Unit 1 – Introduction to

Pharmacognosy
 WHAT IS PHARMACOGNOSY?

• The word Pharmacognosy is made up to two Greek

words- Pharmakon which means drug and Gignosco
means to acquire the knowledge of.
• Pharmacognosy is branch of Bioscience which treats in
details the medicinal and related products of crude or
primary type obtained from plants, animal or mineral
origin.
• In short, it is study of crude drugs from natural sources.
• It includes the knowledge of history, distribution,
cultivation, collection, processing, preservation, study
of sensory, physical, chemical and structural characters
and uses of crude drugs.
 What is Crude drug?’

• Crude drugs are drugs obtained from natural

sources like plants, animals, minerals and they
are used as such as they occur in the nature
without any processing except drying and size
reduction.
 Various sources of drugs

• Plants- Plant source is the oldest source of drugs. Most of

the drugs in ancient times were derived from plants.
Almost all parts of the plants are used i.e. leaves, stem,
bark, fruits and roots etc. For example leaves of Digitalis
purpurea are the source of Digitoxin and Digoxin, which
are cardiac glycosides.
• Animals- Pancreas is a source of Insulin, used in treatment
of Diabetes. Sheep thyroid is a source of thyroxin, used in
hypertension. Cod liver is used as a source of vitamin A and
D. Blood of animals is used in preparation of vaccines.
Cochineal (dried full grown female insects) consists of
carminic acid used as colouring agent for foods, drugs and
for cosmetic products.
• Plant Tissue Culture- It is in-vitro cultivation of plant cell or tissue
under aseptic and controlled environmental conditions, in liquid or
on semisolid well defined nutrient medium for the production of
primary and secondary metabolites or to regenerate plant. This
technique affords alternative solution to problems arising due to
current rate of extinction and decimation of flora and ecosystem.
Applications are Production of Phytopharmaceuticals, Biochemical
Conversions Clonal Propagation (Micro-propagation), Production of
Immobilized Plant Cell and Sources of drugs of natural origin.
• Marine Sources- The greater part of the earth surface is covered by
seas and ocean, which contains about 5,00,000 species of marine
organisms. Many of these compounds have shown pronounced
biological activity. In the western medicine agar, alginic acid,
carrageenan, protamine sulphate, spermaceti & cod and halibut
liver oils are the established marine medicinal products. Macroalgae
or seaweeds have been used as crude drugs in the treatment of
iodine deficiency states such as goiter, etc.
• Various examples are
• 1. Anticancer drug- Bryostatins, Dolastatins, Ara-C
• 2. Anti-inflammatory drugs- Pseudoterosins, bi-
indole, Manoalide
• 3. Cardio-vascular drugs- Anthopleurins,
Laminine, Saxitoxin
• 4. Anthelmintic drugs- Kainic acid, Domoic acid
• 5. Antimicrobial drugs- Cephalosporin, Istamycin,
Nitenin
• Crude drug and its types
• Crude drugs- It means the natural substances
from vegetable and animal sources that have
undergone no any processing other than
collection and drying. These are also called as
Simples or Simple drug.
• These are of two types:
• Organised drugs
• Unorganised drugs
•
• Gums and mucilages:
• Gums are translucent amorphorous substances produced by the plants.
These are pathological products produced by the plant when the plant is
growing in unfavourable conditions or is injured. These are abnormal
metabolic products of plant.
• Gums are soluble in water or partly soluble in water.
• They are insoluble in alcohol and organic solvents.
• When added to water, they form a viscous adhesive solution.
• On hydrolysis they yield a sugar and uronic acid. Uronic acid is usually
Glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid or aldobionic acid.
• Examples: Guar gum, Tragacanth, Gum acacia, Gum karaya and Gum
Ghatti.
• Mucilage are also plant products similar to gum. They are normal products
of plant metabolism. They are produced inside the cells of the plant. They
are not soluble in water instead form slimy masses with water. Examples –
Isapgol, fenugreek, Agar, Senna.
• Resins:
• Natural resins:
• They are natural exudates.
• They are solid, liquid and semi viscous materials from plants.
• They are end product of plant metabolism.
• They are clear, translucent, yellowish or reddish brown.
• They are insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents.
• When they are heated they soften, melt and burn with sooty flame.
• Example: Colophony, Jalap resin
• Oleo resins-
• When natural resins are combined with volatile oils in homogenous form they are called oleo
resins.
• Balsams-
• Aromatic resinous matter containing balsamic acid- benzoic acid and cinnamic acid. Benzoin,
balsam of tolu.
• Oleogum resin- It is combination of resin, volatile oils and gums. Example Asafoetida.
• Dried juices:
• These juices are obtained from fleshy leaves like Aloe or from
stems of trees. An incision is made at respective part and juice
coming out is collected and dried.
• Latices (latex):
• It is a product contained in special secretory tissues of certain
plants. It is a white suspension, where small oil globules are
suspended. It may contain proteins, sugars, minerals and
alkaloids. Example- Rubber.
• Classification of crude drugs:
• Classification is the action or process of categorising something.
Crude drugs are been used from time to time. Hence, number there
are numerous number of crude drugs.. In order to study and
understand these, there is a need to classify them under different
categories.
• They are categorised as:
• Alphabetical classification
• Taxonomical classification
• Morphological classification
• Pharmacological classification
• Chemical classification
• Chemotaxonomical classification
• Alphabetical Classification
• In this system crude drugs are arranged in alphabetical order using
their English or Latin names. The Pharmacopoeias and other official
publications use this system. This is the simplest method of
arranging crude drugs and is particularly suitable for classifying
drugs having no connecting features of a scientific nature. Other
than its simplicity and ease of use, this system does not give any
useful information about the drugs and many unrelated drugs may
be grouped together by using this system.
• Acacia, benzoin, cinchona, dill, ergot, fennel, gentian, hyoscyamus,
ipecacuanha, jalap, kurchi, liquorice, myrrh, Nux vomica, opium,
podophyllum, quassia, rauwolfia, senna, uncaria gambier, vasaka,
wool fat, yellow bees wax, zedoary.
• Advantages: It is simple method, in this system location, tracing and
addition of the drug is easy, No technical person is required for
handling the system. • Disadvantages: • Scientific nature of the
drug cannot be identified by this method, whether they are
organised or unorganised drug • This system does not help in
distinguishing the drugs of plant, animal and mineral source.
(Original source is not clear)
• Taxonomical Classification
• In this system crude drugs are arranged according to the
natural groups (e.g. families) of their sources. Thus all the
drugs obtained from plants of the family Umbelliferae are
grouped together as umbelliferous drugs, those from the
Solanaceae are grouped together as Solanaceous drugs and
so on. This system of classification reflects the natural
relationship or phylogeny of the sources, which are also in
many instances found to contain similar chemical
constituents. For example, volatile oils are the main
constituents of the Umbelliferous fruit drugs, while tropane
alkaloids are characteristic of the Solanaceous drugs.
• This system of classification is criticized for its failure to
recognize the organized and unorganized nature of crude
drugs and chemical nature of active constituents and
therapeutic significance of crude drugs
• • Phylum - Spermatophyta
• • Division - Angiospermae
• • Class - Dicotyledons
• • Order - Rosales
• • Family - Leguminosae
• • Sub-family - Papilionaceae
• • Genus - Glycyrrhiza, Astragalus, Myroxylon
• • Species - Glycyrrhiza glabra, Astragalus gummifer, Myroxylon balsamum.
•
•
• • Phylum - Spermatophyta
• • Division - Angiospermae
• • Class - Dicotyledons
• • Sub-class - Sympetalae
• • Order - Tubiflorae
• • Family - Solanaceae
• • Genus - Atropa, Hyoscyamus, Datura
• • Species - Atropa belladona, Hyoscyamus niger, Datura stramonium.
• In this system the drug are arranged according to taxonomical
studies. The drugs are arranged according to their phylum, order,
family, genus and species. It is purely a type of botanical
classification or biological classification and restricted mainly to
crude drugs from plant source
• Advantages:
• This system clearly identifies the source and the origin of crude
drugs.
• Duplication and repetition of crude drugs is no possible in this
