2.

Dynamic Analysis of
Structures

o Forces and stresses

o Normal stress and shear stress
o Stress component at a point
o Plane stress (stress equation) and Mohr diagram of stress

By: Ashebir S.
Bahir Dar University
School of Earth science/ Geology
5/19/2023 Structural geology By: Ashebir S. (Ph.D.) 1
 Introduction
Dynamic analysis (= rock mechanics)
What is the cause of deformation?
Under what physical conditions did the structure form?

This involves:
EXPLAINING and ANALYSING the type of stress field
responsible for deformation
(e.g. the values of principal stress axes, normal and shear
stresses etc.)

INTERPRETING and RECONSTRUCTING the physical

and boundary conditions prevailed during deformation
(e.g. P-T conditions, pore-fluid conditions, relation to
PLATE TECTONICS etc.)

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 Forces and stresses
◼ Strain (deformation) is the response of rock to stresses
◼ stresses generated by forces

◼ The prime causes of the force and stress fields are Thermally and
gravitationally activated movements within the mantle and crust
❑ which produce folds, faults and minor structures of various kinds.
❑ To understand the mechanical processes which give rise to these events, the concept of force and
stress is significant.

◼ Force: is defined as any action which changes or tends to change a body’s state of
rest or uniform motion in a straight line.

◼ Newtonian (or classical) mechanics studies the action of forces on rigid bodies.
◼ But quantum mechanics (a material is treated as a continuous medium) considers
force within the subatomic particles.
◼ In tectonic structures we commonly deal with interactions that involve not only
movement, but also distortion; material displacements occur both between and
within bodies.

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◼ Direction of action and magnitude are used to define force .
So, force is a vector quantity
F= Ma [F=force; M=mass; a= acceleration].
◼ So it can be graphically represented by a line with an
arrow on one side (conforms to the rules of vector algebra).
❑ E.g., a force at an angle to a given plane can be geometrically
resolved into two components; say, one parallel and one
perpendicular to that plane.
◼ Natural processes can be described with four basic
forces:
(1) the gravity force,
(2) the electromagnetic force,
(3) the nuclear or strong force, and
(4) the weak force (associated with radioactivity)
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◼ Forces that result from action of a field at every point within
the body are called body forces and
◼ Forces that act on a specific surface area in a body are
called surface forces

◼ Forces that act on a body may change;

❑ the velocity of (that is, accelerate) the body, and/or
❑ a shape of the body, meaning acceleration of one part of the body with
respect to another part.

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 Stresses….
◼ Stress is defined as force (F) per unit area (A) S= σ =F/A
◼ I.e. the intensity of force, or a measure of how concentrated a force
is.

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◼ we assumed that the force is entirely perpendicular to the surface
of the cube and no component parallel to the loading surface.
❑ The corresponding stress is called principal stress.

◼ If one principal stress acts on a body , it is termed uniaxial stress,

◼ If 2 principal stresses acts on a body -biaxial,
◼ If 3 principal stresses acts on a body -triaxial.
◼ The force F generated by the mass in the gravitational field acts
vertically and the stress called Lithostatic stress
◼ It has two components if it is not perpendicular to the plane of
action.
❑ This concept of sliding friction plays an important role in the
mechanics of fracture and fault movement.

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Lithostatic stress calculation
◼ stress acting at a point below the earth's surface

❑ stress = force / area

❑ stress = mass x acceleration / area

❑ stress = volume x density x acceleration / area

❑ stress = depth x area x density x acceleration / area

❑ lithostatic stress = depth x density x acceleration (gravity)

Q. Calculate stress acting on a point 10 km below the earth's

surface?

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 Normal stress and shear stress
(Two-dimensional stress:)
Stress acting on a plane is a vector quantity, meaning that it has
both magnitude and direction; it is sometimes called traction.
Let us consider a case of uniaxial stress acting on a plane inclined by an angle θ to
the horizontal and calculate the normal and shear stresses acting on this plane.
consider some force, F, acting parallel to the z-axis on line segment AC
illustrated in the Figure

Fn is the component of F acting normal (perpendicular) to AC and Fs is the component

of F acting parallel to AC. Fn is referred to as the normal force whereas Fs is termed the
shearing force.

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 Stress component at a point
◼ In order to consider the state of stress at a point in three-dimensional space,
we must imagine the effect of a system of forces on an infinitesimal
❑ i.e. to imagine a cube to shrink to a point.
◼ The system of forces can be resolved into a single force F which acts at the
center of the cube. Since the cube is very small, we can consider the forces
acting on each face of the cube to be equal to F.

