Content-

● Discovery of subatomic particles

● Atomic models ● Orbitals and quantum numbers
● Developments leading to Bohr’s ● Shapes of atomic orbitals
atomic model ● Energies of orbitals
● Photoelectric effect ● Filling of orbitals in Atom
● Dual behaviour of Electromagnetic ● Electronic configuration of Atoms
radiation
● Atomic spectra
● Bohr’s model for Hydrogen atom
● Towards quantum mechanical model
of the atom
● Quantum mechanical model of atom
● Hydrogen atom and schrodinger’s
Equation
Discovery of electrons-
Discovery of electrons-

1. The cathode ray starts from cathode and move

towards the anode.
2. These rays themselves are not visible but their
behaviour can be observed.
3. In the absence of electrical or magnetic field,
travel in straight line.
4. In the presence of magnetic field and electric
field they behave like a negatively charged
particle.
5. The characteristics of cathode rays do not
depend upon the materials of electrodes and
the nature of the gas present in the cathode ray
tube.
Charge to mass ratio
 Charge to mass ratio

Deviation of particles from their path in the presence

of electrical or magnetic field depends upon-
1. The magnitude of the negative charge.
2. The mass of the particle- higher mass, greater
deflection.
3. The strength of the electrical or magnetic field.
Millikan’s oil drop method-
Charge on Electron-
Discovery of protons
Discovery of protons

1. Mass of positively charged particles depends upon

the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube.
2. The charge to mass ratio of the particles depends
on the gas from which these originate.
3. Some of the positively charged particles carry a
multiple of the fundamental unit of electrical
charge.
4. The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic
or electrical field is opposite to that observed for
electrons or cathode rays.
Discovery of neutrons
Properties of Fundamental properties -
 The ratio of charge to mass of an electron in columbus per gram was determined by
J.J. Thomson. He determined this ratio by measuring the deflection of cathode rays in
electric and magnetic fields. What value did he find for this ratio?

A. -1.76 *108 C/g

B. +1.76*108 C/g

C. -1.76 * 1010 C/g

D. -1.76 * 10-10 C/g

 The ratio of charge to mass of an electron in columbus per gram was determined by
J.J. Thomson. He determined this ratio by measuring the deflection of cathode rays in
electric and magnetic fields. What value did he find for this ratio?

A. -1.76 *108 C/g

B. +1.76*108 C/g

C. -1.76 * 1010 C/g

D. -1.76 * 10-10 C/g

How many number of electrons are present in a particle which carries a charge of
5.5*10-16C?

A. 3432

B. 1560

C. 8240

D. 2432
How many number of electrons are present in a particle which carries a charge of
5.5*10-16C?

A. 3432

B. 1560

C. 8240

D. 2432
 The increasing order for the values of e/m (charge /mass) is

A. e,p,n, 𝜶

B. n,p, e, 𝜶

C. n, p, 𝜶, e

D. n,𝜶, p, e
 The increasing order for the values of e/m (charge /mass) is

A. e,p,n, 𝜶

B. n,p, e, 𝜶

C. n, p, 𝜶, e

D. n,𝜶, p, e
Atomic number and Mass Number
Isotopes and Isobars
Isotopes and Isobars
Thomson’s Atomic Model

This model is also known as

plum pudding, raisin pudding or
watermelon.
Rutherford Experiment
Rutherford Experiment

Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest

Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil with α–particles.

● A stream of high energy alpha particles from a

radioactive source was directed at a thin foil (~100
nm) of gold metal .
● A thin gold foil had a fluorescent zinc sulphide screen
around it.
● whenever the alpha particles struck the screen, a tiny
flash of light was produced at that point.
Observation
 Conclusion

➢Most of the space inside an atom is empty as most particles went

through unaffected.

➢Alpha particles being positively charged Helium nuclei, they can

be deviated by a positive charge. So, there must be some
positively charged region in the atom.

➢As only a few particles deviated, it was concluded that the

positively charged region was very small as compared to the
atom.

OR

➢The positive charge of the atom is concentrated in a miniscule

region called “The Nucleus” (The radius of a nucleus is 10-15 m and
that of an atom is about 10-10m)
 Rutherford Atomic Model

➢An atom consists of the tiny positively charged nucleus at its centre.