system.
•
• Disadvantage:
• Technical knowledge and skill is required to access this
classification.
• Doesn't include details like nature of crude drugs, chemical
constituents present and pharmacological uses.
• Mineral based drugs cant be classified through this system
• Morphological Classification
• In this system, the organised drugs are arranged according to the
morphological similarities and dissimilarities of the various plant
parts which constitute the drugs. Thus· all leaf drugs, irrespective of
their chemical constituents and source, are grouped together.
Similarly, barks of all parts are grouped in one group and so on.
Unorganised drugs are grouped in this system as latices, extracts,
gums, resins, oi.ls, fats and waxes, This system of classification is
useful for a person who is expected to identify specific drugs and to
detect adulterants in them. Similar morphological parts from
different plants do not contain similar chemical constituents, e.g.,
bark of the Cinchona plant contains alkaloids, whereas that of
Rhamnus purshiana contains glycosides and that of Cinnamon
contains volatile oils. Since all of them are bark they are grouped
together in this system. This system is therefore not suitable for use
in storing drugs, but for study, this is a good system because of the
structural similarity of the drugs.
• Example:
• Leaves- Digitalis, Tulsi, Senna
• Bark- cinnamon, Chincona, Arjuna
• Wood- Quassia, Sandal wood
• Fruits- Fennel, coriander, Cardamom
• Seeds- Nux vomica, Coffee seeds, Colchicum seed
• Root- Rauwolfia, Licorice
• Rhizome- Ginger and termeric
• Entire plant- Epedra, Ergot
• Flowers- Clove, pyrethrum
• Glands and their secretions- Thyroid, Parathyroid, Pituitary
gland, Pancreas, mil
• Advantages:
• • This system of classification is more convenient for
practical study especially when the chemical nature of
the drug is not clearly understood.
• • This type of classification is very useful in identifying
the adulterants used.
• Disadvantages:
• • It does not give an idea about biological source,
chemical constituents and uses.
• • When different parts of the plant contain different
chemical constituents, it is difficult to classify them.
• Chemical Classification
• Here the crude drugs are divided into groups according to their
principal chemical constituents.
• Thus all alkaloid-containing drugs are put into one group regardless
of other consideration.
• Similarly, all crude drugs containing glycosides are grouped together
and so on.
• Since the pharmacological actions and therapeutic uses of drugs
depend on their chemical constituents, this system of classification
appears to be an ideal one.
• Moreover, certain plant families exhibit definite types of chemical
principles, e.g., tropane alkaloids characterize the Solanaceae
family; volatile oils are common in the Umbelliferae family, while
Pinaceae contains mainly oleoresins.
• Thus, from chemical point of view also the plants of these families
are closely related.
• In that sense, this system is ideal not only for study but also for
storage.
• Example-
• Glycosides - Digitalis, senna, cascara, liqourice
• • Alkaloids - Nux vomica, ergot, cinchona, datura
• • Tannins - Myrobalan, pale catechu, ashoka
• • Volatile oils - Peppermint, clove, eucalyptus, garlic
• • Lipids - Castor oil, bees wax, lanolin, cod liver oil, kokum
butter
• • Carbohydrates - Acacia, agar, guar gum, pectin, honey,
isapghula
• • Resins & resin - Colophony, jalap, Balsam of Tolu
• • Vitamins Yeast, Shark liver oil, Oxytocin, Hormones insulin
• • Proteins - casein, gelatine, papain, trypsin
• Advantages :
• • Chemical constituents are known,
• • Medicinal uses are known
• Disadvantages :
• • Drugs of different origin are grouped under similar
chemical titles.
• • This type of classification makes no proper
placement of drugs containing two different types of
chemicals. Eg: Certain drugs are found to contain
alkaloids and glycosides (Cinchona), Fixed oil and
volatile oil (Nutmeg) of equal importance together and
hence it is difficult to categorize them properly.
• Pharmacological Or Therapeutic Classification
• This system is based on the pharmacological actions and
therapeutic properties of the crude drugs.
• In this system, all the cathartic drugs are brought together
regardless of their morphology, taxonomy or chemical, relationship.
Thus, Podophyllum (a rhizome), Jalap (a · tuberous root), Cascara (a
bark) and Castor oil (oil) are considered at the same time when this
system is used.
• From the pharmacists’ point of view of studying drugs, this system
apparently appears to be an ideal one as it furnishes the vital
information about a drug.
• But the problems of contamination in storage and incompatibility in
formulation are more likely if this system of classification is used
without proper care.
• The drugs differing in MOA but having same pharmacological
effects are also grouped together, e.g. bulk purgatives, irritant
purgatives, emollient purgatives
• Drugs acting on GIT:
• Bitters - Gentian, Quassia, Cinchona
• Carminatives - Dill, Mentha, Cardamom
• Emetics - Ipecacuanha
• Anti-amoebiasis - Kurchi, Ipecauanha
• Bulk laxatives - Agar, Isapghula, Banana
• Purgatives - Senna, Castor oil
• Peptic ulcer - Derivatives of Glycyrrhitinic acid
treatment (Liqourice and Raw banana)
• Drugs acting on respiratory system
• • Expectorant - Liqourice, Ipecacuanha, Vasaka
• • Anti-tussives - Opium (Codeine, Noscapine)
• • Bronchodilators - Ephedra, Tea (Theophylline)
• Drugs acting on CVS:
• • Cardiotonics - Digitalis, Squill, Strophanthus
• • Cardiac depressants - Cinchona (quinidine),
Veratrum
• • Vaso-constrictors - Ergot (ergotamine), Ephedra
• • Anti-hypertensives – Rauwolfia
• Drugs acting on autonomic nervous systems:
• • Adrenergics - Ephedra
• • Cholinergics - Physostima, Pilocarpus
• • Anticholinergics - Belladona, Datura
• Drugs acting on CNS:
• • Central analgesics - Opium (morphine)
• • CNS Stimulants - Coffee ( caffeine)
• • Analeptics - Nux-vomica, Lobelia, Camphor
• • CNS depressants - Hyoscyamus, Belladonna, opium,
• • Hellucinogenics - Cannabis, Poppy Latex
• • Anti-spasmodics: • Smooth Muscle Relaxants - Opium, Datura,
Hyoscyamus
• • Skeletal Muscle Relaxants – Curare
• • Anti-cancer: Vinca, Podophyllum, Taxus, Camptotheca •
• Anti-rheumatics: Aconite, Colchicum, Guggul
• • Astringents: Myrobalan, Black Catechu
• Advantages:
• The crude drugs are easily identifies by its uses.
• We can also choose an alternative or substituent
crude drugs.
• Disadvantage:
• Does not include details like origin, which part or
chemical constituents present in crude drugs.
• There is possibility of repetition or duplication of
crude drugs.
• Chemo taxonomical classification
• In this system of classification, the equal importance is given for
taxonomical status and chemical constituents.
• There are certain types of chemical constituents which are characteristics
of certain classes of plants.
• Eg: Tropane alkaloids generally occur in most of the members of
Solanaceae
• Eg: Volatile oils occur in the members of Umbelliferae and Rutaceae.
• Advantages:
• This classification system clearly identifies the taxonomical hierarchy and
also the chemical constituents present in the crude drug.
• It helps in understanding the relationships between the evolution of plants
and the biosynthesis of different chemical constituents.
• Disadvantage:
• Technical knowledge or skill is required to acesss this classification system
• Doesnot include pharmacological use of it.
• Adulteration of crude drugs
• Adulteration is an illegal act of debasing or altering the original
quality and properties of an article in order to cheat or defraud
others.
• In a broad sense, any change in an article that lowers its standard,
quality or composition, irrespective of causes, is regarded as
adulteration.
• An drug is regarded as adulterated if it does not conform to the
standard or quality of the genuine drug by whose name it is sold or
supplied.
• Crude drugs are adulterated by a number of illegal acts. These
various acts of adulteration may be roughly divided into two
groups:
• Undeliberate Adulteration:
• When the act of adulteration takes place due to various
unintentional reasons.
• Deliberate Adulteration:
• When adulteration is done intentionally to cheat others.
• These acts and their causes are described below in some details
• Undeliberate Adulteration
• The principal causes of undeliberate adulteration may be summarised as follows.
• (A) Faulty Collection:
• Faulty collection of plant drugs occurs due to:
• collection of the drug at a wrong season or at a wrong age of the plant.
• collection of the less important parts of the plant due to ignorance.
• collection of the drug sample from both genuine and wrongly identified similar
plants due to ignorance or inadvertence of the collector.