A point represents
the intersection of
an infinite number of
planes, and the
stresses on these
planes

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◼ The orientation and magnitude of the stress state of a body is defined
in terms of its components projected in a Cartesian reference
frame,contains;
❑ three mutually perpendicular axes coordinate, x, y, and z.
◼ Making the edge of the cube parallel to orthogonal axes X,Y and Z;
❑ There are nine stress components, three on each face.
❑ Because the forces are equal and opposite, the stresses on opposite faces are
identical. The nine components are:
σxx τxy τxz
σyy τyx τyz
σzz τzx τzy
In the direction of x: y: z:
stress on the face normal to x: σxx σxy σxz
stress on the face normal to y: σxy σyy σyz
stress on the face normal to z: σxz σyz σzz

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◼ σxx,,,σyy and σzz are normal stress components and the
other six are shear stress components
◼ Since the definition of stress precludes any contribution from an overall
rotation of the cube, opposing shear stresses about the axes X, Y and Z must
balance- otherwise the cube would rotate about these axes. (specified that
the body itself is at rest)
Thus; τxy =τyx
τxz =τzx
τyz =τyx ,
leaving six independent stress components, three normal stresses and three shear
stresses: σxx σyy σzz τxy τxz τyz
Therefore, for an arbitrarily chosen set of orthogonal axes x, y and z, six
independent quantities are necessary to specify completely the state of stress
at a point.
❑ In physics and engineering, tensile stress is considered positive, and
compressive stress negative. In geology, however, it is customary to
make compression positive and tension negative, because
compression is more common in the Earth.

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◼ Rather than use arbitrary axes X, Y and Z, it is convenient to
choose other axes, say, a, b, and c such that the shear stress are
zero. That is τab = τbc =τca= 0.
◼ The three mutually perpendicular planes on which the shear stress
is zero are called Principal Stress Planes, and the normal stresses
across them are called the Principal Stress Axes.
◼ If the three principal stresses are equal in magnitude, we
call the stress isotropic.
•If the principal stresses are unequal in
magnitude, the stress is called anisotropic
•These are given the conventional notation σ1,
σ2 and σ3 where σ1 > σ2 > σ3
or greatest, intermediate and least principal
stresses, respectively

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 stress states:
◼ By changing the relative values of the three principal
stresses we define several common stress states:

❑ General triaxial stress: σ1 > σ2 > σ3 ≠ 0

❑ Biaxial (plane) stress: one axis = 0
(e.g., σ1 > 0 > σ3)
❑ Uniaxial compression: σ1 > 0; σ2 = σ3 = 0
❑ Uniaxial tension: σ1 = σ2 = 0; σ3 < 0
❑ Hydrostatic stress (pressure): σ1 = σ2 = σ3

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 Stress in Two Dimensions (Plane Stress)
If the principal stresses are known, the normal and shear stresses acting on any
plane with known orientation can be calculated.
Let us take two-dimensional stress field with stresses σxx and σyy (or σ1 and σ2) in
the XY plane.

The stress components will be: σxx,σyy,τxy, τyx which will further be reduced into
σxx,σyy and τxy since τxy = τyx (Eq 1) so that there will be no rotation.
The approach will be to analyze several simple situations, and then combine
these separate results.

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 Uniaxial Stress
Now let us consider the stresses acting on an inclined plane AB
whose normal makes an angle θ with X or (σxx).

If the rectangular element is subjected to a uniform normal

stress acting in the x-direction, what are the components of the
traction which act on the inclined plane AB shown in Fig 7.6a?

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◼ To find these, we first imagine a triangular free-body cut from the
element (Fig 7.6b). If a is the area of the inclined plane, the area of
side OA is equal to (a cos θ ). The magnitude of the force acting on
side OA is then Fx= σxx (a cosθ) (Eq 2)
◼ And an equal and opposite force must also act on the inclined side
AB. We are particularly interested in the components of this force
which are normal and tangential to the inclined plane AB. From the
vector triangle involving the uniaxial force and these component
(Fig 7.6c), we the find that
◼ FN = Fx cosθ FT = Fx sinθ

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 By substituting the expression for Fx from Eq 2, and dividing by the area, we obtain
expressions for the magnitude of the two components of the traction acting on this inclined
plane in terms of the applied tractions.
σ = σxx cos2θ (Eq 3a)
τ = σxx sinθcosθ (Eq 3b)