➢Nucleus contain positively charged particles. Almost entire mass of

an atom and all the positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus.

➢Electron revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called as

orbits.This model resembles the solar system thus called as
planetary model

➢The electron and nucleus are held together by electrostatic

force of attraction.
Limitation

● It does not obey the Maxwell theory of

Electrodynamics.

● According to this theory a small charged particle

moving around an oppositely charged centre
continuously loses its energy.

● If an electron does so, it should continuously lose its

energy and should set up spiral motion ultimately
falling into the nucleus

● If electron will continuously radiate energy then its

spectra should be continuous but this is not the
case. Atoms give line spectra.
Distance of Closest Approach
Distance of Closest Approach
 How many neutrons are there in 8838Sr?

A. 38

B. 50

C. 126

D. 88
 How many neutrons are there in 8838Sr?

A. 38

B. 50

C. 126

D. 88
Which of the following conclusions could not be derived from Rutherford’s 𝜶 particle
scattering experiment?

A. Most of the space in the atom is empty.

B. The radius of the atom is about 10-10 m while that of

nucleus is 10-15m.

C. Electrons move in a circular path of fixed energy called

orbits.

D. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by

electrostatic forces fo attraction.
Which of the following conclusions could not be derived from Rutherford’s 𝜶 particle
scattering experiment?

A. Most of the space in the atom is empty.

B. The radius of the atom is about 10-10 m while that of

nucleus is 10-15m.

C. Electrons move in a circular path of fixed energy called

orbits.

D. Electrons and the nucleus are held together by

electrostatic forces fo attraction.
 Which of the following pair is isodiaphers?

A. 14 C and 2311Na
6

B. 24 Mg and 2311Na
12

C. 4 He and 168O
2

D. 12 C and 157N
6
 Which of the following pair is isodiaphers?

A. 14 C and 2311Na
6

B. 24 Mg and 2311Na
12

C. 4 He and 168O
2

D. 12 C and 157N
6
 A beam of specific kind of particles of velocity 2.1 * 107 m/s is catered by a gold (z= 79)
nuclei. FInd out specific charge (charge/ mass) of this particle if the distance of closest
approach is 2.5 *10-14m.

A. 4.84 * 107C/ kg

B. 4.84 *10-7C/kg

C. 2.42 *107C/kg

D. 3* 10-12 C/kg
 A beam of specific kind of particles of velocity 2.1 * 107 m/s is catered by a gold (z= 79)
nuclei. FInd out specific charge (charge/ mass) of this particle if the distance of closest
approach is 2.5 *10-14m.

A. 4.84 * 107C/ kg

B. 4.84 *10-7C/kg

C. 2.42 *107C/kg

D. 3* 10-12 C/kg
Developments leading to the Bohr’s atomic model

Neils Bohr utilized data observed from the studies of

interactions of radiations with matter, two
developments played vital roles in formulation of
atomic model-
1. Dual character of the electromagnetic radiation
which means that radiations possess both wave
like and particle like properties.
2. Experimental results regarding atomic spectra.
Electromagnetic Radiation
Characteristics of Electromagnetic radiation

(1) The oscillating electric and magnetic fields produced

by oscillating charged particles are perpendicular to
each other and both are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
(2) Unlike sound waves or waves produced in water,
electromagnetic waves do not require medium and
can move in vacuum.
(3) there are many types of electromagnetic radiations,
which differ from one another in wavelength (or
frequency). These constitute what is called
electromagnetic spectrum
(4) Different kinds of units are used to represent
electromagnetic radiation.
Characteristics of Electromagnetic radiation
Electromagnetic Radiation
 Black Body Radiation

An ideal body, which emits and

absorbs radiations of all frequencies
uniformly, is called a black body and
the radiation emitted by such a body
is called black body radiation
 Planck’s Quantum Theory

According to Planck’s quantum theory,

❏ Different atoms and molecules can emit or absorb energy in

discrete quantities only. The smallest amount of energy that
can be emitted or absorbed in the form of electromagnetic
radiation is known as quantum.

