CONCEPT OF SPECIES

Species is the rudimentary unit of classification in biology and biodiversity.

Species definition in biology indicates that it is a group of organisms that share
a common genetic heritage. Moreover, they are competent to interbreed and
produce fertile offspring in the process. However species are separated from
each other via different barriers. These barriers can be genetic or geographical.

TYPES OF SPECIES
There are different types of species that exist on this earth. However, they are
broadly categorised into six concepts; these are-

1.BIOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

In 1940, zoologist mayr presented a widely accepted quotation of biological
concepts. It was, “groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural
populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups. This
theory explains that organisms distinct at a biological level do not interbreed
with each other when budding in the same region. According to mayr, species
of these groups has specific characteristics, these are-
 Ecological unit
Even though the members of a species are different from each other, they
form a group together.They interact with other members of the species in any
environment.
 Reproductive Community
The members form a reproductive community and seek a partner within that
group for reproduction.
 Genetical Unit
A substantial intercommunicating gene pool exists with this group, allowing
members to freely interbred. However, the individual elements are a
temporary vessel containing a small portion of that gene pool.
This theory has gained reputation among scientists for years due to its
simplicity. However, there are certain limitations of biological species concept,
these are-
 Asexual organisms do not come under this theory. Apomictic or asexual
organisms display uniparental reproduction via apomixes,
parthenogenesis, budding , etc.
 Additionally this theory is also not applicable for geographically isolated
species (allopatric population).

2.NOMINALISTIC SPECIES CONCEPT

This concept deals with the idea of individuals. The promoters of this theory
believed that in nature, only individual exist, and not any types of species.
According to them, the concept of species is human -made and has no real
existence in nature.
Moreover, they regarded it as a mental concept. This concept was popular
during the 18th century and still has some followers in the world of botany.

3.TYPOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT

According to this concept, several diversities exist on earth, but in limited
variations. Moreover, they do not have any relationship between them. In this
concept, these universals are called species. However, it is irrelevant to
consider variations in this topic.

4.EVOLUTIONARY SPECIES CONCEPT

To describe this species concept , wiley in 1981 said evolutionary species “is a
single lineage of ancestor – descendant populations of organisms which
maintains its identity from other such lineages (in space and time) and which
has its evolutionary tendencies and historical fate”.
Moreover, to include the species not considered under the biological species
concept, this process was formed.
5.ECOLOGICAL SPECIES CONCEPT
This concept studies ecological competition in an ecosystem. In simpler words,
two similar categories of species have the same requirements; thus, their
needs are likely to overlap. In a situation like this, they compete with each
other for a particular resource.

6.PHYLOGENETIC SPECIES CONCEPT

The concept classifies species in a particular group according to its ancestors. It
claims that every individual within a species shares a certain resemblance with
its lineage. However, this concept has a flaw. It is not easy to reconstruct an
evolutionary pathway, even if so, it is not satisfactory all the time.
These classifications of various types of species rely on different theories
developed over time. Similarly, like other theories, they have their flaws.

ZOOLOGICAL TYPES

In biology, a type is a particular specimen (or in some cases a group of

specimens) of an organism to which the scientific name of that organism is
formally attached. In other words, a type is an example that serves to anchor
or centralize the defining features of that particular taxon. In older usage
(pre-1900 in botany), a type was a taxon rather than a specimen.

PRINCIPLE OF TYPIFICATION
The Principle of Typification is one of the guiding principles. The International
Code of Zoological Nomenclature provides that any named taxon in
the family group, genus group, or species group have a name-bearing
type which allows the name of the taxon to be objectively applied. The
type does not define the taxon: that is done by a taxonomist; and an
indefinite number of competing definitions can exist side by side. Rather, a
type is a point of reference. A name has a type, and a taxonomist
(having defined the taxon) can determine which existing types fall within
the scope of the taxon. He or she can then use the rules in the Code
to determine the valid name for the taxon.
Type Specimen
According to a precise set of rules laid down in the International Code
of Zoological Nomenclature(ICZN) and the International Code of Nomenclature
for algae, fungi, and plants(ICN), the scientific name of every taxon is
almost always based on one particular specimen, or in some cases
specimens. Types are of great significance to biologists, especially to
taxonomists. Types are usually physical specimens that are kept in a museum
or herbarium research collection, but failing that, an image of an
individual of that taxon has sometimes been designated as a type.
Describing species and appointing type specimens is part of scientific
nomenclature and alpha taxonomy.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF TYPE

