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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 142

Samir Avdaković · Ismar Volić ·

Aljo Mujčić · Tarik Uzunović ·
Adnan Mujezinović Editors

Advanced
Technologies,
Systems, and
Applications V
Papers Selected by the Technical
Sciences Division
of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian American
Academy of Arts and Sciences 2020
Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems

Volume 142

Series Editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences,
Warsaw, Poland

Advisory Editors
Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA,
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas—
UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil
Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering,
Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey
Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University
of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA; Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing, China
Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada; Systems Research Institute,
Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus,
Nicosia, Cyprus
Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary
Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong,
Kowloon, Hong Kong
The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest
developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality.
Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core
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Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15179

Samir Avdaković Ismar Volić Aljo Mujčić
• • •

Tarik Uzunović Adnan Mujezinović

•

Editors

Advanced Technologies,
Systems, and Applications V
Papers Selected by the Technical Sciences
Division of the Bosnian-Herzegovinian
American Academy of Arts and Sciences
2020

123
Editors
Samir Avdaković Ismar Volić
Faculty of Electrical Engineering Department of Mathematics
University of Sarajevo Wellesley College
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina Wellesley Hills, MA, USA

Aljo Mujčić Tarik Uzunović

Faculty of Electrical Engineering Faculty of Electrical Engineering
University of Tuzla University of Sarajevo
Tuzla, Bosnia and Herzegovina Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

Adnan Mujezinović
Faculty of Electrical Engineering
University of Sarajevo
Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems
ISBN 978-3-030-54764-6 ISBN 978-3-030-54765-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54765-3
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2021
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
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About This Book

The papers in this collection are centred around the theory and practice of a wide
variety of advanced technologies. They cover the latest developments in computing,
networking, information technology, robotics, complex systems, communications,
energy, mechanical engineering, civil engineering, geodesy, and other subjects.
These papers were selected for presentation at the conference 12th Days of
Bosnian-Herzegovinan American Academy of Arts and Sciences (BHAAAS) that
was supposed to be held in Mostar, Bosnia, and Herzegovina in June 2020 but was
postponed due to the coronavirus pandemic. However, because of the high quality
of the submissions, BHAAAS’ division of technical and natural sciences decided to
create this special volume despite the postponement.
The editors would like to extend special gratitude to all the chairs of the planned
symposia of the 12th Days of BHAAAS for their dedicated work in the production
of this volume: Jasmin Kevrić, Zerina Mašetić, Dželila Mehanović (Computer
Science); Anes Kazagić, Hajrudin Džafo, Izet Smajević (Mechanical Engineering);
Tarik Uzunović, Asif Šabanović, Jasmin Kevrić (Mechatronics, Robotics, and
Embedded Systems); Mirza Šarić, Tarik Hubana, Maja Muftić Dedović (Advanced
Electrical Power Systems); Mirza Pozder, Naida Ademović, Medžida Mulić (Civil
Engineering and Geodesy); Adnan Mujezinović, Muris Torlak (Computer
Modelling and Simulations for Engineering Applications); Aljo Mujčić, Edin
Mujčić (Information and Communication Technologies).

v
Contents

Applied Mathematics
Partial Configuration Spaces as Pullbacks of Diagrams
of Configuration Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Amy Q. H. Li and Ismar Volić

Power Systems
Smart Sarajevo—Analysis of Smart Home System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Emir Šaljić and Samir Avdaković
Western Balkans Green-Deal: Zero Emissions by 2050 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
M. Brkljača, M. Tabaković, M. Vranjkovina, Dž. Ćorović, L. Dedić,
M. Krzović, M. Skenderović, T. Hubana, and Samir Avdaković
Biomass Potential Monitoring System as a Tool for Exchange
and Comparing Findings from Different Sectoral Studies . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Mirza Ponjavic, Almir Karabegovic, Slavoljub Stanojevic,
and Sanja Celebicanin
Cost Analysis of Photovoltaic and Battery System for Improving
Residential Energy Self-consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Amer Aščerić, Marko Čepin, and Boštjan Blažič
Machine Learning Based Electrical Load Forecasting Using Decision
Tree Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
T. Hubana, E. Šemić, and N. Laković
Comparative Analysis of World’s Energy Prices Versus
Those in Bosnia and Herzegovina—Crude Prices and Impact
on Profitability of Oil Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Sanel Halilbegovic, Mirza Saric, Nedim Celebic, and Amna Avdagic

vii
viii Contents

Identification on Dominant Oscillation Based on EMD and Prony’s

Method Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
M. Muftic Dedovic, Adnan Mujezinović, and N. Dautbasic
The Hybrid EMD-SARIMA Model for Air Quality Index Prediction,
Case of Canton Sarajevo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
M. Muftic Dedovic, Samir Avdaković, Adnan Mujezinović,
and N. Dautbasic
Influence of a Photovoltaic Power System Connection to Power System
Voltage Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Nedis Dautbašić, Tatjana Konjić, Ermin Ahatović, Majda Đonlagić,
and Dina Fejzović

Civil Engineering and Geodesy

Nonlinear Static Analysis of a Railway Bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Aljoša Skočajić and Naida Ademović
Automatization of the Ranking Process of the Land
Consolidation Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Marinković Goran, Mirko Borisov, Nikolina Mijić, Trifković Milan,
and Lazić Jelena
Correlation Between the Ionosphere Anomalies and the Earthquake
in Albania M6.4R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Medžida Mulić, Randa Natraš, Slavica Matić, and Jasmin Ćatić

Computer Modelling and Simulations for Engineering Applications

On the Impact of Body Forces in Low Prandtl Number
Liquid Bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
B. Šeta, D. Dubert, J. Massons, P. Salgado Sánchez, J. Porter,
Jna. Gavaldà, M. M. Bou-Ali, and X. Ruiz
Analysis of Contact Mechanics Problems of Pipes Using
a Finite-Volume Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Muris Torlak and Elvedin Kljuno
A Contribution to Modeling and Computer Simulation of Species
Spread in Natural Environments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Muris Torlak, Vahidin Hadžiabdić, and Sadjit Metović

Information and Communication Technologies

The Influence of System Factors on QoE for WebRTC Video
Communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Maida Balihodžić, Jasmina Baraković Husić, and Sabina Baraković
Contents ix

Multidimensional QoE Prediction of WebRTC Video Communication

with Machine Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Amna Karadža, Jasmina Baraković Husić, Sabina Baraković,
and Srđan Nogo
The Smart Greenhouse System Based on the the Mobile Network
and IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Zehra Šabić, Una Drakulić, and Edin Mujčić
Smart Musical Fountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Minela Selmanović, Una Drakulić, and Edin Mujčić
Towards Development of Comprehensive Framework for Evaluation
of Potential Consequences of Cyber-Attacks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Igor Ognjanović, Ramo Šendelj, and Ivana Ognjanović
Optical Network Security Attacks by Tapping and Encrypting
Optical Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Anis Maslo, Nermin Sarajlić, Mujo Hodžić, and Aljo Mujčić

Computer Science
Multiple Linear Regression Model for Predicting PM2.5 Concentration
in Zenica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Zinaid Kapić
Physical and Cognitive Therapy Enhancement Using Game-Based
Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
Belma Ramic-Brkic, Marijana Cosovic, and Edin Begic
Determining Sentiment of Tweets Using First Bosnian Lexicon
and (AnA)-Affirmative and Non-affirmative Words . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Sead Jahić and Jernej Vičič
Quantifier Elimination in Fields and Application in Geometry . . . . . . . 375
Mirna Udovicic
Workpiece Measurement Device—Workpiece Height Classification . . . . 397
Ermin Podrug and Slobodan Lubura
Implementation of Single-Phase Phase-Locked Loop with DC Offset
and Noise Rejection Using Fuzzy Logic Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Nihad Ferhatović, Srđan Lale, Jasmin Kevrić, and Slobodan Lubura
Air Quality Prediction Using Machine Learning Methods:
A Case Study of Bjelave Neighborhood, Sarajevo, BiH . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
Emina Džaferović and Kanita Karađuzović-Hadžiabdić
Naive Website Categorization Based on Text Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Aldin Kovačević, Zerina Mašetić, and Dino Kečo
x Contents

