The
alternate should not be taken just to improve a score.

POINT SCALE The original WISC as well as its Indian adaptation works on the point scale
and all items of a given type are grouped together and arranged in increasing order of
difficulty. Thus, for example, all information items are in the subtest for “information”

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 The points or raw scores of each test are totaled and then converted on the principle of
the “Deviation IQ” into derived scores. In the original WISC these derived scores and
standard scores called “scaled scores” which in turn must be converted into IQ’s by means of
table each for Verbal, Performance and Total Full Scale IQ’s.

The adapted MISC for reasons to be explained later avoids the use of “Scaled Score”
and by means of Table converts the raw scores directly into “Test Quotients” (TQ) which are
actually IQ’s. The Subtest TQ’s are then added and group averaged (Verbal, Performance)
and the Total or Full Scale of both groups is similarly obtained without the use of a Table.

Abandoning Menial Age Norms

Wechsler made much ado over his abandonment of the Mental Age norms in favor of
his “Scaled Score” deviation IQ technique. True, a Global M.A. suffers the same
disadvantages of a Global IQ but Wechsler seems not to realize that his criticism leveled
against the M.A. can be equally turned against the IQ’s he uses in his tests. He fails to
distinguish between a Global M.A. and a specific function or factorial M.A, This latter M.A.
is very useful for education and guidance purposes. Moreover with all his criticism of the
M.A. one wonders why he substituted another and even at that a meaningless “Scaled Score”
intermediary between his raw scores and the final IQ’s.

Vocabulary Test Rationale

Vocabulary tests in intelligence scales perform a dual role - one as a test of “Verbal
Comprehension” and another as a test of “Verbal Information”. This dual role however is
never given a specific discriminating analysis. Most of the time as Wechsler explains:

“Only knowledge of the number ofwords and their minimum content” is expected
from this test. Correlation table moreover show that in the upper age levels (10+) there is a
very close correlation between Information and vocabulary tests and the memory factor of the
digit span test, but not so on the lower age levels (5-10)

From various other data it is clear that the Verbal Comprehension factor of the
Vocabulary Test operate on the lower age levels and the verbal Information factor on the
upper age levels. The question then poses itself whether a vocabulary test is actually needed
at the upper age levels if Information test sufficiently assesses that factor.

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 For the obvious reasons then the Indian Adaptation has dropped the Vocabulary test
for the ages 10 to 16 in the regional vernaculars and offers the digit span alternate to
complete the 5th test required for the scoring. It should be noted however when administrating
the Vocabulary test in the regional languages that the scoring criteria for the lower age levels
are as follows:

1. Definitions in “terms of use” or functional levels, e.g. knife cuts; are scored 1 point.
2. Definitions in “terms of superior to use”- or concrete and descriptive levels, e.g. knife
has sharp edge; are scored 2 points.

Standardization Statistics

Sample size- for the Indian adaptation over 1200 children were given full individual test
during the past 6 years and over 3000 were sampled in subtest trail runs. An average of about
90 samples is used for each age level including boys and girls in a 20- 30 ratio. Age norms
were based on a twelve month interval 4 months before and seven months after a birthday.
Closer approximations are not possible due to the unreliability of Indian birth data.
Comparisons with WISC birth data were made on the middle third of the WISC tables e.g.
6yrs.4months through 6yrs. 7 months.

Regional Norms-Fortunately for English speaking children regional differences are at a

minimum since the English medium schools follow fairly uniform standards in textbooks and
literature content throughout the length and breadth of India. The English version samplings
were taken in Nagpur, Mumbai, Shimla, Mangalore and New Delhi. The samples from the
Hill boarding schools covered generally the whole northern portion of India.

For the Marathi and Hindi version samples were drawn from Nagpur alone which due
to its centrally located position provides an ideal meeting place for the two above mentioned
vernaculars.

Coefficients of Reliability and Validity

The original WISC reliability established subtest wise by the Split-half method with
appropriate correction for full length of test by the Spearman- Brown formula and yielded a
total coefficient of 91.The Indian adaptation established its reliability with the Test-Retest
method and yielded a Pearson’s product moment correlation coefficient of|91 for the full *'

scale IQ results. If ;
\* •

The points or raw scores of each test are totaled and then converted oatlre -principle
the "Deviation I.Q" in to derive scores. In the original WISC these derived score:
are standard scores called "scaled scores." which in turn must be converted into I.O’S by
means of a table each for verbal performance and total full scale I.Q's.