Holotype
When a single specimen is clearly designated in the original description,
this specimen is known as the holotype of that species. The holotype is
typically placed in a major museum, or similar well-known public collection,
so that it is freely available for later examination by other biologists.
Paratype
When the original description designated a holotype, there may still
be additional specimens listed in the type series and those are termed
paratypes. These are not name-bearing types.
Allotype
An allotype is a specimen of the opposite sex to the holotype,
designated from among paratypes. It was also formerly used for a specimen
that shows features not seen in the holotype of a fossil.
Neotype
A neotype is a specimen later selected to serve as the single type specimen
when an original holotype has been lost or destroyed or where the original
author never cited a specimen.
Syntype
A syntype is any one of two or more specimens that is listed in a
species description where no holotype was designated most are
gradually being replaced by lectotypes. Those that still exist are still
considered name-bearing types.
Lectotype
A lectotype is a specimen later selected to serve as the single type
specimen for species originally described from a set of syntypes. In
Zoology, a lectotype is a kind of name-bearing type. When a species was
originally described on the basis of a name-bearing type consisting of
multiple specimens, one of those may be designated as the lectotype.
Paralectotype
A paralectotype is any additional specimen from among a set of syntypes, after
a lectotype has been designated from among them. These are not name-
bearing types.
Hapantotype
A special case in Protistans where the type consists of two or more specimens
of "directly related individuals representing distinct stages in the life
cycle"; these are collectively treated as a single entity, and lectotypes cannot
be designated from among them.
Ergatotype
An ergatotype is a specimen selected to represent a worker
member in hymenopterans which have polymorphic castes.
 TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS OF DIFFERENT KINDSAND
ANALYSIS OF VARIATION

Variation is a deviation in structural, functional or developmental characters of

an organism from its parents, from others in the in the same population.
Genotypic variation is the difference in genotype within population or species
as a result of mutation, recombination or gene interaction with some
evolutionary significance. Phenotypic variation is variation in structural and
functional characters resulting from environmental factors on one or more
genotypes; this may not be of evolutionary significance.

A Geographic Variation in one or more characteristics over space.

B Sexual Variation in one or more traits between or within a
sex.
C Individual Variation in one or more characteristics within the
lifetime of an individual organism.

TAXONOMIC CHARACTERS: Classification of any group of organism uses

selected stable characteristics which vary among the taxa. These are known as
taxonomic characteristics. Classically, the bacteria have been classified on the
basis of similarities in phenotypic characteristics, like morphological features,
response to Gram stain, cultural characteristics, physiological biochemical
properties, pathogenicity, antibiotic sensitivity, serological relationships etc.
Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide
the evidence from which relationships (the phylogeny) between taxa are
inferred.Kinds of taxonomic characters include:
  Morphological characters

 General external morphology

Plumage of bird, Pelage of mammals, Scale counts of fishes and reptiles
 Special structures (e. g. genitalia)
-Difference in genetalic structure has been used to delimit species. It is very
effective in insects where lock and key relationship exists between male
and female copulatory organs.
-Color pattern and other aspect of coloration are among the most easily
recognized and thus the most convenient characters in certain groups of
animals e. g birds
 Internal morphology (anatomy)
-Both the soft as well as hard parts of practically all groups of higher
animals have been used as taxonomic characters.
 Embryology
 Karyology and other cytological factors
-Karyology is the description of chromosome structure, size, shape and
number etc.
-Chromosomes are particularly useful on two different levels
On the one hand, they aid in the comparison of closely related species,
including sibling species. These are often far more different chromosomally
than in their external morphology. On the other hand, chromosomal
patterns are of extreme importance in establishing phyletic lines.

 Physiological characters
 Metabolic factors
 Body secretions
 Genic sterility factors
  Molecular characters
 Immunological distance
 Electrophoretic differences
 Amino acid sequences of proteins
 DNA hybridization
 DNA and RNA sequences
 Restriction endonuclease analyses
 Other molecular differences

 Behavioral characters
 Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms
 Other behavior patterns
Behaviour is one of the most important sources of taxonomic characters.
They are clearly superior to morphological characters in the study of closely
related species. Similarly bioacoustics like matting calls of frogs and toads
and crickets are used for species delimitation. Similarly the pattern of the
webbing constructed by spiders can be used at various level in
classification.

 Ecological characters
 Habit and habitats
 Food
 Seasonal variations
 Parasites and hosts
-Every species has its own niche in nature, differing from its nearest
relatives in food preference, breeding season, tolerance to various physical
factors, resistance to predators, competitors and pathogens and in other
ecological factors.
-E.g the larvae of both Drosophilla mulleri and aldriachi live simultaneously
in the decaying pulp of the fruits of the cactus Opuntia lindheimeri.
- Tapeworms of man and rodents, ascaris of man and pigs though differ
very slightly but can be identified by their host specificity.
  Geographic characters
Geographical characters are among the most useful tools for clarifying a
confused taxonomic picture and for testing taxonomic hypothesis. The
taxonomists is primarily interested in two kinds of geographical characters:
 General biogeographic distribution patterns, which are especially
useful in the arrangement of higher taxa.
 Sympatric-allopatric relationship of populations, which is most helpful
in determining whether or not two populations are conspecific.

Taxonomically important morphological, cultural and physiological-

biochemical characteristics are shown in Table3.1,2 and 3 respectively