Mechanical Engineering
Conceptual Wind Turbine Prototype Design and Performance
Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
Đanis Kadrić, Emir Nezirić, and Ernad Bešlagić
Sustainable Transition of District Heating Networks—Upgrading
the Performance of DH System Tuzla and Integration
of RES Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Anes Kazagic, Dominik Rutz, Ajla Merzic, Dino Tresnjo, Jasenko Fazlic,
Suljo Saric, Mustafa Music, and Izet Delalic
Manipulating Epoxy resin’s Electrical Conductivity Using Carbon
Nanotubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
F. Ustamujić and Ž. Husnić
Simulation of Solar Assisted Solid Desiccant Cooling System . . . . . . . . . 489
Haris Lulić and Adnan Đugum
Pipe Stress Analysis Using an Analytical and a Finite-Volume
Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
Elvedin Kljuno and Muris Torlak
Sizing of a Micro-cogeneration System of One Residential Building
in Sarajevo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
S. Metović, S. Oglečevac, and N. Hodžić
Physical and Numerical Modeling of Water Flow Through
Coanda-Effect Screens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Hajrudin Dzafo, Sadzit Metovic, and Ejub Dzaferovic
Numerical Structural Analysis Using Combined Finite Elements:
A Case Study of Electric Bicycle Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Matej Pezer, Adis J. Muminovic, Elmedin Mesic, and Nedim Pervan
Product Development and Design: A Bicycle Stand Case Study . . . . . . . 555
Mehridzana Popovac, Tarik Klinac, Adis J. Muminovic, and Isad Saric
An Overview of Research Irregularities Regarding Water Regimes
and Environmental Effects in the Design of Small Hydropower
Plants in Bosnia and Herzegovina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
Azra Tanović, Edin Kasamović, and Hajrudin Džafo

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

Applied Mathematics
Partial Configuration Spaces as
Pullbacks of Diagrams
of Configuration Spaces

Amy Q. H. Li and Ismar Volić

Abstract Partial configuration spaces are a version of ordinary configuration spaces

where some points are allowed to coincide. We express these spaces as pullbacks
of diagrams of ordinary configuration spaces and provide some examples where
the limit coincides with the homotopy limit. We also indicate how one might use
calculations in cohomology to show that the limit is the homotopy limit in general.

Keywords Configuration spaces · Partial configuration space · Diagrams · Limits

Homotopy limits · Subspace arrangements

1 Introduction

Let P1 , …, Pk , M be smooth manifolds and let

Link(P1 , . . . , Pk ; M ) (1)

be the space of link maps of P1 , …, Pk in M, namely the space of k-tuples of

smooth maps (f1 : P1 → M , . . . , fk : Pk → M ) such that the images of the fi are
disjoint (topologized as the subspace of the space of maps Map(P1  · · ·  Pk , N )).
These spaces appear, among other places, in recent work on intersection theory [8],
study of generalizations of Milnor invariants [7], and homotopy-theoretic models for
homotopy string links [10].
One way to study the space Link(P1 , . . . , Pk ; M ) is via manifold calculus of
functors [5, 12]. This approach has already yielded useful information [4, 9]. The idea
is to associate a Taylor tower of approximations to the space Link(P1 , . . . , Pk ; M )
and study it in a piecemeal way. The building blocks for the stages of the Taylor

A. Q. H. Li (B) · I. Volić
Department of Mathematics, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA, USA
e-mail: [email protected]
I. Volić
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license 3
to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
S. Avdaković et al. (eds.), Advanced Technologies, Systems, and Applications V,
Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 142,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54765-3_1
4 A. Q. H. Li and I. Volić

tower are link maps of unions of points, i.e.

Link(n1 ∗, . . . , nk ∗; M ). (2)

In fact, the spaces of homotopy string links, which are some of the simplest (yet
still very interesting) examples of spaces of link maps are built out of these in a
straightforward fashion [10].
Getting a handle on the topology of spaces of link maps of points is therefore
central in understanding the functor calculus point of view on general spaces of link
maps. The goal of this paper is to realize spaces of link maps of points as pullbacks
of fairly simple diagrams of configuration spaces. Since configuration spaces are
well-understood, the hope is that this would translate into new understanding of the
topology of link maps of points and hence general link maps.
The point of view we take is that Link(n1 ∗, . . . , nk ∗; M ) is homeomorphic to the
space of n1 + n2 + · · · + nk points in M where the first n1 do not have to be distinct,
the second n2 do not have to be distinct, and so on, but points in different clusters are
not allowed to coincide. We will denote this space by Conf(n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ; M ) (see
Sect. 2 for precise definitions). For most of our results, the requirement that M be a
manifold is not necessary, so we will consider Conf(n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ; X ) where X is
any space. This space is familiar from algebraic geometry as it can be regarded as a
complement of a  subspace arrangements where some diagonals have been removed
from the space X nl .
Let Star(n) be the category with objects 0, 1, . . . , n and non-identity morphisms
j → 0, j = 0. Then take the product category

Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) × · · · × Star(nk ).

Its elements are thus k-tuples (i1 , i2 , . . . , ik ), 0 ≤ ij ≤ nj , and non-identity morphisms

are generated by

(i1 , i2 , . . . , ij−1 , ij , ij+1 , . . . , ik ) −→ (i1 , i2 , . . . , ij−1 , 0, ij+1 , . . . , ik ), ij = 0. (3)

Now consider the functor P from this product category to the category of spaces
that sends (i1 , i2 , . . . , ik ) maps to Conf(l; X ), the ordinary configuration space of l
points in X , if this k-tuple contains exactly l non-zero entries. The morphisms are
sent to projection maps that forget a point (Sect. 4 has the details).
Our main result is the following.

Theorem 1.1 The limit (or pullback) of the diagram P is homeomorphic to

Conf(n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ; X ).

It would be more useful, from an algebraic topology point of view, if we could

show that partial configuration spaces are the homotopy limits of diagrams of ordi-
nary configuration spaces. This is because homotopy limits are homotopy invariant
while limits are not. Theorem 1.1 is an indication that this might be true and we will
Partial Configuration Spaces as Pullbacks of Diagrams … 5

provide some examples where the limit and the homotopy limit are indeed equiva-
lent in Sect. 5.2 (most notably for the space Conf(n, 1, ..., 1; M ) in Example 5.7).
In addition, we will in Sect. 5.3 outline a strategy for proving the general case
that combines the Goresky-MacPherson machinery for calculating the cohomology
of complements of subspace arrangements with the cohomology spectral sequence
associated to the diagrams P.
The diagram P has cubical diagrams as its building blocks. Namely, given an
element (i1 , i2 , . . . , ik ) in Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) × · · · × Star(nk ), one can look at the
category of objects under it. This gives a cubical diagram (see Definition 3.5); for
example, (2, 0, 1, 3) gives

(2, 0, 1, 3) (0, 0, 1, 3)

(2, 0, 0, 3) (0, 0, 0, 3)

(2, 0, 1, 0) (0, 0, 1, 0)

(2, 0, 0, 0) (0, 0, 0, 0)

Applying P to this cube produces a cube of configuration spaces with projection maps
between them. The (homotopy) limit of such a cube is a configuration space in the
initial slot of the cube. Diagram P can thus be thought of as gluing cubical diagrams of
configuration spaces along faces, and this gluing corresponds geometrically to taking
products of configuration spaces and gluing them along some of the configuration
points. This will be illustrated in some of the examples in Sect. 5.2.
Some other possible further directions of investigation are:
• The projection maps in the P(Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) × · · · × Star(nk )) do not have
to be to one fewer points. One can declare that, depending on how many zeros (or
non-zeros) there are in the tuple (i1 , i2 , . . . , ij−1 , ij , ij+1 , . . . , ik ), the projection is
to some other number of factors. This would lead to more complicated conditions
in the limit about which points can collide and which cannot. It would be desirable
to show that, given any subspace arrangement, there is a way to write it as the
homotopy limit of an appropriate diagram.
• Another generalization would be to capture the requirement that, within each
cluster of ni points, only up to ri of them are allowed to collide. This would then
have bearing on the study of r-immersions via functor calculus and, in turn, on
some recent Tverberg-like results in combinatorial topology. In particular, the most
important object there is the space of r-immersions of k points in M , namely the
configuration space of k points where no more than r − 1 are allowed to be the
same. It would be very useful to have a diagrammatic description of these spaces.
• Some ideas in this paper seem in some sense dual to those in [13]. The authors of
that paper realize complements of subspace arrangements as (homotopy) colimits
of diagrams where spaces are subspaces of the arrangement complement and maps
are inclusions. Everything is governed by the combinatorics of the poset that
6 A. Q. H. Li and I. Volić

prescribes how the diagonals are removed from X nl to get an arrangement. It
would be desirable to flesh out the potential duality between the two constructions.