2.1.1.3 Comprehensive Test of Non Verbal Intelligence (C-TONI-2)

(Hammill, Pearson & Wiederholt, 1997)

It is a completely nonverbal assessment that's ideal for children and adults whose
performance on traditional intelligence tests might be adversely affected by language or
motor impairments. The CTONI-2 is particularly appropriate for use with people who are
bilingual, non-English speaking, socially or economically disadvantaged, deaf, language
disordered, or physically limited. The test requires no oral responses, no reading or writing,
and no object manipulation. All the examinee has to do is point to his or her selected
response. Individually administered in 60 minutes, the CTONI-2 measures analogical
reasoning, categorical classification, and sequential reasoning. Easy to administer and free of
gender and racial bias, the CTONI-2 allows one to assess the reasoning ability of individuals
who would otherwise be difficult to test. Its six subtests assess these abilities in two ways-
first using pictures of familiar objects and then using geometric designs:

• Pictorial Analogies
• Geometric Analogies
• Pictorial Categories
• Geometric Categories
• Pictorial Sequences
• Geometric Sequences

Pictorial analogies and geometric analogies (McCallum, 2003)

The examiner points to the picture on top of the page and says “this is to (points to the second
picture) this (pause) as this (point to the third picture) is to which one of these (run your
finger over the pictures at the bottom of the page). Point to your answer”

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Pictorial categories and geometrical categories (McCallum, 2003)
In these subtests the examiner points to each of the two pictures at the top of the page and
says- these two are alike in some way. Which one of these (run your finger over the
alternatives at the bottom of the page) is most like these two and should go in the empty box
(point back to the empty box between the top two pictures). Point your answer

Pictorial sequence and geometric sequence (McCallum, 2003)

This measures the ability to select from a set of geometric designs the one that sequence of
action shown in three designs. The examiner points to each of the picture at the top of the
page and says, “Which one of these (run your finger over the boxes at the bottom of the page)
goes in this box (point to the empty box at the top of the page)?”
Examinee has to just point to the answers, no manipulation of objects, reading or writing or
oral responses are required to take the test.

The three principles on which the test is based

1) The tests instructions were given orally or in pantomime, depending on which the
examiner considers most appropriate.
2) The test should measure three kinds of intellectual abilities: analogical thinking,
categorical formulation and sequential reasoning
3) The abilities should be measured in both pictured object and geometric design
contexts.

Six subsets were used

t
• Pictorial Analogies
• Geometric Analogies
• Pictorial Categories
• Geometric Categories
• Pictorial Sequences
• Geometric Sequences

The standard score from the subsets are combined to form three composite quotients:
Pictorial Nonverbal Intelligence Quotient, Geometric Nonverbal Intelligence Quotient and an
overall Nonverbal Intelligence Quotient.

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The CTONI is normed on a sample of 2,901 persons over a period of 2 years in 1995
(N=2,129) and 1996(N=772). The sample is stratified by age.
Test Reliability: For this the following were tested
The study of test’s reliability is done by using Cronbach coefficient alpha. All but two of the
coefficients for the subtests round to or exceed 0.80; coefficients for the composites are all
greater than 0.90.The alphas for the 10 selected subgroup s within the school aged sample
were examined. The subgroups studied were Caucasoids, African Americans, American
Indians, speakers of English as a second language (ESL, mostly Hispanics),students with
diagnosed learning disabilities, persons who are deaf or hard of hearing, Panamanians, males,
females and Asians. Again, all of the coefficients for the subtests round to or exceed 0.80;
composite scores are all greater than0.90.

Time Sampling
The stability of the test is studied using test-retest method and the coefficient is found to be
greater than 0.80, with a single exception, those for the composites rounded to or exceeded
0.90.

Scorer differences
This is the amount of test error due to examiner variability in scoring. The coefficient is
found to be greater than or equal to 0.95, those for the composites rounded to or exceeded
0.98.

Standard Score of each CTONI composite is constructed to have a mean of 100 and a
standard deviation of 15.

The subtests and the specific abilities that they measure:

Pictorial analogies - Measures the ability to recognize the relationship between two objects to
each other and to find the same relationship between two different objects.
Geometric analogies - Measure the ability to recognize the relationship between two
geometric designs to each other and to find the same relationship between two different
geometric designs.
Pictorial categories- Measures the ability to select from a set of different pictures the one that
is the most similar to the two other related objects.

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Geometric categories - Measures the ability to select from a set of different geometric
designs the one that is the most similar to the two other related geometric designs.
Pictorial sequence- Measures the ability to select from a set of pictures the one that
completes a sequence of actions shown in three pictures.
Geometric sequences- Measures the ability to select from a set of geometric designs the one
that completes a sequence of actions shown in three designs.

The pictorial Nonverbal Intelligence Quotient is an index of problem solving and

reasoning for which representational pictures of familiar objects are used in the test formats
The Geometric Nonverbal Intelligence Quotient is an index of problem solving and reasoning
for which unfamiliar designs are used as a stimuli. In the vast majority of cases, these two
quotients will be approximately equal.