• Imperfect preparation: Imperfect preparation of drugs occurs due to the following

factors:
• improper drying because of the use of a wrong method or a wrong temperature.
• incomplete garbling due to negligence and carelessness.
• improper packing
• Incorrect storage in improperly built storehouses without proper ventilation,
control of humidity, light and temperature.
• Factors That Create Adulteration:
• 1. Deterioration
• 2. Spoilage
• 3. Admixture
• 4. Sophistication
• 5. Substitution
• 6. Inferiority
• 1. Deterioration– It Is A Process Which Decreases the Quality of
Crude Drug with Actual Process of Distillation or Due to Moisture,
Heat Etc. It Basically Means Decreasing the Quality of Drug by Any
Physical Process. E.g.- a. Manly Volatile Oil Containing Drugs Like
Fennel, Clove, Coriander Etc Are Adulterated by This Process.
• b. Removing Maximum Amount of Caffeine by Over Roasting the
Coffee Beans.
• 2. Spoilage– Decreasing or Change in Quality of Crude Drug by The
Attack of Microbes. The Crude Drug Gets Deteriorated. The Food
Which Is Spoiled by The Microbial Contamination Leads to Food
Poisoning and Other Related Problems.
• E.g.-Sometimes Crude Drugs Are Not Dried Completely & Not
Stored Properly Which Increases Their Chances of Microbial
Contamination.
• 3. Admixture– Addition of Similar Looking Substance to Other
Original Crude Drugs by The Means of Carelessness, Lack of
Knowledge, Or Ignorance. This Factor Can Come Under
Unintentional Adulteration. E.g.- a. Clove Is Added Along with
Leaves and Petioles
• b. Adding of Soil and Stone Pieces to The Roots and Rhizomes
Unintentionally.
• 4. Sophistication– This Method Can Come Under Intentional
Adulteration. It Means Adding an Inferior Substance with Less
Therapeutic Activity in Place of Original Crude Drug. The Crude
Drugs with Same Look A Like Powder Form Are Adulterated by This
Method.
• E.g.- a. Adding Glucose Powder in Place of Acacia Gum Powder
• b. Adding A Yellow Powder of Starch or Wheat Instead of Ginger.
• 5. Substitution– Substituting A Different Drug in Place of The
Original Crude Drug. This Can Be A Type of Intentional Adulteration.
In This Factor the Substance Added Is Not Even Related to The
Original Crude Frug. It Can Be Done with Lack of The Original Crude
Drug. It Means When One Does Have the Original Crude Drug, He
Substitutes It with The Other Substance.
• E.g.- Cotton Seed Oil Is Often Used Instead of Pure Olive Oil.
• 6. Inferiority– The Original Crude Drug Is Replaced by A Substandard
Drug Which Is Cheaper in Cost. The Substandard Drug Resembles
the Original Crude Drug by Its Morphological, Chemical and
Therapeutic Properties. In This Factor the Substandard Substance
Contains Less Percentage of Chemical Constituents Than the
Original Crude Drug Which Was to Be Used. Thus, The Substandard
Substance Is Called as Inferior.
• E.g.- Indian Senna Is Replaced with Arabian Senna.
• Types of Adulteration: -
• 1. Intentional Adulteration or Direct Adulteration
• 2. Unintentional or Indirect Adulteration
• I. Intentional Adulteration or Direct Adulteration
– In This Type of Adulteration the Inferior
Substance Is Added in Place of The Original Crude
Drug Intentionally. The Inferior Substance Means
A Substance Which Resembles the Original Crude
Drug Morphologically Are Used as An Adulterant.
They Have Less Content of Constituent Which Is
Responsible for The Therapeutic Activity.
• 1. Substitution with Inferior Commercial Varieties - In This Type of
Intentional Adulteration, The Original Crude Drugs Are Replaced by
An Inferior Drug / Substance That Resembles the Morphological
Property, Chemical Constituents (But Not Much), Therapeutic
Activity of Original Crude Drug.This Is Done as The Substances Are
Cheaply Available, And Non-Toxic in Nature. - E.g.- Indian Senna Is
Adulterated with Dog Senna - Tragacanth with Hog Tragacanth