2 Partial Configuration Spaces

For X a space, let Conf(k; X ) be the configuration space of k points in X, i.e.

Conf(k; X ) = {(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk ) ∈ X k : xi = xj when i = j}.

This is the space X k with all the diagonals xi = xj removed. For example, if X = R,
then Conf(2; R) is homeomorphic to the plane R2 with the diagonal x1 = x2 removed.
Configuration spaces are well-understood for many X (for an overview, see [1]).
One way to generalize configuration spaces is to allow some of the points to
coincide. For example, consider Conf(4; X ) and label an arbitrary point in it by
(x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ). This configuration space is homeomorphic to X 4 with all diagonals
removed. Suppose we allowed x1 to coincide with x2 and x3 to coincide with x4 . This
corresponds to adding back in the diagonals x1 = x2 and x3 = x4 .
The space described above will be denoted by Conf(2, 2; X ), where this notation
means the first pair of points can coincide, the second pair of two points can coincide,
but points between different pairs cannot.
More generally, we make the following definition.

Definition 2.1 Let Conf(n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ; X ) be the partial configuration space of

n1 + n2 + · · · + nk points in X, i.e.

Conf(n1 , n2 , . . . , nk ; X ) = {(x11 , x21 , . . . , xn11 , x12 , x22 , . . . , xn22 , . . . , x1k , x2k , . . . , xnkk )
k
∈X l=1 nl
: xia = xjb when a = b}.

As mentioned in the Introduction, Conf(n1 , n2 , ..., nk ; X ) can be thought of as a

complement of a subspace arrangement, a notion familiar from algebraic geometry.
A special case of Definition 2.1 is the ordinary configuration space since

Conf(1, 1, ..., 1; X ) = Conf(k; X ) (4)

(1 repeats k times).
An important feature of configuration spaces is that, when X is a manifold M , the
projection map
Conf(k; M ) −→ Conf(k − 1; M )

that forgets a point is a fibration [2]. However, this is not true for partial configuration
spaces. Consider, for example, the projection
Partial Configuration Spaces as Pullbacks of Diagrams … 7

Conf(2, 1; Rn ) −→ Conf(2; Rn )
(x11 , x21 , x12 ) −→ (x11 , x21 )

The preimage of a point (x11 , x21 ) where the two coordinates coincide is a sphere S n−1 ,
but if the two coordinates are different, the preimage is the wedge S n−1 ∨ S n−1 . Since
the preimages over different points are not homotopy equivalent, the map cannot be
a fibration. This basic observation makes partial configuration spaces much harder
to study than ordinary configuration spaces.

3 Star Diagrams and Limits

3.1 Star Categories

We will assume the reader is familiar with the basics of category theory. Here is the
main category we will need.

Definition 3.1 Let Star(n) be the category whose objects are elements of n =
{0, 1, . . . , n} and whose (non-trivial) morphisms are arrows from j = 0 to 0.

Of interest to us are the products of k star diagrams,

Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) × · · · × Star(nk ),

consisting of objects (i1 , i2 , . . . , ik ), where ij ∈ {0, 1, . . . , nj }. The (non-trivial) mor-

phisms are generated by the maps from (i1 , . . . , ij−1 , ij , ij+1 , . . . , ik ) to (i1 , . . . , ij−1 ,
0, ij+1 , . . . , ik ), where ij = 0.

Example 3.2

n 1 2

..
Star(n) = . 0 3

6 5 4
8 A. Q. H. Li and I. Volić

Example 3.3

1 1

Star(3) × Star(2) = 0 × 0 =

3 2 2

(1, 1)

(1, 0) (0, 1)

(1, 2) (0, 0) (3, 1) (2, 1)

(0, 2) (3, 0) (2, 0)

(3, 2) (2, 2)

Definition 3.4 A small category I is an inverse system if there is a degree func-

tion deg : Ob(I) → N such that if m : i → i is a non-identity morphism in I, then
deg(i) > deg(i ).

This means that the objects of I can be drawn in “levels” according to degree,
say from higher to lower degrees, and the non-identity morphisms will then all point
downward.
Categories Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) × · · · × Star(nk ) are inverse systems because they
have a degree function where the degree of an object corresponds to the number of
nonzero entries in its indexing tuple.
The other category that is relevant here provides the building blocks for the prod-
ucts of star categories.

Definition 3.5 An n-cube P(n) is the poset of subsets of n = {1, ..., n}, i.e. its objects
are subsets of n and non-identity morphisms are inclusions.
Partial Configuration Spaces as Pullbacks of Diagrams … 9

Example 3.6 The 3-cube P(3) can be represented as

∅ {1}

{2} {1, 2}

{3} {1, 3}

{2, 3} {1, 2, 3}

Category Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) × · · · × Star(nk ) can be realized as n1 n2 · · · nk k-

cubes glued along some faces. For example, Star(3) × Star(2), as pictured in Exam-
ple 3.3, can be thought of as 3 × 2 = 6 2-cubes (squares) glued along some faces.
More examples can be found in Sect. 5.2.

3.2 Limits of Inverse Diagrams

One notion that is central for us is that of a diagram. Recall that a category is small
if the classes of objects and morphisms are both sets. Let Top be the category of
topological spaces.

Definition 3.7 A diagram of spaces is a functor from a small category I to Top.

By abuse of notation, we often say “diagram” when we mean the image of I. Category
I is called the indexing category. We will also speak of the shape of the diagram,
and, by abuse of notation, this might refer to either the shape of I or its image.
Sometimes our diagrams will have based spaces as their target, and the morphisms
are then sent to based maps of spaces.
The two most important examples for us are the following.

Example 3.8 A star diagram of spaces is a functor S from Star(n) to Top. For
example, the functor

S : Star(3) −→ Top
j −→ Xj
10 A. Q. H. Li and I. Volić

can be represented as a 3-star

X1

X0

X3 X2

Example 3.9 A cube of spaces is a functor C from P(n) to Top. For example, the
functor

C : P(3) −→ Top
S −→ XS

can be represented as a 3-cube

X∅ X1

X2 X12

X3 X13

X23 X123

(Here we abbreviate subsets S in the subscripts by writing them without braces or

commas.)
Definition 3.10 The limit, or pullback of  a diagram X : I → Top, i → Xi , denoted
by limI X , is the subspace of the product i∈I Xi consisting of tuples (xi ) such that
xj and xk are in the same tuple iff there is a morphism f such that f (xj ) = xk .
Thus limI Xi is the subspace of the product of all the spaces in the diagram
consisting of tuples that are “compatible” with respect to the maps in the diagram.
In other words, if two points in a tuple in the limit are mapped to the same space,
their images must be the same. This means that the product need not be taken over
all the spaces in the diagram but only over the “initial” spaces, namely those that
are not the image of any map. For an inverse system such as Star(n1 ) × Star(n2 ) ×
· · · × Star(nk ), the situation is even more straightforward since such initial spaces
can be easily characterized.
More precisely, given an inverse system with bounded degree (automatically true
for a finite diagram), another degree function d on Ob(I) can be defined by:
• All objects that are not codomains for any non-identity morphisms are labelled
d̂ = 1.
Partial Configuration Spaces as Pullbacks of Diagrams … 11

• An object x is labelled d̂ = l if l − 1 = max{d̂ (y) : y maps (non-trivially) to x}.

• Define the degree d of each object to be n + 1 − d̂ , where n is the largest value of
d̂ in the inverse system.
Under this degree function, each object of degree l < n has morphisms mapping
into it from objects of degree j ∈ {l + 1, . . . , n}. Having an inverse system (with
bounded degree) is necessary to define this new degree function because otherwise
it is possible the maximum would not exist.