2.1.1.4 Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (C-TOPP)

Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP- Wagner, Torgensen &

Rashotte, 1999) is a measure of phonological awareness, phonological memory, and naming.
It helps in identifying children in the age group of 5-24 years whose phonological abilities are
below par with their age level peers. Because of the age span it has two test levels age 5-6 has
seven subtests and one supplemental test and 7-24 has six subtests and eight supplemental
tests. The supplemental tests help in assessing the phonological strengths and weaknesses.
The subtests included rapid letter naming, blending words, rapid object naming, sound
matching, blending non words, memoiy for digits, phoneme reversal, non word repetition,
segmenting words, rapid color naming, segmenting non words, rapid digit naming.
Phonological coding consists of the analysis and synthesis of phonemes (the smallest unit of
recognized sounds). Beginning readers who have deficits in phonological coding seem to
have difficulty naming letters of the alphabet, identifying sounds for alphabet letters,
segmenting words into phonemes and syllables, and applying knowledge of letter-sound
correspondence to decode words (Vellutino, et all996).
The following tests were used (Reading Assessment Database: Search Results - SEDL
Reading Resources).

Elision - The student must repeat a word with one phoneme omitted (when the phoneme is
omitted, the remaining word is always a real word).

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Blending Words -Words are spoken aloud to the student with a clear pause between each
phoneme, and the student must correctly identify each word.

Initial Sound Matching - The student must match two words that begin with the same sound
(phoneme).

Final Sound Matching - The student must match two words that end with the same sound
(phoneme).

Nonword Repetition - Non-words are read aloud to the student, and the student must repeat
them verbatim. Some of the non-words are very long, so this is a test of phonological

memory span.

Rapid Color Naming - The student must identify colors by name as quickly as possible (for
ages 7 and older only).

Rapid Digit Naming - The student must identify numerals from a list as quickly as possible
(for ages 7 and older only).

Rapid Letter Naming - The student must identify letters of the alphabet as quickly as possible
(for ages 7 and older only).

Rapid Object Naming - The student must identify objects (from pictures) as quickly as
possible.

Blending Nonwords - Nonsense words are spoken aloud to the student with a clear pause
between each phoneme, and the student must correctly identify each nonsense word.

Phoneme Reversal - Real words are read backwards to the student. The student must identify
the word (for ages 7 and older only).

Segmenting Words - A word is spoken aloud to the student, and the student repeats the word,
placing a clear pause between each phoneme (for ages 7 and older only).

Segmenting Nonwords - A nonsense word is spoken aloud to the student, and the student
repeats the nonsense word, placing a clear pause between each phoneme (for ages 7 and older
only).

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Memoryfor Digits - Random digits are read aloud to the student, and the student must repeat
them in the same order.

Scores from subtests can be combined to derive three composite scores: the
Phonological Awareness Quotient, the Phonological Memory Quotient, and the Rapid
Naming Quotient. Scores can be converted into percentiles, standard scores, and age- and
grade-equivalent scores. Normed on a representative nationwide sample of more than 1,600
students. Reliability coefficients were in the .70 to .90 range, and validity measures are
available from the publisher. This is a collection of assessments designed to assess verbal
memory, rapid automatized naming (RAN), and phonological processing (PP). RAN and PP
have been shown to make separate contributions to reading success, and are the two
components of the double-deficit hypothesis.

2.1.1.5 Test of Phonological Awareness (TOPAS)

Test of Phonological Awareness Skills (Newcomer & Barenbaum, 2003) The TOPAS
is helpful in identifying children, ages 5 through 10, who have problems in phonological
awareness. It has four subtests (Rhyming, Incomplete Words, Sound Sequencing, and Sound
Deletion) that measure three areas of phonological awareness: sound comparison, phoneme
blending, and phoneme segmentation (Newcomer & Barenbaum, 2003)
Rhyming — The student must complete a sentence with a word that is both semantically
appropriate and which rhymes with a previous target word in the sentence (e.g. "I hurt my
KNEE falling out of a _.").
Incomplete Words -- The teacher says a word aloud, deleting a certain phoneme. The student
must correctly identify the missing phoneme.
Sound Sequencing — A set of colored blocks is used in this task. The student is told that each
colored block represents a speech sound (phoneme), and the student must represent speech
sounds in words by arranging the colored blocks appropriately.
Phoneme Deletion -- The student must repeat a word out loud, and then must say the word
with a certain phoneme missing (e.g. say "cat" without the /k/).The TOPAS is untimed,
requires approximately 15-30 minutes to administer, and is administered individually. It is a
well standardized norm - referenced instrument.
The test is normed on a sample size of 926 children and the sample is matched to those of US
according to the updated 2001 census. On the basis of age, gender, race and ethnic group and

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geographical relationship the normative data is stratified.
Percentile ranks, age equivalents, standard scores, and a composite score are provided. These
performance indices facilitate test interpretation, including conducting discrepancy analyses
between TOPAS subtests.
The reliability coefficients for the test are high, ranging from .87 to .97. Average reliability
coefficients range from .91 to .96 and all averaged coefficients for the composites exceed .90.
Test/retest studies show that the TOPAS is stable over time.
A variety of validity studies attest to construct-identification, content-description, and
criterion-predictive validity. The test’s relationship to the Comprehensive Test of
Phonological Processing, Diagnostic Achievement Battery-Third Edition, Lindamood
Auditory Conceptualization Test-Second Edition, Iowa Test of Basic Skills, California
Achievement Tests-Fifth Edition, Test of Early Reading Ability-Second Edition, Wechsler
Preschool Primary Scales of Intelligence-Revised, and the Test of Language Development-
Primary: Third Edition has been established. The possibility of gender and ethnic test bias is
investigated. Most of the potentially biased items were eliminated from the final version of
the test. Two items showing Differential Item Functioning remain, both have negligible effect
sizes (Reading Assessment Database: Search Results - SEDL Reading Resources).