Biaxial Stress
To find the tractions acting on the inclined plane
when normal components act in both coordinate
directions, we first consider the effects of the uniaxial
stress in the y-direction alone (Fig 7.7a). Proceeding
just as before, the force on the side AB of the free
body (Fig 7.7b) is
Fy = σyy (a sinθ)
Then from the triangle of forces (Fig 7.7c), the
normal and shearing tractions are
σ = σyy sin2θ (Eq 4a)
τ = σyy sinθcosθ (Eq 4b)

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 By the principle of superposition, the total traction acting on the inclined plane is
the sum of the tractions due to the two separate uniaxial cases. Adding the
corresponding pairs of expressions for σ and τ from Eqs 3 and 4, assuming σxx >
σyy and observing that the contributions of the applied stress components make to
the shearing tractions are opposite, we obtain
σ = σxx cos2θ + σyy sin2θ (Eq 5a)
τ = (σxx- σyy) sinθ cosθ (Eq 5b)

Pure Shear Stress

Finally, we seek the effects of
applied shear tractions alone (Fig
7.8a). Again, the forces on the free
body corresponding to these
tractions are determined first (Fig
7.8b). Considering each pair of
tractions separately, two triangles of
forces area constructed (Fig 7.8c).

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 From triangle of forces 1, the contributions from the shearing traction are
σ = τxy sin θ cos θ τ = τxy cos2θ
and from triangle of forces 2, the contributions are
σ = τyx sin θ cosθ τ = τyx sin2θ
Adding the pairs of equations for σ and τ, paying attention to the different senses of
shear, and using the symmetrical relationship of Eq 1, we then have
σ = 2τxy sinθ cosθ (Eq 6a)
τ = τxy (cos2θ –sin2θ) (Eq 6b)

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 General Two-Dimensional Stress
The contribution of the full complement of applied components to the normal and
shearing tractions acting on the inclined plane can now be found by adding the
expression found in the biaxial case of Eqs 5 and pure shear case of Eqs 6. The
results are
σ = σxx cos2θ + σyy sin2θ + 2τxy sinθ cosθ (Eq 7a)
τ = (σxx – σyy) sinθ cosθ + τxy (sin2θ – cos2θ) (Eq 7b)

We are particularly interested in the extreme values of σ, and these can be found
from the conditions dσ/dθ = 0. Differentiating Eq 7a and setting the result equal to
zero gives,
2[(σxx – σyy) sinθ cosθ + τxy (cos2θ – sin2θ)] = 0 (Eq 8)
Comparing this result with Eq 7b, we see that when σ has extreme values, τ = 0. This
shows that when the plane element is oriented such that the normal traction σ has its
maximum or minimum value, the shearing traction is zero.

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 We can find the orientation of the planes on which these extreme normal
tractions act by substituting the identities,
sin θ cosθ = tanθ/ (1+tan2θ)
cos2θ – sin2θ = (1- tan2θ)/(1 + tan2θ)
tan 2θ = 2 tanθ/ (1-tan2θ) into Eq 8.
After some manipulation we find that,
tan 2θ = 2τxy/(σxx-σyy) (Eq 9)
Two angles satisfy this expression, 2θ and 2θ+180°, or θ and θ+90°.
Hence the maximum and minimum values of σ occur on mutually
perpendicular planes. These extreme normal tractions are called the Principal
stresses, and they are labeled so that σ1 > σ3
These principal stresses are denoted as σ1 and σ3 for two reasons: to
emphasize that in nature we are dealing with a three-dimensional setting, and
because we are especially interested in the greatest and least principal stresses,
as compared with the intermediate principal stress σ2.

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 We now choose our coordinate axes to coincide with these two principal
direction. We may then make the following replacements in Eqs 7,
σxx = σ1,
σyy = σ3 and
τxy = 0
The results are
σ = σ1 cos2θ + σ3 sin2θ Eq 10a
τ = (σ1-σ3) sin θ cosθ Eq 10b

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 Mohr Circle for Stress
Eqs 10 can be put into a much more useful form by substituting the double
angle identities:
sin2θ = ½ (1-cos 2θ) Eq 11a
cos2θ = ½ (1+cos 2θ) Eq 11b
sinθ cosθ = ½ sin2θ Eq 11c

We then obtain the important results,

σ = [(σ1 + σ3)/2 ]+ [(σ1 – σ3)/2] cos 2θ Eq 12a
τ = [(σ1- σ3)/2] sin 2θ Eq 12b

These have the form

x = c+r cos 2θ and y = r sin 2θ
which are the parametric equations of a circle with radius r, which is centered
on the x-axis at a distance c from the origin.