Proposition 3.11 The limit of an inverse diagram with bounded degree is homeo-
morphic to a subset of the product of the objects of highest degree d .

Proof The inverse diagram F(I) sends i to Xi . The limit is

 

L = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . , xj−1 , xj , xj+1 , . . . ) ∈ Xi
i

where if f : Xp → Xq and g : Xr → Xq then f (xp ) = g(xr ) = xq for all p, q, r. Sup-

pose Xj is of degree less than n. Then there is a map h : Xk → Xj where Xk has degree
n.
We will show that L is homeomorphic to the set
⎧ ⎫
⎨  ⎬
L = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . , xj−1 , xj+1 , . . . ) ∈ Xi
⎩ ⎭
i=j

with the same conditions on maps. This homeomorphism is given by

p : L −→ L
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . , xj−1 , xj , xj+1 , . . . ) −→ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . , xj−1 , xj+1 , . . . )

and

r : L −→ L
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . , xj−1 , xj+1 , . . . ) −→ (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . , xj−1 , h(xk ), xj+1 , . . . ).

Note that p ◦ r is the identity on L, and since h(xk ) = xj , the composition r ◦ p is

the identity on L . Thus L ∼ = L . We can continue to remove objects of degree less
than n from the product of all Xi and preserve this homeomorphism. Therefore L is
homeomorphic to the set
⎧ ⎫
⎨  ⎬
S = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xk , . . . ) ∈ Xi
⎩ ⎭
d (i)=n
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 CHAPTER XXXV
LANGUAGE AND WRITING