This Type of Adulterants Leads to Fraud and Can Cause Greater Adverse
Reactions Which Can Lead to Life Threatening Diseases Like Cancer,
Respiratory Problems Etc. Many Problems in India, Mostly Occur Due to This
Type of Adulteration.
• 2. Adulteration by Artificially Manufactured
Substance - Artificial Substances Are Produced
or Made in Such A Type That They Look
Similar to That of The Original Crude Drug.
• 3. Usage of Vegetative Part of The Same Plant - Presence of Vegetative
Part of The Same Original Crude Drug Comes Under Adulteration Due to
Faulty Collection. - Basically,The Parts of The Plant Attached with The
Original Crude Drug Also Is Collected. They Look A Like with The Crude
Drug So They Aren’t Properly Differentiated and Used. - The Vegetative
Part Collected Doesn’t Contain Much of Therapeutic Activity or The
Therapeutic Activity Is Negligible. - E.g.- The Stem Portions ofa Certain Leaf
Drugs Are Mixed Together.
• 4. Substitution by Superficially Similar but Cheaper / Inferior Natural
Drug Substances - In This Type of Adulteration, The Adulterant’s
Morphological Character Is Similar to The Original Crude Drug. - They May
or May Not Be Similar with Their Chemical or Therapeutic Property. - E.g.-
Caraway Is Used as An Adulterant forIndian Dill.
• 5. Addition Worthless Heavy Material / Toxic Material - In
This Type of Adulteration, The Substance Used in Place of
Original Crude Drug Are Toxic in Nature or Else Heavy. - To
Increase Weight Heavy Substances Are Used in Place of
Original Crude Drugs - E.g.- Hard Woods Are Used as
Adulterants for Liquorice Root.
• 6. Addition of Synthetic Principles - Synthetic Substances Are
Used in Place of Original Crude Drugs - They Are Prepared
Based on Their Therapeutics Properties. - E.g.- Citral In Place
of Lemon Oil.
• . Substitution by Exhausted Drug - In This Type of
Adulteration, The Exhausted Constituents Are Used Again
After Extraction. - This Is Done for The Substances Whose
Taste or Appearance Are Not Purely Destroyed and They Are
Adulterated by Using Flavouring & Colouring Agents. - E.g.-
Exhausted Clove
• II. Unintentional Or Indirect Adulteration - This Type of
Adulteration Is Often Done Because Of Lack of Knowledge,
Carelessness, Non- Availability of The Original Crude Drug,
Confusion Etc.
• - It Doesn’t Mean That the Person Who Is the Manufacturer or The
Supplier Is Doing It with Bad Intention or To Harm Others.
• - Confusion Occurs Due to Same Morphological Property, Same
Look A Like Shape. E.g.- Indian Dill and Caraway.
• - Lack of Knowledge Is Due to Not Having Information About the
Original Crude Drug.
• - Sometimes During Collection Excess Vegetative Part Is Also
Collected Without Knowing. So, This Carelessness Also Leads to
Unintentional Adulteration.
• - Similarity in Colour of The Crude Drugs Also Leads to This Type of
Adulteration.
 EVALUATION METHODS OF
ADULTERATION
• Testing the Food Before Eating Is A Safe Way to Be
Prevented from Any Adverse Reactions.
• But Here, We Are Talking About Evaluating the Crude
Drugs.
• We Have Seen the Types and Reasons of Adulterations
and Now, We Need to Test the Purity, Quality, And Also
Identify the Crude Drug.
• These Evaluation Method Will Help Us Identify the
Type of Adulteration.
• The Evaluation Techniques Help Us to Know Whether
There Is Any Presence of Foreign Substance or The
Drug Is Full on Its Therapeutic Activity.
THERE ARE DIFFERENT METHODS OF EVALAUATION:
• MORPHOLOGICAL AND ORGANOLEPTIC
EVALUATION
• MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
• PHYSICAL EVALUATION
• CHEMICAL EVALUATION
• BIOLOGICAL EVALUATION
• CHROMATOGRAPHY AND SPECTROPHOTOMETRY
• 1. MORPHOLOGICAL AND ORGANOLEPTIC
EVALUATION
In this type of evaluation, we detect the
adulterants with the help of
• Color
• Shape
• Odour
• taste
• Size
• Texture etc.
• - It Is the Kind of Evaluation Which Includes Physical
Examination.
• Some Drugs Can’t Be Evaluated Much with This Due to
Same Look A Like or Similar Physical Properties.

