CARBOHYDRATES

Carbs Functions (General Molecular Formula: Cn(H20)n)

1. Main sources of energy in the body. Brain cells and RCBs are almo
st wholly dependent on carbohydrates as the energy source.
2. Storage form of energy (starch and glycogen)
3. Excess carbohydrate is converted to fat.
4. Glycoproteins and glycolipids are components of cell membranes
and plasma membranes.
5. Structural basis of many organisms: Cellulose of plants; exoskeleto
n of insects, cell wall of microorganisms.

 Are polyhydroxy aldehytes or ketones. They have general Mol

ecular formulas that make them appear to be hydrates or carbon.
 Polyhydroxy means "containing several alcohol"
 Most abundant molecules on earth produced by photosynthesis
 Plays a vital part of the metabolism and oxidation of protein. It hel
ps feed the brain and nervous system and helps keep the body lea
n.

Lipid Profile

 Cholesterol
 HDL (Good Cholesterol)
 LDL (Bad Cholesterol)
 Triglycerides

Carbohydrates

 Give the body energy

 They are the best source of fuel for the body
 Helps to digest protein and fat
 If we eat more carbohydrates than are needed for energy, the extr
a stored in the liver or in the tissues as fat.
 60% of carbohydrates in the body, 30% proteins, 10% fats
 CHO - Carbohydrates (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen)
 CHON - Protein
Biomolecules

 elements combined to form a molecule to make up lining cells

 a molecule that is associated with life

Composition and Classification

 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen

3 Major Categories

 Monosaccharide
 Disaccharide
 Polysaccharide

Monosaccharide

 Glucose, galactose, fructose - C6H12O6

 Ribose -C5H10O5 (genetic info, energy transfer)
 Deoxyribose - C5H10O4 (sugar component)
 Are simple sugars. They cannot be broken down into simple sugar
s upon hydrolysis (reaction with water).
 Are called either aldoses or ketoses, depending upon whether the
y contain an aldehyde (-CHO) or ketone (C=O) group.

Types of Monosaccharide

Trioses

 Three-carbon simple sugar

 They are forms during the metabolic breakdown of hexoses in m
uscle metabolism.
 Ex. glyceridehyde, glycerose
Tetroses

 four-carbon sugars
 is an intermediate in the hexoses monophosphate shunt for oxid
ation of glucose
 Ex. aldotetroses, ketotroses

Pentoses

 five-carbon sugar molecules

 most important of these ribose and deoxyribose which are found
in the nucleic acids.
 ribose forms part of RNA and deoxyribose forms part of DNA
 Ex. ribose, deoxyribose

Hexoses

 six-carbon sugars, the most common of all carbohydrates

 most important in human body are glucose, galactose and fructo
se, having the same formula (C6H12O6) but different structural fo
rmula
 Ex. glucose, galactose, and fructose

3 Hexoses

 Glucose
 Fructose
 Galactose

Glucose

 a monosaccharide or simple sugar

 "grape sugar, corn sugar or cerelose"
 Greek word glykys meaning "sweet" plus the suffix "ose" which de
notes a sugar.
 White crystalline solid that is soluble in water and insoluble in mo
st organic compound
 found along with fructose in many fruit juices
  important carbohydrate in biology because the living cell uses it a
s a source of energy and metabolic intermediate
 main products of photosynthesis and starts cellular respiration in
both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
 commercially called "Dextrose," sometimes referred to as grape s
ugar because it is present in high concentration in grapes, about
20 to 30%
 human blood contains 80-120 mg of glucose/100mL
 in the disease known as diabetes (diabetes mellitus), the concent
ration is increased
 Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) -
Golden Standard for Diabetes Mellitus
 when it reaches as level of about 160 mg/100 mL, it is excreted i
n urine, a condition called Glycosuria (Blood cannot hold anymore
sugar)

Production in Glucose

 Natural - glycogenalysis
 Artificial - gluconeogenesis

Natural

 Glucose is one of the products of photosynthesis in plants and so

me prokaryotes
 In animals and fungi, glucose is the result of the breakdown of glyc
ogen, a process known as glycogenolysis
 In plants the breakdown substrate is starch

Artficial

 In animals, glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from n

on-
carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a p
rocess known as gluconeogenesis

Fructose

 Ketose sugar
  The sweetest of the common sugars
 Also levulose or levulose sometimes called "Fruit Sugar"
 Simple reducing sugar (monosaccharide) found in many foods and
is one of the three important dietary monosaccharide along with
glucose and galactose.
 Occurs naturally in fruit juices and honey
 Most soluble and also the sweetest of all sugars being 75% sweet
er than glucose
 used in candy making (sweetness great solubility, difficult to cryst
allize, ability to absorb moisture)
 also derived from the digestion of granulated table sugar (sucros
e), a disaccharide consisting of glucose and fructose, and high-
fructose corn syrup (HFCS)
 is an isomer of glucose with the same molecular formula (C6H12
O6) but with different structure
 6-carbon polyhydroxyketone
 has the highest solubility
 difficult to crystallize from an aqueous solution
 sugar mixes containing fructose such as candies are softer than t
hose containing other sugars because of the greater solubility of
fructose

Health Effect of Fructose

 Excess fructose consumption has been hypothesized to possibly c

ause insulin resistance, obesity, elevated LDL cholesterol and tric
lycerides, leading to metabolic syndrome.