Evolution One of the most interesting subjects of

scientific study developed during the
last century is that of primitive culture and the gradual advancement
of primitive man from a state of savagery to comparative civilization.
For this study there are no historical documents in the ordinary use
of the words “historical” and “document.” The story must be arrived
at by analysis, deduction, even by guess-work, supplementing the
studies of travelers among tribes which now are in the lowest stages
of development and farthest from civilization, and therefore most
resemble our remotest human ancestors. Almost the very earliest of
writers on evolution, the Roman poet Lucretius (Vol. 17, p. 107),
who died in 55 B.C., sketched general outlines of the development of
this primitive civilization in much the same way as do modern
ethnologists. But his description was imaginary and was fashioned to
fit his and Epicurus’s evolutionary theories.
The article Civilization (Vol. 6, p. 403) in the Britannica makes
the development of speech the mark of the first period when
mankind was in the lower stages of savagery. “Our ancestors of this
epoch inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory and
subsisted upon raw nuts and fruit.” The next higher period in the
progress of civilization began with the knowledge of the use of fire (p.
404).
This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its habitat
almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular
dietary. Man could now leave the forests and wander along the shores and rivers,
migrating to climates less enervating than those to which he had previously been
confined. Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly
equipped for hunting.... Primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not
advanced beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered a few
generations ago.
 The next great ethnical discovery was that of the bow and arrow, a
truly wonderful instrument.
The possessor of this device could bring down the fleetest animal and could
defend himself against the most predatory. He could provide himself not only
with food, but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus could
migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers.... The meat diet, now for the
first time freely available, probably contributed, along with the stimulating
climate, to increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage, thus
urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless, many tribes came thus far,
and no further, as witness the Athapascans of the Hudson’s Bay Territory and
the Indians of the valley of the Columbia.
After the use of fire and the discovery of the bow and arrow came
the invention of pottery, the domestication of animals, and the
smelting of iron, all successive stages in man’s history which “in their
relation to the sum of human progress, transcend in relative
importance all his subsequent works,”—and this is even truer if there
is included in this period the development of a system of writing,
which may be reckoned either the end of the primitive period or the
beginning of the period of civilization proper. These two great steps
in the story of civilization, language and writing, are closely
connected in our minds, though so far separated in time of origin;
and their story as told in the Britannica by the world’s greatest
authorities, English, American, German, French, Italian, Danish,
etc., is an interesting one for the general reader, while the articles are
invaluable to the specialist in linguistic study.
Philology The starting point for a course of
reading is the article Philology (Vol.
21, p. 414; equivalent to 80 pages in this Guide), of which the first
part, a general treatment, is by the greatest of American philologists,
William Dwight Whitney, editor-in-chief of The Century Dictionary,
and author of Life and Growth of Language, one of the most
important scientific contributions to the subject. The second part, on
the comparative philology of the Indo-European languages, is by
Prof. Eduard Sievers of Leipzig and Prof. Peter Giles of Cambridge.
Both these names are well known to students of the subject, the
former as that of the author of numerous valuable works on
Germanic phonetics and metric, and the latter as a writer on Greek
language and as the author of A Short Manual of Comparative
Philology.
 The article begins with a definition of “philology,” the science of
language, and of “comparative philology,” the comparison of one
language with another, in order to bring out their relationships, their
structures, and their histories. Prof. Whitney shows how much the
recent development of linguistic science owes to the general scientific
movement of the age. “No one,” he says, “however ingenious and
entertaining his speculations, will cast any real light on the earliest
history of speech.” But he notes the obvious analogy between speech
and writing, and he puts stress on the “sociality” of man as the prime
factor in his development of speech. Other topics in this part of the
article are:
Instrumentalities of expression—gesture, grimace, and voice; “language”
means “tonguiness”—a mute would call it “handiness”; advantages of voice over
gesture.
Imitation as a factor in development of language and of writing;
onomatopoetic origin of words.
Development of sign-making: “Among the animals of highest intelligence that
associate with man and learn something of his ways, a certain amount of sign-
making expressly for communication is not to be denied; the dog that barks at a
door because he knows that somebody will come and let him in is an instance of
it; perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from a flock, whose
warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the threat of danger, is as near an
approach to it as is anywhere made.”
Brute speech and human speech: “Those who put forward language as the
distinction between man and the lower animals, and those who look upon our
language as the same in kind with the means of communication of the lower
animals, only much more complete and perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true
nature of language, and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No
addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make anything like human
speech; the two are separated by a step which no animal below man has ever
taken; and, on the other hand, language is only the most conspicuous among
those institutions the development of which has constituted human progress.”
Language and culture: “Differences of language, down to the possession of
language at all, are differences only in respect to education and culture.”
Development of language signs: the beginning slow, acceleration cumulative.
The root-stage: first signs must have been “integral, significant in their
entirety, not divisible into parts.”
Earliest phonetic forms: the simplest syllabic combination a single consonant
with a following vowel. See the article Hawaii (Vol. 13, p. 88) for a similar
language even now in existence: “Every syllable is open, ending in a vowel
sound, and short sentences may be constructed wholly of vocalic sounds.”
 Character of early speech: “first language-signs must have denoted those
physical acts and qualities which are directly apprehensible by the senses.... We
are still all the time drawing figurative comparisons between material and moral
things and processes, and calling the latter by the names of the former.”
Development of language as illustrated in Indo-European speech.
Laws of growth and change: internal growth by multiplication of meanings;
phonetic change—the principle of economy (euphony); borrowing and mixing of
vocabularies.
Classification of languages by structural types: isolating (Chinese);
agglutinative (Turkish, etc.); inflective (Indo-European); or—a more elaborate
classification:
Indo-European Indo-European: on which see part II
Languages of the article Philology and the article
Indo-European Languages (Vol. 14,
p. 495; equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Peter Giles,—
especially interesting for the attempt on a linguistic basis to
reconstruct the original civilization and to discover the home of the
ancestors of this language-stock which now occupies nearly all of
Europe and is so intimately connected with the civilization of the last
2500 years. See:
Greek Language (Vol. 12, p. 496), by Professor Giles, and articles
Homer (Vol. 13, p. 626); Dorians (Vol. 8, p. 423), etc.; but the main