• E.g.- Drugs Such as Nux - vomica Are Disc Shaped, Fennel

Are Small in Size.
• Sweet Taste Like Honey
• Aromatic Odour Like Umbelliferous Fruits
• Basically, For This Kind of Evaluation We Need to Have
Knowledge About Their Physical Characters Which Includes
Macroscopic Properties.
• Organoleptic Properties Include Colour, Odour Etc.
• Thus, With This Evaluation It Will Be Easy to Identify Drugs.
• This Is the First Step of Evaluation of Any Drug.
 2. MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION
• Every drug has its own microscopic characters.
• But these evaluation methods are divided into 2 parts which are,
• quantitative
• qualitative
• quantitative evaluation includes – palisade ratio, stomatal index, vein - islet number etc.
• Qualitative characters include:
• calcium oxalate crystals
• starch grains
• trichomes
• stomata etc
• this evaluation method gives you almost a complete information of the drug with respect to
the microscopic characters of that drug.
• This Evaluation Can Be Done in Laboratories of Colleges Which Is Also Called as Small Scale.
So, Detecting the Microscopic Characters We Need to Know Which Drug Has Which
Microscopic Characters Present in It. - E.g.- Lignified Trichomes Are Present in Nux – Vomica,
Glandular Trichome In Vasaka, Anomocytic Stomata in Digitalis Etc.
 Determination of Leaf constants/
Quantitative Evaluation
• Stoma (plural-stomata) is a minute epidermal opening
covered by two kidney-shaped guard cells in dicot leaves.
These guard cells, in turn, are surrounded by epidermal
(subsidiary) cells. Stomata perform the functions of gaseous
exchange and transpiration in plants. The nature of the
stomata and the stomatal index and stomatal number are
important diagnostic characteristics of dicot leaves.
 Types of stomata:

• Anomocytic Stomata/Ranunculaceae
• They are surrounded by epidermal cells, which have a fixed shape and size. The
stomata appear to be embedded in epidermal cells. There is no definite number
and arrangement of cells surrounding the stomata.
• Eg – leaves of digitalis
• Anisocytic Stomata/cruciferous
• Stomata are surrounded by three subsidiary cells having unequal sizes, one is
smaller compared to the other two. Ex- leaves of Hyoscymus niger
• Diacytic Stomata/ caryophyllaceae
• The stomata are surrounded by a pair of subsidiary cells that are
perpendicular to the guard cell. Ex- leaves of peppermint, mentha
• Paracytic Stomata/ rubiaceae
• The stomata are continuously surrounded by two subsidiaries,
which are arranged parallel to the stomatal pore and the guard
cells.
• Gramineous Stomata
• Each stoma possesses two guard cells, which are shaped like
dumbbells. The subsidiary cells are parallel to the guard cells. The
guard cells are found narrow in the middle and wider at the ends.
• Actinocytic stomata:
• More than 4 epidermal cells.
• Functions of Stomata
• The main functions of stomata are:
• Gaseous exchange- Stomatal opening and closure help in
the gaseous exchange between the plant and surrounding.
• It helps in transpiration and removal of excess water in the
form of water vapour.
• Stomatal closure at night prevents water from escaping
through pores.
• It maintains the moisture balance according to weather by
opening and closing.
• Stomata facilitate carbon dioxide uptake and release of
oxygen during the process of photosynthesis.
• The stomatal number is defined as the average
number of stomata per sq mm of the epidermis
of the leaf. The actual number of stomata per sq
mm may vary for the leaves of the same plant
grown in a different environment or under
different climatic conditions. However, it is shown
that the ratio of the number of stomata to the
total number of epidermal cells in a given area of
the epidermis is fairly constant for any age of the
plant and under different climatic conditions.
• Stomatal index is the percentage which the number of
stomata forms to the total number of epidermal cells, each
stoma being counted as one cell. The Stomatal index can be
calculated by using the following equation:
• Stomatal Index = S x 100/E+S
• Where S= Number of stomata per unit area E= Number of
epidermal cells in the same unit area
• Whilst stomatal number varies considerably with the age of
the leaf and due to changes in environmental conditions,
the stomatal index is relatively constant and therefore, of
diagnostic significance for a given species. It is employed
for the differentiation of allied or closely related species of
the same genus in air-dried, as well as fresh conditions
• Vein Islet Number
• The vein islet is the small area of green tissue of leaf
surrounded by the veinlets (lateral veins). Like an Island,
the piece of land surrounded by water.
• Vein Islet Number Definition:
• The vein islet number define as the average number of
vein-islets per square millimeter of a leaf surface midway
between the midrib and margin.
• Vein islet number is significant in pharmacognosy because
it can help distinguish between different plant species,
subspecies, or varieties. This information aids in the correct
identification of medicinal plants, which is crucial for
ensuring the safety and efficacy of herbal remedies.
• Vein termination Number Definition:
• It is defined as number of veinlet termination
per sq. Mm of the leaf surface midway
between midrib and margin.
• Palisade ratio
• The palisade ratio is a quantitative measure used in pharmacognosy to
assess the quality of plant leaves. It refers to the ratio of the palisade
parenchyma, a type of plant tissue responsible for photosynthesis, to the
spongy parenchyma within the leaf.
• The palisade ratio provides valuable information about the efficiency of
photosynthesis and the overall quality of the plant material. A higher
palisade ratio indicates a greater potential for photosynthesis and,
consequently, a higher concentration of bioactive compounds in medicinal
plants.
• The palisade ratio is calculated by measuring the thickness of the palisade
parenchyma and the spongy parenchyma in a leaf section. The ratio is
expressed as the thickness of palisade parenchyma divided by the
thickness of the spongy parenchyma.
• The palisade ratio can be influenced by various factors, including the plant
species, environmental conditions (such as light intensity and humidity),
age of the plant, and the presence of pests or diseases.
• Lycopodium spore method:
• Definition: The lycopodium spore method is a quantitative microscopy
technique used to determine the particle size distribution in powdered
drugs. It involves the addition of a known quantity of lycopodium spores,
which have a uniform particle size, to the powdered drug sample. By
comparing the number of spores to the number of drug particles observed
under the microscope, the particle size distribution of the drug can be
estimated.
• Lycopodium spores are obtained from club moss, Lycopodium clavatum
Linn., belonging to family Lycopodiaceae. The spores are yellow in colour,
spheroidol, tetrahedral in shape with reticulate surface. They have
uniform average diameter of 25 microns. One milligram contains average
94000 spores. They have uniform moisture content, hence the weight
remains the same. This is the reason, why these spores are used to
evaluate powdered drugs by comparison. The spores are also resistant to
pressure.1
• REQUIREMENTS
• Balance
• Watch glass
• Small flexible spatula
• Microscope with mechanical stage or a counting
square
• Suspending agent: Fixed oil or suspending agent;
glycerine: tragacanth mucilage: water (2:1:2). This
keeps the spores and particles in a suspension. Dilution
of the suspension should give about 10 to 20 spores in
a field.
• Procedure:
• 1. Preparation of Sample: A representative
sample of the powdered drug is weighed
accurately. (100 mg drug)
• 2. Preparation of Lycopodium Spores: A known
quantity of lycopodium spores is weighed
separately. Lycopodium spores are obtained from
the spore mass of the club moss, Lycopodium
clavatum. (50 mg lycopodium spores)
• 3. Mixing of Samples: The weighed quantity of lycopodium
spores is added to the powdered drug sample, and the
mixture is thoroughly mixed to ensure homogeneity. Add
oil or suspending agent. Mix for 10 min till a smooth paste
is obtained. Transfer the suspension to a small glass tube by
draining with the help of a glass rod. Add more suspending
agent, washing down the mixture into the tube. (about 4 ml
of the suspending agent is required for 50 mg of
lycopodium spores). This should give about 10 to 20 spores
when viewed under 4 mm objective, when a drop of the
mixture is mounted under a cover glass.
• 4. Microscopic Examination: A small quantity of the mixed
sample is placed on a glass slide and covered with a cover
slip. The slide is then examined under a microscope.
• 5. Counting and Analysis: Using a calibrated
eyepiece reticle or stage micrometer, the
number of lycopodium spores and drug
particles within a defined area of the slide is
counted. Select 25 fields and count the spores
and particles in these fields using 10×40
magnification. By comparing the counts, the
particle size distribution of the drug sample
can be calculated.
• Importance:
• 1. Quality Assessment: The lycopodium spore method provides valuable
information about the particle size distribution of powdered drugs, which
is essential for assessing their quality, uniformity, and consistency.
• 2. Dosage Formulation: Knowledge of particle size distribution is crucial
for formulating dosage forms such as tablets, capsules, and powders, as it
can influence drug dissolution, bioavailability, and stability.
• 3. Standardization: This method facilitates the standardization of herbal
medicines by providing quantitative data on particle size distribution,
ensuring consistency in composition and potency from batch to batch.
• 4. Regulatory Compliance: Many pharmacopoeias and regulatory
authorities recommend the lycopodium spore method for the quantitative
analysis of powdered drugs, making it an essential tool for quality control
and compliance with pharmaceutical standards.
• Limitations:
• 1. Sample Preparation: Proper sample preparation is
crucial to ensure homogeneity and accurate results.
Inadequate mixing of lycopodium spores with the drug
sample can lead to inaccuracies.
• 2. Subjectivity: The accuracy of particle counting and
analysis may vary depending on the skill and experience of
the analyst. Standardized procedures and training are
essential to minimize subjectivity.
• 3. Interference: Certain factors such as agglomeration of
particles, presence of impurities, and variations in particle
shape may affect the accuracy of results and interpretation.
• Conclusion:
• The lycopodium spore method is a valuable
technique in quantitative microscopy of crude
drugs, providing important information about