Galactose

 "Brain sugar"
 less sweet than glucose
 considered a nutritive sweetener because it has food energy
 formed from blood glucose in the mammary blood
 produced by the hydrolysis of lactose in the digestive tract
 used in infant feeding
 glucose is changed into galactose in order to enable mammary g
lands to secret lactose

Disacharide

 deoxyribose is the sugar component of DNA (deoxyribonucleic a

 cid)
 are sugars containing two hexose units, such as sucrose in cane
sugar, maltose in malt sugar and lactose in milk sugar

Metabolic Disease of Dissacharide

 Galactosemia
 is an inherited disease in which the transformation of galactose t
o glucose is blocked, allowing galactose to increase to toxic level
s in the body
 if it is untreated, high levels of galactose cause vomiting, diarrhea,
lethargy, low blood sugar, brain damage, jaundice, liver enlarge
ment, cataracts, susceptibility to infection, and death

Dissacharide

Glucose Glucose Maltose

Glucose Fructose Sucrose

Glucose Galactose Lactose

Glucose Glucose Trehalose

Glucose Glucose Cellobiose

Sucrose

 One of the sweetest form of sugar

 sucrose or table sugar is the most common dissacharide
 found in granulated, powdered and brown sugar and molasses a
nd is also found free in nature in a variety of fruits and vegetable
s

Production and use of Sucrose

 most important sugar in plants, and can be found in the phloem

sap
 extracted from sugar cane or sugar beet and then purified and cr
 ystallized
 commercial sources are sweet sorghum and sugar maples
 always included in food preparations due to both its sweetness a
nd functional properties
 it is important to the structure of many foods including biscuits a
nd cookies, cakes and pies, candy canes, ice cream and sorbets,
and also assists in the preservation of foods

Health Effect of Sucrose

 dental caries or tooth decay, in which oral bacteria convert sugar

s (including sucrose) from food into acids that attack tooth enam
el
 when a large amount of foods that contain a high percentage of s
ucrose is consumed, beneficial nutrients can be displaced from th
e diet, which can contribute to an increased risk for chronic disea
se.
 pure carbohydrate has an energy content of 3.94 kilocalories per
gram ( or 17 kilojoules per gram)
 sucrose-
containing drinks may be linked to the development of obesity a
nd insulin resistance

Maltose

 "Malt sugar"
 not found free in nature but is formed by enzymes or acid hydrol
ysis starch
 on hydrolysis of maltose two molecules of glucose is formed and a
re an intermediate product are the digestion of starch
 metabolism of maltose by yeast during fermentation then leads t
o the production of ethanol and carbon dioxide
 plain maltose has a sweet taste, about half as sweet as glucose a
nd about one-fifth as sweet as fructose

Lactose

 common disaccharide is lactose, which is only found in milk

 "milk sugar" is a sugar that is found most notably in milk
 makes up around 2-8% of milk (by weight)
 comes from the Latin word for milk, plus the "ose" ending used to
name sugars
  Other dissacharide is trehalose, like sucrose, trehalose is a non r
educing sugar. Trehalose is the principal sugar in the hemolymph
of insects.

Polysaccharides

 relatively complex carbohydrates

 they are polymers made up of many monosaccharide joined toge
ther by glycosidic bonds
 tend to be amorphous, insoluble in water, and have no sweet tas
te

Classification of Polysaccharide

 Homopolysaccharide
 Heteropolysaccharide

Homopolysaccharide

 when all the monosaccharide in a polysaccharide are the same ty

pe the polysaccharide
 Storage (starch-plants, glycogen-animals)
 Structural (Cellulose - found in the cell wall of plants, Chitin -
found in exoskeleton of an insects)

Heteropolysaccharide

 Molecules are formed by different kinds of monosaccharides

 GAG (Glycosaminoglycans) - found in connective tissue
 Hepanin - acts as anticoagulant
 Hyaluronic Acid - hydration and lubrication
 Pectin - found in the cell wall of fruits

Starch

 most important source of carbohydrates in the diet

 glucose polymers in which glucopyranose units are bonded by alp
 ha-linkages
 made up of a mixture of amylose and amylopectin
 amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose mol
ecules and amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several t
housand glucose units.

Properties of Starch

 insoluble in water
 can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called amyl
ases, which can break the alpha-linkages (glycosidic bonds)
 human and other animals have amylases, so they can digest star
ches
 potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the
human diet

Glycogen

 animal starch
 is a polysaccharide that is found in animals and is composed of a
branched of chain of glucose residues
 stored in liver and muscles where it serves as a reserve supply of
glucose
 present in oysters and scallops
 human liver usually contains 1.5 to 4% glycogen
 muscles is 0.5 to 1.0%
 oysters and shellfish contains as much as 9% glycogen
 glycogen in liver used up rapidly in emotional reaction like fear, a
nger, and excessive exercise

Cellulose

 reserved carbohydrates in plants and is found in the cell walls an

d woody fibers of all plants
 structural components of plants are formed primarily from cellulo
se
 wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are n
early pure cellulose
 human and many other animals lack an enzymes to break the bet
a-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose
 certain animals can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing
the enzyme are present in their gut
Dextrin

 white amorphous substance formed by heating dry starch

 forms sticky colloidal suspension with water and is used in the pr
eparation of adhesives
 Dextrin is slightly sweet and with iodine gives a violet to reddish
brown color

Commercial Uses
Cellulose nitrate

 forms a transparent films

 artificial silk or rayon

Cellulose acetate

 in the manufacture of safety motion picture, films for x-

ray, acetate fabrics
 cellophane or paper

Other Uses

 manufacture of cheap adhesives because of its sticky property w

hen wet (postage, stamps, envelope)
 textile industry, cotton cloth is sized in the crust is converted int
o dextrin
 in making candy, added to give smoothness to the product

Heparin

 used as blood anticoagulant and the strongest organic acid pres

ent in the body

Dextran

 are used as blood extenders to hold water in the bloodstream an

d help prevent drops in volume and blood pressure