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 This property of Eqs 12 allows a wide variety of problems involving σ and τ to be
solved graphically with a Mohr circle for stress (Fig 7.10). The main feature of this
construction is a circle centered on the horizontal σ-axis at a distance from the origin
and a radius equal to
c = (σ1 + σ3)/2 and r = (σ1 – σ3)/2
This circle is the locus of all permissible pairs of values of σ and τ for a given state of
stress at a point.

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 Mohr circle for stress can be used to
solve a number of different types of
problems. In order to construct a circle,
we need a sign convention for the normal
and shearing components of the traction.
Following usual geological practice,
compression is reckoned positive and
tension is negative. If a pair of shearing
tractions act in an anticlockwise sense
they are taken positive, and if clockwise
negative.

The simple problem to solve graphically

is the determination of the normal and
shearing tractions acting on any specified
plane given the principal stresses.

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Maximum shear stress occurs on planes oriented 450 to the maximum and
minimum compressive stress directions; thus, these points plot at the top and
bottom of Mohr's Circle.

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 PROBLEM
If σ1 = +200 MPa and σ3 = +50 MPa, what are the
normal and shearing tractions on a plane whose
normal makes an angle of 25º measured
anticlockwise from the σ1 direction.

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 Mohr’s Envelop of Failure: represented by a straight line with a slope equal to
Coulomb’s coefficient. A number of Mohr’s circles are plotted and a line tangential
to the circles is drawn. Constructed using a series of experiments in which the
principal stresses change. Failure occurs when the Mohr’s circle intersects the
envelope of failure.
υ= tan ф
υ (upsilon) =Coulomb’s Coefficient (coefficient of internal friction) slope of the line
(envelop of failure) ; ф (phi)= angle of internal friction
Experiments are usually constructed with an axial load (maximum compressive
stress) is applied to a rock cylinder under a confining pressure.

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 Importance of Mohr’s Diagram

1. For any value of maximum compressive stress value

and minimum compressive stress value, one can
determine the normal and shear stress for any
planes that lie at an angle θ.
2. Depicts the attitude of planes along which shear stress
is the greatest for a given stress state.
3. The most important aspect of Mohr’s diagram is that it
facilitates a quick, graphical determination of
stresses on planes of any orientation.
4. Mohr diagrams are excellent for visualizing the state of
stress but difficult for calculating stress. Stress
tensors are used to calculate stress.

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 Stresses can be;
• Compressive Stress –
• pushed together or squeezed from opposite directions.
• common along convergent plate boundaries; typically results in rocks
being deformed by a shortening strain;
• Tensional Stress –
• Forces pulling away from one another in opposite directions; results
in a stretching or extensional strain
• Quite rare in the earth crust
• Shear Stress –shortening strain;
• Due to movement parallel but in opposite directions along a fault or
other boundary
• Results in a shear strain parallel to the direction of the stresses.
• Notable along transform plate boundaries and along other actively
moving faults.
32
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 TERMINOLOGY
◼ Force (F); Mass times acceleration (F = ma; Newton’s second law)

◼ Stress () ; Force per unit area (F/A

◼ Anisotropic stress; At least one principal stress has a magnitude
unequal to the other principal stresses (describes an ellipsoid)
◼ Deviatoric stress (dev); Component of the stress that remains after
the mean stress is removed; this component of the stress contains the
six shear stresses.
◼ Differential stress (d); The difference between two principal
stresses (e.g., 1– 3), which bydefinition is  0;
◼ Homogeneous stress: Stress at each point in a body has the same
magnitude and orientation

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◼ Inhomogeneous stress; Stress at each point in a body has
different magnitude and/or orientation
◼ Isotropic stress: All three principal stresses have equal
magnitude (describes a sphere)
◼ Lithostatic stress/pressure(PL); Isotropic pressure at depth in
the Earth arising from the overlying rock column
(density × gravity × depth,   g h);
◼ Mean stress (mean) ;(1+2+3)/3;
◼ Normal stress(n): Stress component oriented
perpendicular to a given plane;
◼ Principal plane; Plane of zero shear stress; three
principal planes exist
◼ Principal stress; The normal stress on a plane with
zero shear stress; three principal
stresses exist, with the convention 1 2 3

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◼ Shear stress(s ); Stress parallel to a given plane;
(sometimes the symbol  is used)
◼ Stress ellipsoid; Geometric representation of stress;
the axes of the stress ellipsoid are the
principal stresses
◼ Stress field; The orientation and magnitudes of
stresses in a body
◼ Stress tensor; Mathematical description of stress
◼ Stress trajectory; Principal stress directions in a body
◼ Hydrostatic stress/pressure: Isotropic
component of the stress; strictly, the
pressure at the base of a water column

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 Thank you for your....

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