treatment of different Greek dialects is in the article Greek
Language (Vol. 12, p. 496), to which the student should refer for
Arcadian and Cyprian, Aeolic, Ionic-Attic, and Doric dialects.
Latin Language (Vol. 16, p. 244), by Dr. A. S. Wilkins, late
professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, and Dr. Robert S.
Conway, professor of Latin, University of Manchester, with a
peculiarly valuable summary of The Language as Recorded, which is
a linguistic critique of the style and vocabulary of the great Roman
authors and a comparison (p. 253) of Latin and Greek prose. And see
the articles on the dialects of ancient Italy: Italy, Ancient Languages
and People; Etruria, Language; Liguria, Philology; Siculi;
Pompeii, Oscan Inscriptions; Sabini; Falisci; Volsci; Osca Lingua;
Iguvium; Brutii; Umbria; Picenum; Samnites, etc., by Prof.
Conway, which will serve the student as a foundation for this subject,
with more recent revision of all that is known than there is in Prof.
Conway’s books, in the works of C. D. Buck, or in other authorities.
Romance For the descendants of Latin, the
Languages article Romance Languages (Vol. 23,
p. 504), by Dr. Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke,
Professor of romance philology in the University of Vienna; and the
following separate articles:
Italian Language (Vol. 14, p. 888), by Graziadio I. Ascoli,
professor of comparative grammar at the University of Milan, and
Carlo Salvioni, professor of Romance languages in the same
university, with a valuable summary of the dialects of modern Italy.
French Language (Vol. 11, p. 103), by Henry Nicol and Paul
Meyer, professor at the Collège de France; particularly interesting
because treated comparatively with constant reference to English
and French influence on English.
Provençal Languages (Vol. 22, p. 491), by Prof. Paul Meyer.
Spain: Language (Vol. 25, p. 573), by Alfred Morel-Fatio,
professor of Romance languages at the Collège de France, and James
Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of Spanish, Liverpool University;
describing the Catalan as well as the Castilian and the Portuguese.
Rumania: Language (Vol. 23, p. 843).
Teutonic The general articles Scandinavian
Languages Languages (Vol. 24, p. 291), by Dr.
Adolf Noreen, professor in the
University of Upsala, with sections on Icelandic, Norwegian or
Norse, Swedish, and Danish, and the Scandinavian dialects; and
Teutonic Languages (Vol. 26, p. 673), by Hector Munro Chadwick,
Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge.
More in detail on the Teutonic languages are the articles:
English Language (Vol. 9, pp. 587–600; equivalent to 45 pages of
this Guide), by Sir James A. H. Murray, editor-in-chief of the
(Oxford) New English Dictionary, and Miss Hilda Mary R. Murray,
lecturer on English at the Royal Holloway College.
Dutch Language (Vol. 8, p. 717), by Prof. Johann Hendrik Gallée
of the University of Utrecht.
German Language (Vol. 11, p. 777), Dr. Robert Priebsch, professor
of German philology, University of London, which deals with modern
and ancient, new, middle, and old, high and low German.
 For Indo-Iranian languages, see:
Persia and India Persia: Language and Literature
(Vol. 21, p. 246), by Dr. Hermann
Ethé, professor of Oriental languages, University College, Wales,
dealing with Zend, and Old, Middle and New Persian and modern
dialects of Persian.
Indo-Aryan Languages (Vol. 14, p. 487), by George Abraham
Grierson, formerly in charge of the Linguistic survey of India, who
treats in this article the relations of Pisaca, Prakrit and Sanskrit, and
contributes the separate articles Pisaca Languages, Prakrit,
Bengali, Bihari, Gujarati and Rajasthani, Hindostani,
Kashmiri, and Marathi. More important than these minor dialects
are Sanskrit Language (Vol. 24, p. 156), by Dr. Julius Eggeling,
professor of Sanskrit, Edinburgh University,—an article equivalent in
length to 90 pages of this Guide; and Pali (Vol. 20, p. 630), by Prof.
T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester University, president of the Pali
Text Society.
Armenian Language and Literature (Vol. 2, p. 571), by Dr. F. C.
Conybeare, author of The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle, etc.
Lithuanians and Letts, Language and Literature (Vol. 16, p.
790); Slavs: Language (Vol. 25, p. 233), by Ellis Hovell Minns,
Lecturer in palaeography, Cambridge, with a table of alphabets; and
supplementary information in the articles Russia, Bulgaria, Servia,
Poland, Bohemia, Croatia-Slavonia, Slovaks, Slovenes, Sorbs,
Kashubes, Polabs.
Albania, Language (Vol. 1, p. 485), by J. D. Bourchier,
correspondent of The Times (London) in South-eastern Europe.
Semitic The material on the Semitic group is
principally in the article Semitic
Languages (Vol. 24, p. 617), by Theodor Nöldeke, late professor of
Oriental languages at Strassburg. This article deals with:
Assyrian—see also Cuneiform (Vol. 7, p. 629);
Hebrew—see also Hebrew Language (Vol. 13, p. 167), by Arthur
Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford;
Phoenician—see also Phoenicia (Vol. 21, p. 449), by the Rev. Dr.
George Albert Cook, author of Text Book of North-Semitic
Inscriptions, etc.;
 Aramaic—and see the separate article Aramaic Languages (Vol. 2,
p. 317);
Arabic, Sabaean, Mahri and Socotri, Ethiopic, Tigre and Tigrina,
Amharic, Harari and Gurague.
And see the article Syriac Language (Vol. 26, p. 309), by Norman
McLean, lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge.
Hamitic The article Hamitic Languages
(Vol. 12, p. 893) is by Dr. W. Max
Müller, professor in the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia.
See also the article Egypt, Language and Writing (Vol. 9, p. 57), by
Dr. Francis Llewelyn Griffith, reader in Egyptology, Oxford; and the
articles: Ethiopia (Vol. 9, p. 845), by Dr. D. S. Margoliouth,
professor of Arabic, Oxford; Berber, Language (Vol. 3, p. 766) and
Kabyles (Vol. 15, p. 625) for the Libyan group of the Hamitic
languages.
Other Tongues On the mono-syllabic languages see
China, Language (Vol. 6, p. 216), by
Dr. H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Cambridge, and Lionel Giles,
assistant Oriental Department, British Museum;
Japan, Language (Vol. 15, p. 167), by Captain Frank Brinkley, late
editor of the Japan Mail; and
Tibeto-Burman Languages (Vol. 26, p. 928), by Dr. Sten Konow,
professor in the University of Christiania.
The article Ural-Altaic (Vol. 27, p. 784), by Dr. Augustus Henry
Keane, late professor of Hindustani, University College, London,
gives a general account of the relationship of Turkish, Finno-Ugrian,
Mongol and Manchu; and is supplemented by the articles Turks,
Language (Vol. 27, p. 472), by Sir Charles Eliot, vice-chancellor of
Sheffield University; Finno-Ugrian (Vol. 10, p. 388), on language of
Finns, Lapps and Samoyedes, Hungary Language (Vol. 13, p. 924),
on Magyar, both by Sir Charles Eliot; and Mongols, Language (Vol.
18, p. 719), by Dr. Bernhard Jülg, late professor at Innsbruck.
On the non-Aryan languages of Southern Africa see the article
Tamils (Vol. 26, p. 388), by Dr. Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the
Royal Asiatic Society.
For languages of Malay-Polynesia and other Oceanic peoples see
Malays, Language (Vol. 17, p. 477), by Sir Hugh Charles Clifford,
colonial secretary of Ceylon, and joint-author of A Dictionary of the
Malay Language; and the articles Polynesia, Samoa, Java, Hawaii,
etc.
On the Caucasian language see Georgia (Vol. 11, p. 758) and
Caucasia (Vol. 5, p. 546).
On other European languages see Basques (Vol. 3, p. 485), by the
late Rev. Wentworth Webster, author of Basque Legends, and Julien
Vinson, author of Le Basque et les langues Mexicaines; and for
the Etruscan language Etruria (Vol. 9, p. 854), by Professor R. S.
Conway.
On African languages see Bantu Languages (Vol. 3, p. 356), by Sir
H. H. Johnston; Bushmen (Vol. 41, p. 871) and Hottentots (Vol. 13,
p. 805); and, for the intermediate group, the article Hausa (Vol. 13,
p. 69).
On the languages of the North American Indians see the article
Indians, North American (especially p. 457 of Vol. 14), by Dr. A. F.
Chamberlain, professor of anthropology, Clark University,
Worcester, Massachusetts.
Alphabet This list of articles will serve the
student as a guide for the purely
linguistic articles. Besides the general treatment in the article
Philology from which we started, he should read articles on such
general subjects as Phonetics (Vol. 21, p. 458), by Dr. Henry Sweet,