2.1.1.6 Lindamood Auditory Conceptualization Test (LAC-3)

This test is individually administered test of auditory- conceptual skill. This means
that the ability to judge the order of sounds that appear in a word. The subtests present are
phonemic counting, phoneme sequencing, phoneme substitution, phoneme deletion and a
judgment task (same or different). For speech sound pattern, the students had to move colored
blocks which did not require them to know grapheme- phoneme correspondence (Kenny,
2004). The authors of the test claim that the items in the two categories” parallel the two
skills basic to spelling and reading. These are a) conceptualization of isolated phonemic units
and b) conceptualization of contrasts within and between syllables in respect to identity,
number and sequences of the phonemes involved,” (Lindamood & Lindamood, 1979). It can
be tested in the age group of 5 to 18. This test takes around 20-30 minutes. LAC tests an
individual’s ability to perceive and conceptualize speech sounds using a visual medium. It
also measures an individual’s cognitive ability to differentiate and manipulate sounds. The
test consists of 28 items divided into 2 categories. In the first category (I-A, 10 items) one

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needs to discriminate how many sounds (to a maximum of 3) have been heard and if they are
same or different. The child uses colored blocks to represent sounds. In second item (1-B, 12
items) the child is asked track and represent changes that occur within a syllable pattern as
one sound is added, /op/to/pap/ substituted, ap/to/op/, omitted,/pap/to/ap, shifted, /ap/ to/ pa
or repeated /pap/. Nonsense syllables are used to minimize the influence of familiarity of
meaningful words.

Isolated Phoneme Patterns — A set of colored blocks is used in this task. The student is told
that each colored block represents a speech sound (phoneme), and the student must represent
speech sounds by moving the appropriate block, forward. So, if the teacher says "Show me /fl
/a/," the student would push forward the blocks representing those phonemes.

Tracking Phonemes - Students use the blocks from the Isolated Phoneme Patterns task to
construct and modify nonsense words. For example, the teacher might arrange the appropriate
blocks and say, "If this says "sasp," move the blocks around to show me "slasp."

Counting Syllables - Colored felt pads are placed in front of the student, and the student is
told that each pad represents a syllable. The student is told to point to a pad with each syllable
in a nonsense word. So, for example, if the teacher says "bifter," the student should point to
two different felt pads to indicate that there are two syllables in the nonsense word "bifter."

Tracking Syllables -- This task is the same as the Tracking Phonemes task, except with
syllables. Each colored felt pad is assigned a syllable, and the student must move and
manipulate the pads to change one nonsense word into another nonsense word. So for
example, the teacher may arrange the pads and say, "If this says "pretive," then show me
"intive."

Tracking Syllables and Phonemes -- This is a culmination of the other tasks. The student
must appropriately arrange the phoneme blocks on top of the felt pads to represent changes in
phonemes and syllables (Reading Assessment Database: Search Results - SEDL Reading
Resources).

There are two forms of the test-forms-A and B. Lindamood and Lindamood (1979) stated that
the two forms are equivalent and reported a test-retest reliability of .96 between the forms.

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2.1.1.7 NIMHANS Index ofSLD TEST (NIMHANS -SLD)

The battery is initially developed for the purpose of doctoral thesis (John, 1989) and is
routinely used in the NIMHANS centre of child and adolescent mental health unit for
confirmation of LD. Initially, the battery consisted of Bender Gestalt test, Minnesota
Percepto-Diagnostic test, tests of reading, writing, comprehension, spelling and tests of
arithmetic. This battery is administered on 50 children (8-12 yrs) who presented with
difficulties in scholastic performance and is compared with a control group of 50 children
who were average and above average performers. The results showed that the profile of
children who were learning disabled is significantly different as compared to the controls. In
the year 1992 Kapur and her colleagues compiled the following tests into a battery and
named it as NIMHANS Index for SLD.

The index comprises of the following tests.

a) Attention (number cancellation)
b) Language Test (reading, writing, spelling and comprehension)
c) Arithmetic (Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division and Fractions)
d) Visuo motor skills ( The Bender Gestalt test and the developmental test of Visuo-
Motor Integration)
e) Memory( Auditory and Visual)

Interpretation:
If a child on any performance on any of the academic skills is more than two
standards below the standard he is studying in currently, it indicates presence of a learning
difficulty. If the child’s performance is just one standard or two below, it indicates a learning
difficulty.
Reliability of the NIMHANS Index is 0.53 which is adequate on a sample of forty
children diagnosed as having learning difficulty and criterion validity with teacher’s and
clinician’s assessment is found to be satisfactory 0.75 and 0.61 respectively (John, Rozario,
Oommen, & Uma, 2002)
Considering all the existing tools and tests it is realized that each test has something to
contribute in identifying LD in early preschoolers. Thus, the researcher has adapted,

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modified, incorporated and conceptualized parts of these tests in the new measure which is
discussed in details in the later section.