particle size distribution for quality assessment,
standardization, and regulatory compliance.
Despite its limitations, when performed
accurately and under standardized conditions,
this method offers reliable results essential for
ensuring the quality and efficacy of powdered
herbal medicines and natural products.
3. PHYSICAL EVALUATION
• - To Identify the Drug on The Basis of Its Quality
and Purity of Drug.
• - Physical Parameters Such As,
• Solubility
• Melting Point
• Refractive Index
• Optical Rotation
• Viscosity
• Specific Gravity
• Total Ash Value Etc.
• - These parameters are evaluated to identify the drug.
• - Parameters such as melting point is useful in
determining the purity of the crude drug. Because if
any impurity is added the melting point won’t be
similar to the original cude drug.
• Refractometer is used to measure the refractive index
of certain drug to know the percentage of volatile oils
and fixed oils.
• Viscosity is measure by viscometers,
• Specific gravity is measured my specific gravity bottle.
• - E.G. - Clove oil has refractive index of 1.52 – 1.53.
• 1) Moisture content- The moisture content of a drug will be
responsible for decomposition of crude drugs either
producing chemical change or microbial growth. So, the
moisture content of a drug should be determined and
controlled. The moisture content is determined by heating
a drug at 105o c in an oven to a constant weight. Eg. The
moisture content of digitalis and ergot should not be more
than 5%W/W, respectively.
• 2) solubility
• Drug specific behavior towards solvents are taken into
consideration.
• Eg. Solubility of colophony in light petroleum, the solubility
of balsam of Peru in solution of chloral hydrate
• 3) optical rotation
• Anisotropic crystalline solids and samples containing an
excess of one enantiomer of a chiral molecule can rotate
the orientation of planepolarized light. Such substances
are said to be optically active, and this property is known as
optical rotation. Eg. Eucalyptus oil (0o c to +10o c), honey
(+3o c to -15o c)
• 4) Refractive indexIt is defined as the property of a
material that changes the speed of light, computed as the
ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light
through the material. This could be used as a parameter in
evaluating the herbal drugs. Eg castor oil 1.4758-1.527
• 5) Specific gravityIt is also known as relative density. The
ratio of the mass of a solid or liquid to the mass of an equal
volume of distilled water at 4o c(39o F) under prescribed
conditions of temperature and pressure. Eg. Specific gravity
of drugs are cottonseed oil 0.88-0.93, coconut oil 0.925,
castor oil o.95,etc.
• 6) ViscosityViscosity of a liquid is constant at a given
temperature and is an index of its composition.
Eg.pyroxylin kinematic viscosity, 1100-2450 centistokes.
• 7) Melting pointPlant constituents have very sharp and
constant melting points. As far as crude drugs are
concerned, melting point range has been fixed due to the
mixed chemicals. Eg. Beeswax 62-65o c,wool fat 34-44o c
• 8) Ultraviolet lightCertain drugs fluoresce when
the cut surface or the powder is exposed to
ultraviolet radiation, and it is useful in the
identification of those drugs. Eg. Some pieces of
Indian and Chinese rhubarb are very difficult to
distinguish, and it is very difficult in powdered
form, but examination in ultraviolet light gives
such marked differences in fluorescence that the
varieties can be easily distinguished from each
other.
• 9) Ash value
• The determination of ash is useful for detecting low
grade products, exhausted drugs, and excess of sandy
or earthy matter. Different types of ash values are used
in detection of crude drugs like, total ash, acid
insoluble ash, water- soluble ash and sulphated ash.
• Total ash is useful in detecting the crude drugs that are
mixed with various mineral substances like sand, soil,
calcium oxalate, chalk powder or other drugs with
different inorganic contents to improve their
appearance, as is done with nutmegs and ginger.
• Acid insoluble ash means the ash insoluble in dilute hydrochloric
acid. The majority of crude drugs contain calcium oxalate, and the
quantity of calcium oxalate varies very frequently. Eg. Rhubarb,
total ash range from 8-40%. In this case, the total ash is useless to
detect earthy matter adherent to such a drug. So, acid insoluble ash
would be preferable for rhubarb. The calcium oxide or carbonate,
yielded by the incinerated oxalate, will be soluble in hydrochloric
acid when the ash is treated with hydrochloric acid; the remaining
ash is weighed, which is known as the acid -insoluble ash. By this
we can detect the presence of excessive earthy matter, which is
likely to occur with roots and rhizomes.
• The water-soluble ash is used to detect the presence of material
exhausted by water. Sulphated ash is done by addition of sulphuric
acid in order to get sulphate salts, and the percentage ash is
calculated with reference to the air -dried drug.
• a). Determination of total ash value
• 1. Weigh accurately about 5 gm of the powdered drug in a tarred silica
crucible.
• 2. Incinerate the powdered drug by gradually increasing the heat by using
a Muffle furnace until free from carbon and cool. Keep it in a desiccator.
• 3. Weigh the ash and calculate the percentage of total ash concerning the
air-dried sample.
•
• b). Determination of acid-insoluble ash value
• 1. Boiled the total ash obtained as above for 5min with 25 ml of Dil HCl.
• 2. Filter and collect the insoluble matter on ashless filter paper. Wash the
filter paper with hot water, ignite in the tarred crucible, cool, and kept in a
desiccator.
• 3. Weigh the residue and calculate the acid-insoluble ash of crude drug
concerning the air-dried drug.
• c). Determination of water-soluble ash value
• 1. Boil the total ash obtained as above with 25ml of water
for 5min.
• 2. Filter through the ashless filter paper.
• 3. Wash the residue with hot water, and then ignite the
tarred crucible by the Muffle furnace, cool and kept in
desiccators.
• 4. Weigh the ash obtained after incineration and calculate
the water-soluble ash of the drug concerning air-dried
sample.
• The unpeeled variety of cured drugs should contain no
more than 10% of total ash and 2.5% of acid-insoluble ash.
• Importance of ash vaue;
• Ash content simply represents the inorganic salts naturally
occuring in the crude drug or adhering to the crude drug
which may be deliberately added. Therefore it gives info
about identity or purity of crude drugs.
• It indicates to some extent the care taken in collection and
preparation of crude drugs.
• Advantages of ash value:
• Identification of crude drugs
• Determination of purity of crude drugs
• Identifing the adulterant.
• 10) Extractive values
• The extracts obtained by exhausting crude drugs with
different solvents are approximate measures of their
chemical constituents. Various solvents are used according
to the type of the constituents to be analyzed.
• Water soluble extractive is used for crude drugs containing
water-soluble constituents like glycosides, tannins,
mucilage etc;
• Alcohol- soluble extractive is used for crude drugs
containing tannins, glycosides, resins, etc; and
• Ether-soluble extractives are used for drugs containing
volatile constituents and fats.
• Alcohol Soluble Extractive Value:
• Prepare coarse powder of air-dried drug. Take 100 mL
of ethanol (specified strength) in a conical flask.
Macerate 5 g of powdered drug in a conical flask, close
the flask for 24 hours. Shake the flask frequently during
the first 6 hours; allow it to stand for 18 hours. Filter
rapidly taking precaution against loss of ethanol.
Evaporate 25 mL of the filtrate to dryness in a tarred
flat bottomed shallow dish. Dry at 105°C and weigh it.
Calculate the % of alcohol-soluble extractives with
reference to the air-dried drug.
• Water Soluble Extractive Value:
• Prepare coarse powder of air-dried drug. Take 100 mL
of chloroform water in the conical flask. Macerate 5 g
of powdered drug in a conical flask, and close the flask
for 24 hours. In between the flask is shaken for the first
6 hours and then stands for 18 hours. Filter rapidly by
decanting the water extract and then evaporating 25
mL of the filtrate to dryness in a tarred flat bottomed
shallow dish. Dry at 105°C and weigh it. Calculate the %
of water-soluble extractives with reference to the air-
dried drug.
• Significances of Extractive Values:
• This method is important when the
constituents of drugs can’t be readily
estimated by any other means.
• It indicates the nature of chemical
constituents present in drugs.
• It helps in the identification of adulterants.
11) Foreign organic Matters- The parts of the organ
or organs other than those parts of drugs
mentioned in the definition and description of the
drug are known as foreign organic matters. They
may be insect, moulds, earthy material, animal
excreta, etc. Eg. Garlic should not contain more
than 2%, saffron should not contain more than 2%.

