Susd4Ai2 TESt4 20/9 2 1.0 (a) Yielding of the gross section () Yielding of the gross section, Ag, is a ductile mode of failure, and will occur when the stress facross the cross-section reaches the yield stress f. (i) When the yield limit state of the material is exceeded there is significant plastic deformation (ductile). i) Although the gross-sectional area of tension members can sustain loads up to the ultimate load without failure, the elongation of the members at this load would almost be 10-15% of the original length. This makes the structure supported by these members unserviceable. Hence, the yield load is usually taken as the limiting load for yielding of the gross-section. @ © Fracturing through the bolt-holes |!) The introduction of a hole in a tension member reduces its gross sectional area. It also weakens the material in the immediate vicinity of the hole, especially if the hole is punched. oO When a hole is introduced in a tension member the uniform stresses across the gross section are forced to go around the hole, causing a stress concentration around the hole. This makes the stress around the hole to be larger than the stress at any point along the member. ' Fracturing occurs when the stress across the net section reaches the ultimate stress fi, and there is no reserve strength beyond this resistance. (6 Since this is brittle failure mode and occurs with little deformation or warning of failure, an additional factor of safety of 0.85 is introduced in order to limit this Pe of failure, t Block shear failure Q When some elements of a section are not connected block shear failure is a possible mode of failure. Block shear failure®> occurs when a "block" of material around the connection is "torn" out. Wo This is characterized by a failure that includes both tension (i.e. normal to the force) and(i) shear (i.e. parallel to the force) failure planes. Fracture on the tension plane occurs first before failure along the shear planes, If there is sufficient ductility across the bolt-holes,(\) the portion that is in shear is expected to fail by yielding. However, the possibility of attaining shear yielding is unlikely to happen if there is insufficient ductility, hence the use of shear fracturing v Although this mode of failure can occur in welded connections it is more common in bolted connections because of the presence of bolt holes. 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Pre con condude that the systen oi Lenguratinek Valls owly riety wk a mon eff y : coleuteting the reustence oh wrens OS Leth the welds contibute to he bake ret fiom: Cololateny @)[asJ 2.0 (a) The shear centre is a point in the plane of the cross-section through which if the load is applied at that point, the section will experience bending only and no twisting. ® Warping develops in cross-sections in which some of the elements of the cross-section do not meet at the shear centre, for example, an I and H-section. wo In these sections, warping resistance is developed by the cross-bending of flanges about the shear centre. When the member twists, lateral bending strains are developed in the flanges, which in turn generate shear forces. The couple produced by the shear forces subsequently develops bending moments about the shear centre, resulting in what is commonly known as warping resistance. @) Sections like T and L-sections do not develop this resistance because the shear forces developed passes through the shear centre and there is no lever arm to develop this resistance. oe = ; i N } Nu =e 4 — Local buckling A compression member subject to increasing load may experience local failure of the elements (flange and web) forming the cross-section at maximum load. ()) This mode of failure is called local buckling, and occurs when the elements of the section are not thick enough to promote yielding. © To prevent local buckling from occurring, the width-to-thickness ratios of the elements must be limited. The maximum width-to-thickness ratios depend on the classification of each element. wo @ Yielding of cross-section A short column fails by crushing or squashing. Since the member is short, yielding of the material is reached first before flexural buckling. @ This means that the yield load represents the maximum capacity or limit state of compression members. @ Residual stresses causes early yielding of the tips of an I-section, and this is the primary cause of the non-linear portion in the stress-strain relationship of a short column. QO @Overall Flexural buckling Intermediate or slender columns may fail by elastic or inelastic overall flexural buckling if subjected to an axial load. © In this case slender columns all fibres of the cross-section will remain elastic, and the Euler load will govern the limit state of these columns. However, intermediate length reflect the majority of compression members in steel structures, and will buckle inelastically because of the large compressive residual stresses on some parts of the cross-section and initial imperfections or out-of-straightness of the member. The strength of these columns depends on the bending stiffness, length and initial out- of-straightness of the column, as reflected in slender columns, and yield stress of the steel and distribution of residual stress across the section, as reflected in short colyrgns. The failure load of slender and intermediate length columns is less than the squash load and their capacity depends largely on the degree of slenderness ratio. Torsional buckling Compression members may buckle either due to pure twisting about the longitudinal axis, and this is referred as torsional buckling. & Torsional buckling is only possible for centrally-loaded doubly-symmetrical cross- sections for which the centroid and shear centre coincide, for example a cruciform or thin walled I-section. D) Usually, closed hollow sections will not buckle torsionally because they have large torsional rigidity.In practice pure torsional of hot-rolled structural sections is highly unlikely, unless if torsional and warping stiffness are low. @ @ Torsional-flexural buckling Compression members may buckle due to a combination of bending and twistine. A Torsional-flexural buckling will occur in centrally loaded sections that have one axis of symmetry such as channel, equal-leg angle, double-angle and tee sections for which the centroid and shear centre do not coincide. © Torsional-flexural buckling has a grater practical significance in the design of cold formed sections. 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