❏ The energy of the radiation absorbed or emitted is directly

proportional to the frequency of the radiation.
 Planck’s Quantum Theory

● Energy of photon is proportional to Frequency

E∝ν

● The constant of proportionality is called Planck’s constant

represented by “h”
E=hν

c =speed of light
λ =wavelength
h =planck’s constant
Photoelectric effect
 Photoelectric effect

Results-

● The electrons are ejected from the metal surface as soon as the beam of light
strikes the surface, i.e., there is no time lag between the striking of light
beam and the ejection of electrons from the metal surface.
● The number of electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or
brightness of light.
● For each metal, there is a characteristic minimum frequency, ν0 (also known
as threshold frequency) below which photoelectric effect is not observed. At a
frequency ν >ν0, the ejected electrons come out with certain kinetic energy.
● The kinetic energies of these electrons increase with the increase of
frequency of the light used.
 Photoelectric effect

According to Einstein if the frequency of the incident light (ν) is more than
threshold frequency (νo) , the excess energy (hν-hvo) is imparted to the
electron as kinetic energy.
Graphs of photoelectric effect
Stopping potential
In photoelectric effect, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases linearly with the

A. Wavelength of incident light

B. Frequency of incident light

C. Velocity of incident light

D. Atomic mass of an element

In photoelectric effect, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases linearly with the

A. Wavelength of incident light

B. Frequency of incident light

C. Velocity of incident light

D. Atomic mass of an element

 Electromagnetic radiation with maximum wavelength is

A. UV

B. radiowave

C. X–ray

D. Infrared
 Electromagnetic radiation with maximum wavelength is

A. UV

B. radiowave

C. X–ray

D. Infrared
 Electromagnetic radiation having 𝝺=310Å is subjected to a metal sheet having work
function = 12.8eV. What will be the velocity of photoelectrons having maximum kinetic
energy

A. 0, no emission will occur

B. 4.352 *106 m /s

C. 3.09 * 106 m/s

D. 8.752 *106 m/s

 Electromagnetic radiation having 𝝺=310Å is subjected to a metal sheet having work
function = 12.8eV. What will be the velocity of photoelectrons having maximum kinetic
energy

A. 0, no emission will occur

B. 4.352 *106 m /s

C. 3.09 * 106 m/s

D. 8.752 *106 m/s

Bohr’s Atomic model
 Bohr’s Atomic model

Bohr model of the atom was proposed by Neil Bohr in

1913 to overcome the drawback of Rutherford’s model
of atom.
Neils Bohr was the first to explain quantitatively the
general features of the structure of hydrogen atom
and its spectrum. He used planck’s concept of
quantisation of energy.
 Bohr’s Atomic model

➢ The electrons in the atom can move around the nucleus in a

circular path of fixed radius and energy. These paths are
called orbits, stationary states or allowed energy states.
These orbits are arranged concentrically around the
nucleus.
 Postulates

➢ Electron revolves around the nucleus due to the centripetal

force provided by the electrostatic force of attraction
(kZe2/r2).
Postulates

➢ Energy is emitted or absorbed when an electron jump from

one orbit to another. The amount of energy emitted or
absorbed is given by the difference of energies of the two
energy levels concerned, i.e. ,
 Postulates

➢ Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular

momentum of the electron is a whole number multiple of
h/2π.

This means that, like energy, angular momentum of the

electrons in an atom is also quantized.
Radius of Bohr’s Orbit

According to Bohr’s postulate :

Centripetal force = Coulombic force= Centrifugal force
Radius of Bohr’s Orbit
Radius of Bohr’s Orbit
Velocity of electron of Bohr’s Orbit
Radius of Bohr’s Orbit

Putting value of K, e and h in above equation we get,

Energy of electron in Bohr’s Orbit
Energy of electron in Bohr’s Orbit

● Potential energy

● Total energy
Energy of electron in Bohr’s Orbit
Energy of electron in Bohr’s Orbit
Bohr’s Atomic model
Bohr’s Atomic model
Bohr’s Atomic model
 Limitations

● He could not explain the line spectra of atoms containing more than
one electron.

● He could not explain the presence of multispectra lines.

● Bohr could not explain the de broglie’s concept of dual nature of

matter.