2.2 Item Development

After identification of the available tests, their utility in the Indian context iia$looked at
and adaptation and construction of itemsvissdone. For the development of items the following
tests were looked at considering the age of the children and their age appropriate
developmental capacities. We under took the following dimensions in our test.

Broadly they can be divided into:

Phonemic decoding skills (adapted from CTOPP, TOPAS, LAC-3)
Auditory processing skills (adapted from LAC-3; NIMHANS index of SLD)
Visual-spatial motor skills (adapted from NIMHANS index of SLD, CTONI2, MISIC)
Dimensions Adapted from existing Tests (as they are):

2.2.1 Phonemic decoding skills-

Phonemic awareness (adapted from CTOPP, TOPAS, LAC-3)

Adapted from TOPAS (examples modified)
Sound Sequencing: “Let’s match blocks with sounds. Remember what we learned before;
the blue block makes the /m/ sound and the red block the /a/ sound. When I say the word,
make the blocks match the sounds you hear. Here’s the word: May”
Adapted from LAC -3
The student is required to discriminate how many sounds s/he heard and whether they
were same or different. The student uses colored blocks to represent the sounds. The
student is required to determine in addition to number and sameness, the sequential order
of the same and different sounds, placing blocks in the order indicated by the sound
pattern.
Adapted from CTOPP
Phonological awareness comprised of Elision, Blending Words and Sound Matching for 5
and 6 year-olds and Elision and Blending Words for persons 7 to 24-years-old;

60
Rhyming word (adapted from CTOPP, TOPAS, LAC-3)
Adapted from TOPAS (example modified) (Margolis & Brarinigan, 2009).
Rhyming:” Finish the sentence with a word that rhymes with hat: The dog chased the

Adapted from LAC3

The student uses colored blocks to represent the sounds. The student is required to
determine in addition to number and sameness, the sequential order of the same and
different sounds, placing blocks in the order indicated by the sound pattern.

Blending (adapted from CTOPP, TOPAS, LAC-3)

Adapted from TOPAS (modified examples) (Margolis & Brannigan 2009).
Deletion of Small Sounds (phonemes): “Say the word horse. Now say it without the /hi
sound.”
Blending or Incomplete Words: “I will say a word with a missing sound. What word am I
saying? Bath oom.”
Adapted from LAC-3.
The category II items (12 items) measure most consonant - vowel contrasts possible in
simple syllables. The student is required to track and represent changes that occur within
a syllable pattern as one sound is added /op / to /pap/ substituted /ap/ to /op/ omitted pap
to ap, shifted ap to pa or repeated pap. Nonsense syllables are used to minimize the
influence of familiarity of meaningful words.
Adapted from CTOPP
Elision and Blending Words are core subtests for phonological awareness. Elision
requires breaking down sounds of a spoken word. Blending Word (in reverse) requires
squeezing sounds together to make a word.

Rapid naming objects (CTOPP)

Rapid Naming is the ability to name phonemes, words, word chunks, or objects in a quick
and automatic manner. Almost three decades of research with the Rapid Automatized
Naming Test (RAN) have demonstrated that the majority of children and adults with
reading difficulties have pronounced difficulties when asked to name rapidly the most
familiar symbols and stimuli in the language: letters, numbers, colors, and similar objects.

61
 Adapted from CTOPP
Rapid naming comprised of Rapid Color Naming and Rapid Object Naming, and Rapid
Digit Naming and Rapid Letter Naming, for younger and older students respectively
(Wagner, Torgesen, & Rashotte, 1999).

2.2.2 Auditory processing skill

Auditory discrimination (adapted from LAC-3, NIMHANS index of SLD)

Adapted from NIMHANS INDEX of SLD
The child should not see the examiner’s face. This is to avoid guessing from lip reading.
“I am going to tell you some words and you tell me if they are same or different.” If the
child makes a mistake, a second presentation could be made of the same words. If he fails
again it can be counted as an error. Five or more uncorrected errors by children age 6 or
older suggests difficulty with auditoiy discrimination and possible problems with learning
through phonetic approach.
Adapted from LAC-3
The student is required to discriminate how many sounds s/he heard and whether they
were same or different The student uses colored blocks to represent the sounds.

Auditory memory (adapted from LAC-3, NIMHANS index of SLD)

Adapted from NIMHANS Index of SLD
The examiner says I am going to read some sentences to you. When I finish, just repeat
what I said. Eight such sentences are read. One or more errors in each of the eight
sentences suggest difficulty with auditory memory in children of 5 years of age.
Adapted from LAC3
. The student is required to discriminate how many sounds s/he heard and whether they
were same or different. The student uses colored blocks to represent the sounds. In
addition to number and sameness, the sequential order of the same and different sounds,
placing blocks in the order indicated by the sound pattern.