12) Swelling index

Many herbal drugs are of specific for the
therapeutic or pharmaceutical utility because of
their swelling properties − especially gums and
drugs those are containing an appreciable amount
of constituents like mucilage, pectin or
hemicelluloses.
• The swelling index is defined as the volume in ml taken up
by the swelling of 1 g of herbal material under specified
conditions. Its determination is based on the addition of
water or a swelling agent as specified in the test procedure
for each individual herbal material (either whole, cut or
pulverized). Using a measuring cylinder with glass-stopper,
the material must be shaken repeatedly for 1 hour and
then allowed the measuring cylinder to stand for a required
period of time. The volume of the mixture (in ml) is then
read. The mixing of whole herbal material with the swelling
agent is easy to achieve, but cut or pulverized materials
requires vigorous shaking at specified interval of time to
ensure even distribution of the material in the swelling
agent.1
• PROCEDURE
• Determination of swelling index
Transfer 1gm of isapgol seed to a 25 ml stoppered measuring cylinder. Fill the
cylinder up to 20 ml mark with water. Agitate gently occasionally during 24 hour
and allowed to stand. Measure the volume occupied by the swollen. The genuine
seed of isapgol occupies a volume of not less than 10 ml.2
• Determination of foaming index
The foaming ability of an aqueous decoction of plant materials & their extracts are
measured in terms of a foaming index.
Test
Weigh accurately about 1 g of coarsely powdered drug and transferred to 500 ml
conical flask containing 100 ml of boiling water maintain at moderate boiling at 80-
900C for about 30 min. Then make it cold, filter into a volumetric flask and add
sufficient water through the filter to make the volume up to 100 ml (V1).
Cleaned stopper test tubes 10 numbers are taken and marked with 1 to 10. Take
the successive portions of 1, 2 ml up to 10 ml drug in separate tubes and adjust
remaining volume with the liquid up to 10 ml in each test tube. After closing the
tubes with stoppers, Shake them for 15 seconds and allowed to stand for 15 min.
then measure the height.
Chemical Evaluation
• Instrumental methods:
• Various instrumental methods like colorimetry, fluorimetry,
spectrophotometry, etc. are used for the evaluation.
• Colorimetric Method: It is a method of determining the concentration of a
chemical element or chemical compound in a solution with the aid of a
color reagent. It is applicable to both organic and inorganic compounds
and may be used with or without an enzymatic stage. The method is
widely used in medical laboratories and for industrial purposes, e.g., the
analysis of water samples in connection with industrial water treatment.
• Photometric Method: It is the set of methods of quantitative chemical
analysis based on the relationship between the concentration of a
substance in a solution or gas and the absorption of radiation. In this
method, the intensities of the monochromatic components of transmitted
radiation are scanned.
• Fluorimetric Method: It is an analytical technique for identifying and
characterizing minute amounts of a substance by excitation of the
substance with a beam of ultraviolet light and detection and
measurement of the characteristic wavelength of fluorescent light
emitted.
• Gravimetric Method: It is the quantitative determination of a
substance by the precipitation method of gravimetric analysis
involving isolation of an ion in solution by a precipitation reaction,
filtering, washing the precipitate, conversion of precipitate to a
product of known composition, and finally weighing the precipitate
and determining its mass by difference. There are four fundamental
types of gravimetric analysis: physical gravimetry,
thermogravimetry, precipitative gravimetric analysis, and
electrodeposition.
• Volumetric Method: It is a quantitative analysis of liquids or
solutions by comparing the volumes that react with known volumes
of standard reagents, usually by titration. A reagent is prepared as a
standard solution, acts as a titrator. A known concentration and
volume of titrant react with a solution of analyte or titrated to
determine concentration.
• Chemical Constant Tests:
• Various tests like acid value, iodine value, Saponification value, etc. are used for
the evaluation of fixed oils and fats.
• Saponification value: It is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide
required to saponify 1g of fat under the specific conditions. It is a measure of the
average molecular weight of all the fatty acids present.
• Saponification value = 28.05 (y – x)/w
• where, w = Weight of substance in g.
• Acid value: It is the number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH) necessary
to neutralize the fatty acids in 1 gram of sample.
• Acid value: 5.61 n/w
• where, n = mL of 0.1 m Potassium hydroxide solution required. w = Weight of
sample in g.
• Significance:
• to know the freshness of the oil.
• to know the degree of rancidity of oil.
• Iodine value: It is the mass of iodine in grams that is
consumed by 100 grams of a chemical substance.
Iodine numbers are often used to determine the
amount of unsaturation in fatty acids. The higher the
iodine number, the more C=C bonds are present in the
fat.
• Iodine value = 1.269 (y – x)/w where w is the weight of
sample in g.
• Significance:
• To determine the quality of any unsaturated oils.
• It measures the degree of unsaturation in a fat or oil.
• It provides a degree of rancidity.
• Individual Constituent Chemical Tests:
• Various chemical tests are carried out for the
identification of individual components. For
each plant drug, there is some common test
for identification of a group of plant secondary
metabolites as well as specific tests for
identification of individual constituents.
• Microchemical Tests:
• These tests are carried out on the slide. Example:
Eugenol in clove oil is precipitated as potassium
euginate when potassium hydroxide is added on a slide
containing clove oil. Under microscope clove oil shows
needle-shaped crystal of potassium euginate Molish
test for detection of sugars, Lieberman Burchard test
for detection of steroids, Borntrager test for detection
of anthraquinones, ferric chloride test for tannins,
Keller- Kiliani test for deoxy sugars, ninhydrin test for
the detection of amino acids and proteins, etc.
• Biological Evaluation
• When the estimation of the potency of a crude drug or
its preparation is done by means of its effect on living
organisms like bacteria, fungal growth, or animal tissue
or entire animal, it is known as a bioassay. This method
is generally called for when standardization is not
adequately done by chemical or physical means and
also for conformity of therapeutic activity of raw
material and finished product. In other words, a
bioassay is the measure of the sample being tested
capable of producing a biological effect as that of the
standard preparation. Such activity is represented in
units known as an international unit (I.U.).
• The specific biological activity contained in
each I.U. of the few drugs is mentioned as
under:
• Digitalis- 1IU is contained in 76 mg of standard
preparation
• VitA- 1 IU is present in 0.344 micrograms of
standard preparation
• Biological assay methods are mainly of 3 types
• Toxic
• Symptomatic
• Tissue methods
• In toxic and symptomatic techniques, the animals
are used, whereas, in the tissue method, the
effect of a drug is observed on isolated organs or
tissue. Among the drugs that are subjected to
bioassay are cardiac glycosides, natural
pesticides, and antibiotics.
• Chromatography And Spectrophotometry - This
Method Can Be Used as Both Qualitative and
Quantitative. There Are Various Spectroscopic
Methods Used in This Evaluation Such As, UV–
VISIBLE, NMR, IR. There Are Various
Chromatography Techniques Used Such As TLC,
GLC Etc. - In the Spectroscopic Technique
Measurement and Interpretation of EMR
Absorbed or Emitted When the Molecules Move
to The Excited State from The Ground State. They
Are Also Used to Check the Purity and Quality of
The Drug.