author of A Primer of Phonetics, A History of English Sounds since
the Earliest Period, etc. This leads to a study of the article Alphabet
(Vol. 1, p. 723), equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide, written by
Professor Peter Giles of Cambridge and illustrated with a plate and
various fac-similes of early alphabets. This article is supplemented by
Professor Giles’s articles on all the letters of the alphabet, which deal
with the history and form of the symbol, the character of the sound it
stands for and, particularly, the development and change of the
sound in English and its dialects. For instance the article on the
letter N describes four different sounds, of which there are two in
English—usually distinguished as n and ng; explains that in the early
Indo-European language some n’s and m’s could sometimes be
pronounced as vowels; describes the opposite process, the
nasalization of vowels, especially in French; and closes by saying: “It
is possible to nasalize some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized
spirants play an important part in the so-called Yankee
pronunciation of Americans.”
Artificial From alphabets the student may well
Languages turn to ideal languages in the article
Universal Languages (Vol. 27, p.
746), by Professor Henry Sweet, which criticizes Volapük and
Esperanto and the Idiom Neutral as being unscientific, not really
international—even from a European point of view, and still less
when one considers the growing importance of Japan and China in
world-trade and world-history. Their being based on national
languages Dr. Sweet thinks is a disadvantage. But in their
comparative success he sees proof that a universal language is
possible. See also Prof. Sweet’s separate articles Volapük (Vol. 28, p.
178) and Esperanto (Vol. 9, p. 773).
Writing The article Writing (Vol. 28, p. 852)
deals, chiefly from the anthropological
standpoint, with primitive attempts to record ideas in an intelligible
form, for example with “knot-signs,” “message-sticks,” picture-
writing and the like. The needs, which led to the invention of these
primitive forms of writing, were: mnemonic, recalling that
something is to be done at a certain time—the primitive “tickler” was
a knotted string or thong, like our knotted handkerchief as a
reminder, and these knot-strings were finally used for elementary
accountings, commercial or chronological, like the use of the abacus
in little shops, or of the similar system in scoring games of pool; to
communicate with some one at a distance, for which marked or
notched sticks, engraved or coloured pebbles, wampum belts, etc.,
were used; and, third, to distinguish one’s own property or
handicraft whence cattle-brands, trade-marks, etc. In Assyria, Egypt
and China picture-writing developed into conventional signs: on
these see Egypt (Vol. 9, p. 60), and China (Vol. 6, p. 218). All of
these are of great interest to the general reader, but the article
Cuneiform (Vol. 7, p. 629) by Dr. R. W. Rogers, professor of Hebrew
and Old Testament exegesis, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison,
New Jersey, has the sort of entertainment in it that there is in a good
detective story, since it tells how the meaning of the mysterious
wedge-shaped inscriptions on the rocks at Mount Rachmet in Persia
was discovered.
 The subject of writing is treated, also, in the articles:
Inscriptions (Vol. 14, p. 618); Semitic, aside from the Cuneiform,
by Arthur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford;
Indian inscriptions, by John Faithfull Fleet, author of Inscriptions of
the Early Gupta Kings, etc.; Greek, by Edward Lee Hicks, Bishop of
Lincoln, author of Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions, etc., and
George Francis Hill, author of Sources for Greek History, etc.; and
Latin, by Emil Hübner, late professor of classical philology at Berlin,
author of Romische Epigraphik, etc., and Dr. W. M. Lindsay, of the
University of St. Andrews, author of The Latin Language, etc.
Palaeography (Vol. 20, p. 556), equivalent to 75 pages of this
Guide, by Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, late librarian of the British
Museum and author of Handbook of Greek and Latin
Palaeography, etc. The article is illustrated with 50 fac-similes of
typical handwritings.
Manuscript (Vol. 17, p. 618), equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide,
by the same author, with a description of the various forms of
manuscripts, of the mechanical arrangement of writing in MSS., and
of writing implements and inks. See, also, Illuminated
Manuscripts, Papyrus, Paper and other articles mentioned in the
chapter in this Guide For Printers.
Text Criticism The student of language and
literature and of writing will also find
much valuable information in the article Textual Criticism (Vol. 26,
p. 708), equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide, by Professor J. P.
Postgate of the University of Liverpool, well-known to Latinists as
the brilliant editor of Tibullus and Propertius. The article gives
examples of the classes of errors occurring in texts and the methods
of restoring true readings—largely of course by conjecture—and
illustrates such errors and their correction by the very poorly printed
first editions of the English poet Shelley.
In the study of language and writing as in courses on other
sciences and arts, the reader will find an additional interest in
supplementing general and abstract articles by biographical sketches
of the great men in the science.
The following is a partial list of the articles in the Britannica on
great philologists:
Aasen, Ivar
Adelung, J. C.
Ahrens, F. H. L.
Ascoli, G. I.
Baehr, J. C. F.
Baiter, J. G.
Bake, Jan
Barth, Kaspar von
Benfey, Theodor
Bennett, Charles E.
Bentley, Richard
Bernhardy, Gottfried
Bhau Daji
Blass, Friedrich
Bleek, W. H. I.
Bloomfield, Maurice
Böhtlingk, Otto von
Bopp, Franz
Bosworth, Joseph
Bréal, M. J. A.
Brown, Francis
Bücheler, Franz
Buck, C. D.
Bugge, Sophus
Burmann
Burnell, A. C.
Burnouf, Eugène
Buttmann, Philipp Karl
Carey, William
Casaubon
Caspari, K. P.
Castell, Edmund
Castiglione, Count
Castrén, M. A.
Childers, R. C.
Cleynaerts, Nicolas
Cobet, C. G.
Conington, John
Cook, A. S.
Corssen, W. P.
Cotgrave, Randle
Creuzer, G. F.
Csoma de Körös, A.
Darmesteter, J.
Delius, N.
Diez, F. C.
Döbrowsky, J.
Döderlein, J. C. W. L.
Donaldson, J. W.
Drisler, Henry
Dunash
Ebel, H. W.
Egger, Emile
Elias, Levita
Ellis, A. J.
Ellis, Robinson
Erasmus
Erpenius, Thomas
Ettmüller, E. M. L.
Facciolati, J.
Fairuzabadi
Fleckeisen, C. F. W. A.
Fleischer, Heinrich L.
Flügel, G. L.
Flügel, J. G.
Forcellini, Egidio
Freund, Wilhelm
Freytag, G. W. F.
Furnivall, F. J.
Fürst, Julius
Gabelentz, H. C. von der
Gaisford, Thomas
Gayangos y Arce, P. de
Gildersleeve, B. L.
Goeje, M. J. de
Goldstücker, T.
Goldziher, Ignaz
Golius, Jacobus
Goodwin, W. W.
Greenough, J. B.
Grimm, J. L. C.
Grimm, W. C.
Gudeman, Alfred
Gutschmid, Baron von
Hadley, James
Hagen, F. H. von der
Haldeman, S. S.
Hale, W. G.
Halhed, N. B.
Hall, Fitzedward
Hall, Isaac Hollister
Hasden, B. P.
Haug, Martin
Haupt, Moritz
Henry, Victor
Herbelot de Molainville, B. d’
Hervás y Panduro, L.
Hoffmann, J. J.
Hopkins, E. W.
Hottinger, J. H.
Hübner, Emil
Humboldt, K. W. von
Ingram, James
Jauhari
Jawaliqi
Jirecek, Josef
Jonah, Rabbi
Jones, Sir William
Karajich, V. S.
Kern, J. H.
Khalil ibn Ahmad,
Kimbi (family)
Klaproth, H. J.
Kuhn, F. F. A.
Lachmann, Karl
Lanman, C. R.
Lassen, Christian
Legge, James
Leitner, G. W.
Liddell, H. G.
Littré, M. P. E.
Ludolf, Hiob
Madvig, J. N.
Malan, S. C.
March, F. A.
Max Müller, F.
Mayor, J. E. B.
Ménant, Joachim
Meyer, P. H.
Mezzofanti, Giuseppe C.
Miklosich, Franz von
Mohl, Julius von
Monier-Williams, Sir M.
Morris, Richard
Munro, D. B.
Murray, Sir James
Nettleship, Henry
Nöldeke, Theodor
Oppert, Julius
Paley, F. A.
Paris, B. P. G.
Peerlkamp, P. H.
Peile, John
Petrarch
Poggio
Politian
Porson, Richard
Pott, A. F.
Quatremère, E. M.
Rask, R. C.
Reiske, J. J.
Reland, Adrian
Rémusat, J. P. A.
Ribbeck, Otto
Rieu, C. P. H.
Ritsche, F. W.
Rutherford, W. G.
Sale, George
Salesbury, William
Sanders, Daniel
Sayce, A. H.
Schafarik, P. J.
Scheler, J. A. W.
Schiefner, F. A.
Schleicher, August
Schultens (family)
Scott, Robert
Sellar, W. Y.
Skeat, W. W.
Taylor, Isaac
Ten Brink, B. E. K.
Teuffel, W. S.
Thorpe, Benjamin
Wailly, N. F. de
Walker, John
Warren, Minton
Webster, Noah
Whitney, W. D.
Wilkins, Sir Charles
Wordsworth, Christopher
Zarncke, F. K. T.
 CHAPTER XXXVI
LITERATURE, INTRODUCTORY AND
GENERAL