62
2.2.3 Visual-spatial motor skills

Visual discrimination test

(Adapted from NIMHANS index of SLD, MISIC, CTONI2)
Adapted from NIMHANS SLD
The examiner shows five pictures and asks the child to mark the one that looks the same
as the first one. Three or more errors suggest difficulty with visual discrimination.
Adapted from CTONI2
Pictorial analogies and geometric analogies (McCallum, 2003)
The examiner points to the picture on top of the page and says “this is to (points to the
second picture) this (pause) as this (point to the third picture) is to which one of these (run
your finger over the pictures at the bottom of the page). Point to your answer”
Pictorial categories and geometrical categories (McCallum, 2003)
In these subtests the examiner points to each of the two pictures at the top of the page and
says- these two are alike in some way. Which one of these (ran your finger over the
alternatives at the bottom of the page) is most like these two and should go in the empty
box (point back to the empty box between the top two pictures). Point your answer

Spatial orientation test (adapted from C-TONI2)

Adapted from C-TONI 2
Geometric sequence this measures the ability to select from a set of geometric designs the
one that sequence of action shown in three designs (McCallum, 2003).The examiner
points to each of the picture at the top of the page and says, “Which one of these (ran
your finger over the boxes at the bottom of the page) goes in this box (point to the empty
box at the top of the page)?” Point your answer.

Visual organization (adapted from NIMHANS index of SLD, C-TONI2)

Adapted from NIMHANS SLD
Very similar to visual organization
The examiner shows five pictures and asks the child to mark the one that looks the same
as the first one. Three or more errors suggest difficulty with visual discrimination.
Adapted from CTONI2
Pictorial categories and geometrical categories (McCallum, 2003)

63
In these subtests the examiner points to each of the two pictures at the top of the page
and says- these two are alike in some way. Which one of these (run your finger over the
alternatives at the bottom of the page) is most like these two and should go in the empty
box (point back to the empty box between the top two pictures). Point your answer

Visual motor skills (adapted from NIMHANS index of SLD which is adapted from
Brigance, 1977)
Adapted from Brigance AH 1977
(Asked to draw some drawings) record performance (John, Rozario, Oommen & Hirsave,
1992) Adapted from NIMHANS SLD
Visual-motor skills the child is asked to copy design exactly
the way he or she sees it. The child is given three chances, but only the best effort is
counted. Difficulty with these designs after age seven indicates a need for a programme
of comprehensive visual-motor activities to develop eye hand readiness.

Picture sequence
Adapted from C-TONI2
Pictorial sequence and geometric sequence (McCallum, 2003)
The examiner points to each of the picture at the top of the page and says, “Which one of
these (run your finger over the boxes at the bottom of the page) goes in this box (point to
the empty box at the top of the page)?” Point your answer.

Story sequence
Adapted from C-TONI 2
Pictorial sequence and geometric sequence (McCallum, 2003)
The examiner points to each of the picture at the top of the page and says, “Which one of
these (run your finger over the boxes at the bottom of the page) goes in this box (point to
the empty box at the top of the page)?” Point your answer. This measures the ability to
select from a set of different pictures that one that completes a sequence of actions in
three pictures (Naglieri & Goldstein, 2009)

Literacy readiness
Adapted from CTONI2
Pictorial categories and geometrical categories (McCallum, 2003)

64
 In these subtests the examiner points to each of the two pictures at the top of the page and
says- these two are alike in some way. Which one of these (run your finger over the
alternatives at the bottom of the page) is most like these two and should go in the empty
box (point back to the empty box between the top two pictures). Point your answer. Here
the child has to point to the best made geometric design or the best drawn letter.

2.2.4 Attention (adapted from NIMHANS index SLD)

Adapted from NIMHANS index SLD
The ability of the child to focus his attention on a given job can be tested by using
1. Simple color cancellation test - request the child to cancel out any one color from the
color cancellation sheet, within the time limit of one minute.
2. Double color cancellation test- request the child to cancel out any two colors.

2.3 Dimensions of the Newly Developed Tool (including the adaptation and
modification)

Tool developed in this research study (Biwas and Kaul) after looking at quite a few
tests as mentioned above, this testwssformulated keeping in mind the Indian child and their

age.
Broadly the testing liadone for-
i) Phonemic decoding skills -
Phonemic awareness, rhyming words, blending, and rapid naming objects.
ii) Auditory processing skills -
Auditory discrimination, Auditory memory,
iii) Visual-spatial motor skills -
Visual discrimination test, Spatial orientation test, Visual organization, visuomotor
skills, picture sequence, story sequence, literacy readiness.
iv) Attention

These tests were further divided into smaller subtests so that a detailed testing in all
these three fields could be done. Attention too is tested for supportive and secondary
identification. Total number of tests is 29.The broad categories that the test is divided into

were:

65
2.3.1 Attention and concentration

Principle: Attention is the ability to stay focused on an activity. Maintaining attention helps
the child in learning and sequential information processing.