● Bohr could not explain splitting of spectral lines in presence of electrical

field (Stark effect) and magnetic field (Zeeman effect)

● He could not explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

 Hydrogen Spectrum

Line spectrum of hydrogen atom was first observed by Balmer in 1885.

● Hydrogen gas at low pressure is taken in the discharge tube.

● The light emitted on passing electric discharge is examined with a
spectroscope.
● The spectrum obtained is called the emission spectrum of hydrogen.
Hydrogen Spectrum
Hydrogen Spectrum
 Hydrogen Spectrum

From Bohr’s postulate:

 Hydrogen Spectrum

Line Series n1 n2 Spectral Region

Lyman 1 2, 3, 4…. Ultraviolet

Balmer 2 3, 4, 5…. Visible

Paschen 3 4, 5, 6…. Infrared

Brackett 4 5, 6, 7…. Infrared

Pfund 5 6, 7, 8…. Infrared

Total Number of spectral Lines

Total number of spectral line during any transition means the

number of maximum possible spectral lines if an electron makes a
transition from one energy state to another energy state.
Zeeman effect

Stark effect
De Broglie Hypothesis

According to de broglie, wavelength(λ) of moving particle of

mass (m) with a velocity (v) is given by.

Here,
m = mass of the particle,
v = velocity
p = momentum.
 De Broglie Hypothesis

According to de broglie the circumference of the nth orbit is equal to n times

the wavelength of the electron.

2πr = nλ
Relationship between wavelength and Kinetic energy
De- broglie hypothesis formulae
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

The exact position and momentum of a fast moving

particle cannot be calculated precisely at the same
moment of time.
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Aufbau’s Rule
Hund’s Rule
Pauli’s Rule
Quantum number
Shape of orbital
Quantum Mechanical Model
Schrodinger Equation

● Schrodinger derived an equation which describes

3D wave motion of an electron.

● x, y and z = cartesian coordinates of the

electron;
● m = mass of the electron;
● E = total energy of the electron;
● V = potential energy of the electron;
● h = Planck's constant and
● 𝚿(psi) = wave function of the electron.
Significance of 𝚿

● The wave function may be regarded as the amplitude

function expressed in terms of coordinates x, y and z.
● The wave function may have positive or negative values
depending upon the value of coordinates. The main aim of
Schrodinger equation is to give solution for probability
approach.
● When the equation is solved, it is observed that for some
regions of space the value of ψ is negative. But the probability
must be always positive and cannot be negative, it is thus,
proper to use ψ2 in favour of ψ .
Significance of 𝚿2

● 𝚿2 is a probability factor
● It describes the probability of finding an electron within
a small space.
● The space in which there is maximum probability of
finding an electron is termed as orbital.
Quantum mechanical model
Radial node
Radial node
Angular node
Angular node
Variation of radial wave function R with r
Variation of Probability density R2(r) with r
Variation of radial wave function R with r
Radial probability distribution curves (4πr2R2 vs r)
 The energy of an electron of 2py orbital is

A. Greater than 2px orbital

B. Less than 2pz orbital

C. Equal to 2s orbital

D. Same as that of 2px and 2pz orbital

 The energy of an electron of 2py orbital is

A. Greater than 2px orbital

B. Less than 2pz orbital

C. Equal to 2s orbital

D. Same as that of 2px and 2pz orbital

Wave function of an orbital is plotted against the distance from nucleus. The graphical
representation of

A. 1s

B. 2s

C. 3s

D. 2p
Wave function of an orbital is plotted against the distance from nucleus. The graphical
representation of

A. 1s

B. 2s

C. 3s

D. 2p
 If radiation corresponding to second line of Balmer series of Li2+ ion, knocked out
electron from first excited state of H-atom, then kinetic energy of ejected electron
would be:

A. 2.55ev

B. 4.25ev

C. 11.25ev

D. 19.55ev
 If radiation corresponding to second line of Balmer series of Li2+ ion, knocked out
electron from first excited state of H-atom, then kinetic energy of ejected electron
would be:

A. 2.55ev

B. 4.25ev

C. 11.25ev

D. 19.55ev
Thank you!