Contributors The student of literature, like the

student of painting, finds it as
necessary to examine the great examples of the art as to study the
laws which guide the artist, for the history of their development, and
he will find that the articles which discuss literature in the Britannica
are themselves literature, models of the form of artistic expression
which they describe. A list of these contributors who deal with
literary topics might, indeed, easily be mistaken for a list of such
articles on the great contemporary writers as the student would most
desire to read. Among these contributors are, for example: Edmund
Gosse, Theodore Watts-Dunton, Swinburne, A. C. Benson, John
Morley, Austin Dobson, Arthur Symons, J. Addington Symonds,
Frederic Harrison, Walter Besant, William Sharp (“Fiona Macleod”),
Professor George Saintsbury, Sir Arthur T. Quiller-Couch (“Q”),
William Archer, Israel Gollancz, Robert Louis Stevenson, Andrew
Lang, Sir Leslie Stephen, E. V. Lucas, Arthur Waugh, Mrs. Craigie
(“John Oliver Hobbes”), Alice Meynell, Mrs. Humphry Ward, and—
among American names,—George E. Woodberry, Henry Van Dyke,
Edward Everett Hale, T. W. Higginson, Brander Matthews, W. P.
Trent, Charles Eliot Norton, Charles William Eliot, George W. Cable,
Lyman Abbott, Edmund Clarence Stedman, John Burroughs,
Thomas Davidson, Horace E. Scudder, and Charles F. Richardson.
Before discussing the articles in which these and many other
distinguished contributors deal with various aspects of literature,
attention may be directed to the treatment of religious literature in
the Britannica. The Bible is the subject of a separate chapter in this
Guide on Bible Study, to which the reader is also referred for the
whole literature of Biblical criticism. Religious literature based upon
the Bible is discussed in the articles Liturgy (Vol. 16, p. 795), by the
Rev. F. E. Warren; Sermon (Vol. 24, p. 673), by Edmund Gosse, and
Hymns (Vol. 14, p. 181), by Lord Selborne, equivalent to 35 pages of
this Guide. The medieval miracle plays and mysteries, presenting
incidents from Scripture, are described in the section on the
Medieval Drama (Vol. 8, p. 497) of the article Drama. On the
literature of other religions, see the chapter For Ministers.
General Articles The student of literature in general
may begin his course of reading with
the article Literature (Vol. 16, p. 783), a concise critical summary
by Dr. James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of Spanish language and
literature, Liverpool University, best known as the editor of
Cervantes. Read, after the article Literature, the same contributor’s
article Translation (Vol. 27, p. 183). The student who does not wish
to approach literature from the philosophic side need not read the
articles Aesthetics and Fine Arts; but even such a one should read
the article Style (Vol. 25, p. 1055), by Edmund Gosse, essayist, poet,
biographer and librarian of the House of Lords, and the article Prose
(Vol. 22, p. 450), by the same contributor.
There is a well-known and perfectly authentic anecdote of Edmund
Gosse’s predecessor as librarian of the House of Lords, who was once
asked in the course of a newspaper symposium on education, “What
were the principal factors in your education?” He replied by putting
second only to his university training “the articles in the
Encyclopaedia Britannica and in the Athenaeum by Theodore Watts-
Dunton.” Certainly the student will be well repaid by repeated study
and analysis of Watts-Dunton’s article Poetry (Vol. 21, p. 877;
equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide). The same author’s articles
Sonnet (Vol. 25, p. 414), Matthew Arnold (Vol. 2, p. 635), and
Wycherley (Vol. 28, p. 863) should be studied with the article
Poetry as supplementing his literary philosophy.
The greatest of literary forms is amply represented by the space
and the authority given to it in the Britannica. The article Drama
(Vol. 8, p. 475; equivalent to 225 pages of this Guide) is mainly the
work of Prof. A. W. Ward, master of Peterhouse, Cambridge, editor
of the Cambridge History of English Literature and of the
Cambridge Modern History; but some parts of the article are by
William Archer, the dramatic critic, and by Auguste Filon (“Pierre
Sandrié”). This elaborate article should be supplemented by the
short article Comedy (Vol. 6, p. 759) and by the biographical and
critical sketches of the great dramatists.
Among the many other articles in the Britannica on the forms of
literature are: Satire (Vol. 24, p. 228), by Richard Garnett, late
librarian British Museum, with which the student may well combine
the articles Humour and Irony, the articles Ballade, Ballads
(Lang), Bucolics, Pastoral, Cento, Chant Royal (with Gosse’s first
English chant royal, “The Praise of Dionysus,” transcribed in full),
Descriptive Poetry, Elegy, Epic Poetry, Epithalamium, Heroic
Verse, Idyl, Limerick, Lyrical Poetry, Macaronics, National
Anthems, Ode, Ottava Rima, Pantun, Rime Royal, Rondeau,
Rondel, Sestett, Sestina, Song, Triolet, Vers De Société,
Vilanelle, Virelay, and—a few of the prose forms, Biography,
Conte, Criticism, Epistle, Essay, Euphuism, Novel, Pamphlet,
Picaresque Novel, Romance, Tale, Tract,—nearly all these being
by Edmund Gosse. Two articles of the utmost importance are
Dictionary and Encyclopaedia. Read the general article Rhetoric.
Periodical Periodical publications, especially
Publications those in the English and French
languages, have contained a great part
of the best literary criticism of miscellaneous essays published since
the first French review appeared in 1665 and since the first English
review, consisting wholly of original matter, was established in
London in 1710. The latter was indebted to France not only for its
model, but for its editor, who was a French Protestant refugee.
Benjamin Franklin founded the first American monthly, the
Philadelphian General Magazine in 1741. The article Periodicals
(Vol. 21, p. 151), by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club,
London, contains separate sections on the reviews and magazines of
England, the United States, Canada, South Africa, West India and
the British Crown Colonies, India and Ceylon, France, Germany,
Austria, Switzerland, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Norway,
Sweden, Spain, Portugal, Greece, Russia, Bohemia, Hungary and
Japan.
Newspapers (Vol. 19, p. 544), equivalent to 140 pages of this
Guide, is an article in which the student will find a full account of the
most fertile, if not the most studied, form of modern literature in all
parts of the world. See also the chapter in this Guide For Journalists
and Authors.
The reader should note that of the many articles on literary forms
and rhetorical figures, only a few are given above, but they are listed
more fully in the Index Volume, p. 929, where there are more than
350 such titles. He must remember also that there are more than
3,000 biographical and critical articles on authors in different
languages and different periods. The following are “key” articles on
national literatures:
National English Literature, by Henry
Literatures Bradley, joint-editor of the New
English Dictionary; Prof. J. M. Manly,
University of Chicago; Prof. Oliver Elton, University of Liverpool;
Thomas Seccombe, author of The Age of Johnson.
American Literature, by G. E. Woodberry, formerly professor in
Columbia University.
German Literature, by Prof. J. G. Robertson, University of
London, author of History of German Literature.
Dutch Literature
Flemish Literature
Walloons, Literature
Belgium, Literature by Edmund Gosse.
Denmark, Literature
Sweden, Literature
Norway, Literature
Iceland, Literature, Classic, by Prof. Frederick York Powell of
Oxford; Recent, by Sigfús Blöndal, librarian of Copenhagen
University.
French Literature, by George Saintsbury.
Provençal Literature, by Paul Meyer, Director of the École des
Chartes, Paris, and Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Oxford, author of a
History of Provençal Literature.
Anglo-Norman Literature, by Prof. Louis Brandin of the
University of London.
Spain, Literature, by Prof. J. Fitzmaurice-Kelly of the University of
Liverpool, and A. Morel-Fatio, author of L’Espagne au XVIe et au
XVIIe siècles.
 Portugal, Literature, by Edgar Prestage, editor of Letters of a
Portuguese Nun, etc.
Italian Literature, by Prof. Hermann Oelsner, Oxford, and Prof.
Adolfo Bartoli of the University of Florence, author of Storia della
letteratura Italiana.
Switzerland, Literature, by Prof. W. A. B. Coolidge.
Hungary, Literature, by Emil Reich, author of Hungarian
Literature, and E. Dundas Butler, author of Hungarian Poems and
Fables for English Readers, etc.
Poland, Literature, by W. R. Morfill, late professor of Slavonic
Languages, Oxford, author of Slavonic Literature, etc.
Russia, Literature, also by Prof. Morfill.
Arabia, Literature, by the late Prof. M. J. de Goeje, University of
Leiden, and the Rev. G. W. Thatcher, warden of Camden College,
Sydney, N. S. W.
Persia, Literature, by Prof. Karl Geldner, Marburg University, and
Prof. Hermann Ethé, University College, Wales.
China, Literature, by H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Oxford.
Japan, Literature, by Capt. Brinkley.
Hebrew Literature, by Arthur Cowley, sub-librarian of the
Bodleian, Oxford.
Armenian Literature, by F. C. Conybeare, author of The Ancient
Armenian Texts of Aristotle.
Syriac Literature, by Norman McLean, lecturer in Aramaic,
Cambridge.
Hindostani Literature, by Sir Charles James Lyall.
Sanskrit, Literature, by Prof. Julius Eggeling, Edinburgh.
Classics, by Dr. J. E. Sandys, Cambridge, author of History of
Classical Scholarship.
Greek Literature: Ancient, by Sir R. C. Jebb, author of
Companion to Greek Studies; Byzantine, by Prof. Karl Krumbacher,
editor of Byzantinische Zeitschrift and Byzantinisches Archiv; and
Modern, by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of The Times (London) in
South-Eastern Europe.
 Latin Literature, by Prof. A. S. Wilkins, of Owens College,
Manchester, and Prof. R. S. Conway, of the University of Manchester.
Celt, Literature, to which W. J. Gruffydd, lecturer in Celtic,
University College, Cardiff, contributes the section on Welsh
literature; and E. C. Quiggin, lecturer in Celtic, Cambridge,
contributes the sections on Irish, Manx, Breton and Cornish
literatures.
Bibliography This list of the literatures of many
tongues, from each of which
translations have added to the common stock accessible even to
those who can read with ease only one language, indicates the
existence of a bewildering mass of printed matter, and just as each
language has its literature—using the word to signify output, so each
subject upon which men write has its literature—using the word to
signify material for any one branch of study. Bibliographies are the
charts by which students are enabled to navigate these vast seas of
knowledge. The articles Bibliography (Vol. 3, p. 908), by A. W.
Pollard, assistant librarian of the British Museum, and Index (Vol.
14, p. 373) describe the technicalities of cataloguing and classifying
books and their contents.
The Britannica is itself the most complete index to the subjects
treated by books and the most complete bibliographical manual for
the student that could be imagined. The Index of 500,000 entries
(Vol. 29) shows to what class any one of half a million facts belongs,
by referring to the article in which that fact is treated. At the end of
the article a list of the best books on the subject shows the student
who desires to specialize just where to go for further details. No less
than 203,000 books are included in these lists appended to
Britannica articles and many of them are, in themselves, substantial
contributions to literature. The Shakespeare bibliography would, for
example, fill 30 pages of the size and type of this Guide; the
bibliography of English history, by A. F. Pollard, of the University of
London, 13 pages, and the bibliography of French history, by Prof.
Bémont of the École des Hautes Études, Paris, 8 pages.
A group of articles of great interest to every student of literature
deals with the methods and appliances by which writings are
preserved and circulated. Manuscript (Vol. 17, p. 618) is by Sir E.
Maunde Thompson, of the British Museum Library; Book (Vol. 4, p.
214); Book-Collecting (Vol. 4, p. 221) and Incunabula (Vol. 14, p.
369) are by A. W. Pollard, also of the British Museum Library.
Libraries (Vol. 16, p. 545), equivalent to 100 pages of this Guide, is
by H. R. Tedder, librarian of the Athenaeum Club, London. The
articles on printing, binding, publishing and similar subjects are
described in the chapter of this Guide For Printers.
With this chapter to help him the student will have little difficulty
in devising his own course of reading in any one literature—starting
with the general treatment, going from this to the separate
biographies of the great authors mentioned in the general article,
and, when there is in the national literature that he is studying some
special development of a literary genre, as of the sermon in the 17th
or the satire in the 18th century, turning to the article in the
Britannica dealing with this form of literature, Satire, Sermon, or
whatever it may be. For example, what could be more illuminating to
the student of 19th century literature than the following passages-
disconnected here—from the article Satire?
Goethe and Schiller, Scott and Wadsworth, are now at hand, and as
imagination gains ground satire declines. Byron, who in the 18th century would
have been the greatest of satirists, is hurried by the spirit of his age into passion
and description, bequeathing, however, a splendid proof of the possibility of
allying satire with sublimity in his Vision of Judgment.... Miss Edgeworth skirts
the confines of satire, and Miss Austen seasons her novels with the most
exquisite satiric traits. Washington Irving revives the manner of The Spectator,
and Tieck brings irony and persiflage to the discussion of critical problems.... In
all the characteristics of his genius Thackeray is thoroughly English, and the
faults and follies he chastises are those especially characteristic of British
society. Good sense and the perception of the ridiculous are amalgamated in
him; his satire is a thoroughly British article, a little over-solid, a little wanting in
finish, but honest, weighty and durable. Posterity must go to him for the
humours of the age of Victoria, as they go to Addison for those of Anne’s.... In
Heine the satiric spirit, long confined to established literary forms, seems to
obtain unrestrained freedom to wander where it will, nor have the ancient
models been followed since by any considerable satirist except the Italian Giusti.
The machinery employed by Moore was indeed transplanted to America by
James Russell Lowell, whose Biglow Papers represent perhaps the highest
moral level yet attained by satire.
In no age was the spirit of satire so generally diffused as in the 19th century,
but many of its eminent writers, while bordering on the domains of satire,
escape the definition of satirist. The term cannot be properly applied to Dickens,
the keen observer of the oddities of human life; or to George Eliot, the critic of
its emptiness when not inspired by a worthy purpose; or to Balzac, the painter of
French society; or to Trollope, the mirror of the middle classes of England. If
Sartor Resartus could be regarded as a satire, Carlyle would rank among the
first of satirists; but the satire, though very obvious, rather accompanies than
inspires the composition.
 CHAPTER XXXVII
AMERICAN LITERATURE

The list in the preceding chapter of the key articles dealing with
national literatures shows that the Britannica separately treats the
literary products of some 30 countries. To outline 30 courses of
reading, mentioning the 3,000 critical and biographical articles,
would make this Guide unwieldy. On pp. 929–937 of Vol. 29 the
reader will find classified lists of these articles, and only four groups
are selected here for detailed treatment: those on American, English,
German and Greek literature. The main article in the literature of
each of the other countries indicates the characteristic forms, the
typical works of the leading writers discussed in special articles, so
that courses of reading as systematic as these four can easily be
planned for other countries by the reader.