\ \

Fig 2.1
Test used- Object cancellation test.
A black and white picture of spoons and forks given to the children. They were asked to
cancel only the spoons. Altogether there were 21 spoons and forks. Children were given 1
minute to complete the test (refer manual pg no 1)

r
2.3.2 Visual discrimination

Principle-Visual discrimination skills are skills that permit a person to accurately compare
and contrast visual images. Children who have difficulties in this area may be unable to
identify shades of color and texture in pictures, confuse shapes and symbols in math, confuse
letters, words and objects that look similar, reverse numbers and letters when writing, have
problems with learning sight vocabulary.

o
' 0 AO
M T M P
o
3 2 3 5 8

Fig 2.2
Test- In the first test where the first three subtests from NIMHANS Index were used.
Children were asked to circle similar looking pictures or similar looking alphabets and words.
The first picture in the first row is pointed at and the child is asked to point to or circle similar

66
looking picture. Similar procedure is followed with the next two rows. Only one row is
shown at a time. Exposure time per row is 1 min.
The next subtest had three nearly similar looking pictures with one picture having a part
missing. The children had to identify the picture with the missing part, (refer manual pg no 2)

Fig 2.3

2.3.3 Spatial orientation

Principle- The ability to perceive the location of objects in relationship to other objects is a
critical skill in reading, math, and handwriting, where a child must be able to recognize the
different symbols, perceive their direction, tell the difference between similar shapes, and
determine where these are located in relationship to each other. Individuals who have
difficulty with spatial relationships may seem unusually clumsy or accident prone, may have
difficulty reading or may refuse to read, or may have poor handwriting (dysgraphia).

Example

Fig 2.4

Test - The first and second subset is tested with one object aligned in a different way and the
other three aligned in the same direction. Child had to identify the picture that is aligned in
different direction from the other three pictures. The third subset of spatial orientation
involved showing a small part of a picture separately and then child is asked to identify the
small part in the bigger picture (refer manual pg no 3)
Exposure time per row is 1 min.

67
 2.3.4 Left and right recognition

Principle -this test is based on spatial orientation,

Example

Fig 2.5

Text-Picture is shown which had animals looking in the two directions and the child is asked
to point to all animals looking to the left and then all animals looking to the right, (refer
manual pg no 5).
Exposure time in this picture 2 min.

2.3.5 Top and bottom recognition

Principle- Based on spatial orientation and visual integration

Example

Fig 2.6
T?st- The child is asked to point to the top and bottom of the picture,
Exposure time per picture is 1 min.

68
2.3.6 Visual organization

Principle-Whm an individual is confronted by any (abstract or symbolic) visual image, we

seem to separate a dominant shape (a 'figure' with definite contours) from the background.
This is found difficult by the dyslexics.
Testing involved (refer manual pg no 7)

i) Proximity- Children were asked to identify the objects which were placed closest out of
three pictures. Exposure time per picture -1 minute

Example ^ *8 *8 *8 ^ H

i&

Fig 2.7

ii) Similarity- Children had to identify the two shapes that were similar in that picture.
Exposure time per picture -1 minute.

Example

Fig 2.8
iii) Closure- Children had to identify pictures of alphabets and were asked to recognize the
alphabet. Exposure time per picture -1 minute

Example

/ A Fig 2.9

69
iv) Synthesis and Analysis -children had to identify missing objects in the second picture of
two similar looking pictures (refer manual pg no 9). Exposure time per picture -1 minute.

Example

Fig 2.10

2.3.7 Visual motor skills

Principle- Dyslexic subjects are found to be less efficient at recognizing structure-from-

motion and less accurate at grasping objects precisely. They also show a mild impairment in
stereo acuity. Dyslexic individuals should show deficiencies on tasks dependent on dorsal
stream processing of visual information

Example

Fig 2.11

Test- There are three subtests which involved joining alphabets in sequence to complete a
picture, drawing pictures from memory, arranging beads in a sequence (refer manual pg no
10). Exposure time 4 minutes.

70
2.3.8 Visual memory

Principle -Children with learning difficulty have difficulty remembering familiar items such
as letters, words, and numbers, and unfamiliar items such as abstract shapes that can be
named.
Test- children had to name the pictures in the same order that they were viewed, (refer
manual pg no 12). Exposure time per picture as shown below, •

VISUAL MEMORY
ROW TIME TAKEN
DOG 2 SEC
CLOCK, 2 SEC
CAT . SCISSOR 3 SEC
MAN . KEY, FISH 3 SEC
COW , TREE , PEN 3 SEC

Fig 2.12

2.3.9 Auditory discrimination

Principle -some children have special difficulties processing rapidly changing or rapidly
sequential auditory stimuli. This difficulty arises because these children’s brains do not
sample acoustic signals sufficiently rapidly to note changes of short temporal duration. Thus,
the children perceive some speech contrasts, or other rapid temporal events, inaccurately.
Children had to differentiate if the two words were similar or different.

• Bat bat * ;
• Bad bat
• Dog hog

Test- children were given two words said in slow succession one after the other with the child
having his back towards the tester and he had to say whether the words pronounced were
same or different (refer manual pg no 13).

71
2.3.10 Auditory memory

Principle-Dysiexics have a specific speech processing deficit at the sensory level which could
be used to identify children at risk at an early age.

Example: It is hot
I am a girl/boy

Test- children had to repeat sentences in the same order (refer manual pg no 14).

2.3.11 Receptive language

Principle- Receptive language or auditory processing disorder describes children whose brain
has an abnormal way of processing information and sound they hear from their surroundings.
He is unable to follow adequately the language of others. It may be associated with
conditions such as dyslexia

Test- The child is asked to identify the object by pointing with their index finger (refer
manual pg no 14). Exposure time per picture half minute.

Fig 2.13

72
2.3.12 Expressive language

Principle- Individuals have problems putting thoughts into words. Children may have a
markedly limited vocabulary, making errors in tense, or having difficulty recalling words or
producing sentences with developmentally appropriate length or complexity.
Test-children were asked to speak few sentences on common objects (refer manual pg no 15).

Fig 2.14

2.3.13 Picture sequence

Principle- The most common difficulty that comes with dyslexia is the inability to or
difficulty with, a concept called sequencing, the step-by-step way in which most people solve,
problems and organize their lives

Test- Children were shown some pictures and objects that were arranged in a particular
sequence or order. One picture is missing in the sequence. The child had to identify the
missing picture. The first picture is shown as an example. The first two subtests had only one
picture missing. The third subtest had two pictures missing in the sequence (refer manual pg
no 16). Exposure time per picture -1 minute. '

•a<Tt
Option:

Fig 2.15

73
2.3.14 Story sequence

Principle- The most common difficulty that comes with dyslexia is the inability to or
difficulty with, a concept called sequencing, the step-by-step way in which most people solve
problems and organize their lives.

Example: Sowing seed—watering the seed—big plant >

Test- The ability to sequence a story in an orderly manner after seeing the pictures is tested.
Children were shown three pictures. They were showing small actions to complete a small
activity. The child had to arrange the pictures in a sequential order to complete the activity.
One example is shown (refer manual pg no 17). Exposure time per picture -1 minute.

Fig 2.16

2.3.15 Literacy readiness

Principle- children at risk of developing dyslexia are delayed in literacy development.

Test-children were told to identify the best written/draw letter/shape. Children were shown
four triangles and had to identify the best drawn triangle. Children were shown four alphabets
(all capital A) and had to identify the best written capital A (refer manual pg no 18).
Exposure time per picture -1 minute.

74
2.3.16 Phonemic awareness

Principle - Phonological awareness provides individuals with the ability to break words into
syllables and component phonemes, to synthesize words from discrete sounds, and to learn
about the distinctive features of words. This seems difficult in dyslexics.

Test- Children were tested using pictures. Three subtests were used where (refer manual pg
no 18).

i) They were asked to name two pictures starting with the same phoneme

Bat starts with bub. Find another picture which starts with buh

A
Fig 2. IS
ii) Match the beginning sound letter with the picture

iii) Match the phoneme with the letter

Find the letter that makes a tuh sound

p Q T M

Fig 2.20
Exposure time per picture -1 minute.

75
2.3.17 Rhyming words

Principle- Dyslexia is a problem with phonological coding. One of the early symptoms may
be the child’s inability to learn or understand rhyming words.

Testf-children were asked to identify two pictures ending with the same sound (Refer manual
pg no 21). Exposure time per picture -f minute.
Example: Match the word that rhymes with bat

bat ' cat horse tree

!

2.3.18 Blending
/ I V# Fig 2.21

Principle- Phonological awareness provides individuals with the ability to synthesize words
from discrete sounds, and to learn about the distinctive features of words. This seems difficult
in dyslexics.
t

Fejtf-Children were shown pictures of two objects and those objects were named aloud. They
were asked to join the two words together to make a compound word; Similarly, blending of
simple picture to form compound words is done, blending of phonemes with morphemes to
form words is tested, and removal of morpheme to form simple word is tested (refer manual
pg no 22). Exposure time per picture -1 minute

Pencil Box >Pencilbox

Fig No 2.22

76
2.3.19 Rapid naming object

Principle- Efficient retrieval of a series of names of objects, colors, digits, or letters from
long-term memory. Rapid naming of verbal material is a measure of the fluid access to verbal
names, in isolation or as part of a series, and related efficiency in activating name codes from
memory. This is impaired in dyslexics.

Test-Children were asked to name pictures seen on the paper as quickly as possible (refer
manual pg no 24). Exposure time per picture -1 minute.

Fig 2.23

77