INFORMATION COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY DEFINITION OF TERMS i) Computer A computer is an electronic device that accepts and processes data into information and under the control of instructions stored in its own memory and output or store the results for future use. NB: An electronic device is a device that depends on the principles of electronics and uses the manipulation of electron flow for its operation. ii) Data Data are raw, unprocessed and unorganized (unstructured) facts and figures that are relatively meaningless to the user. E.g. number of hours worked by an employee: iii) Information Information is derived from data. This is data that is processed, organized/structured and presented in a given context so as to make it useful. e.g., multiplying the hours worked by the hourly rate to get cach employee's gross earning, Information is an important component in decision making, For example from a students test scores, the following information can be derived: a) Class’ average score b) Most improved student ¢) Median Score ete. USES OF INFORMATION (a) Decision-making When managers are ready to make choices (decisions) they need good, accurate and up-to-date information. If they act without relevant information it could lead to disaster, and failure. (b) Monitoring and control Businesses will compare actual performance against its predicted (budgeted) performance. Then they will act upon it iv) Information Communication Technology/Technologies (ICT) ICT is an umbrella term that covers any software or hardware product that can store, retrieve, manipulate, transmit or receive information electronically in a digital form. Examples include personal computers, digital television, email, robots, radio, cellular phones and networking hardware. For our study, we are concerned with computer (hardware and software) and telecommunications technology (data, image, and voice networks). ¥) Information System (IS) An Information System (IS) is a combination of hardware, software, personnel, data and procedures that interact to support and improve day-to-day operations in an organization. These ©Stevo 2019 4elements of an Information System are also known as the components of an Information System. c Data The Audit Comm a) Accuracy Data should be sufficiently accurate for the intended use and should be captured only once, although it may have multiple uses. Data should be captured at the point of activity. ion has identified six key characteristics of good quality data b) Validity Data should be recorded and used in compliance with relevant requirements, including the correct application of any rules or definitions. This will ensure consistency between periods and with similar organizations, measuring what is intended to be measured. ©) Timeliness Data should be captured as quickly as possible after the event or activity and must be available for the intended use within a reasonable time period. Data must be available quickly and frequently enough to support information needs and to influence service or management decisions. @) Relevance Data captured should be relevant to the purposes for which it is to be used. This will require a periodic review of requirements to reflect changing needs, ¢) Completeness Data requirements should be clearly specified based on the information needs of the organization and data collection processes matched to these requirements. f) Uniqueness In order to add value to an organization, information must be unique and distinctive. A BRIEF 2R HISTORY ‘OMPUT ‘The abacus, which emerged about 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor and is still in use today, may be considered the first computer. This device allows users to make computations using a system of sliding beads arranged on a rack; it was simply a counting device. The Abacus It took long for the next significant advance in computing devices to emerge. In 1642, Blaise ©Stevo 2019 5Pascal (1623-1662), the 18-year-old son of a French tax collector, invented what he called a numerical wheel calculator to help his father with his duties but which used eight movable dials to add sums up. It was not until the 1940s that the electronic computers emerged. In the 1820s, Charles Babbage designed the ‘Difference Engine’, a machine which could perform mathematical calculations. A six-wheeled model was initially constructed and demonstrated to a number of audiences. He also worked on another invention, the more complex Analytical Engine, a revolutionary device which was intended to be able to perform any arithmetical calculation using punched cards that would deliver the instructions, as well as a memory unit to store numbers and many other fundamental components of today's computers. Lady Ada produced programs to be used by the analytical machine. She is claimed to be possibly the first programmer. Five Generations of Modern Computers Modem computers can be classified into five generations, First generation: 1946-1959. First generation of computers started with using vacuum tubes as the basic components for memory and circuitry for CPU (Central Processing Unit). These tubes like electric bulbs produced a lot of heat and were prone to frequent fusing of the installations, therefore, were very expensive and could be afforded only by very large organizations. The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC) was announced in 1946. It cost almost $500,000 (approximately $6,000,000 today). The computer contained 17,468 vacuum tubes and consumed 150 kW of electricity. Another example of computers in this generation was the UNIVersal Automatic Computer I (UNIVAC) which used 5200 vacuum tubes and weighed 13 metric tons. It consumed 125 kW, and could perform about 1,905 operations per second. se. . Ii ) : In this generation mainly batch processing of data was done. In this generation Punched cards, Paper tape, Magnetic tape Input & Output device were used. It is said that this computer weighed 30 tons, and had 18,000 vacuum tubes which were used for processing. When this ©Stevo 2019 6 es Vacuum Tubescomputer was turned on for the first time lights dimmed in sections of Philadelphia. Computers of this generation could only perform a single task at a time, and they had no operating system. NB: Batch processing- Executing a series of non-interactive jobs all at one time. Second generation: 1959-1965. Computers in this generation using the transistor were cheaper, consumed less power, more compact in size, more reliable and faster than the first generation machines made of vacuum tubes. In this generation, magnetic cores were used as primary memory and magnetic tape and magnetic disks as secondary storage devices. Fy ATransistor In this generation assembly languages and high level programming languages like FORTRAN and COBOL were used. Examples of computers in this generation include IBM 300 series and the ATLAS. NB: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power. The difference between a transistor and a vacuum tube is that a transistor uses a sandwich of silicon instead of tube filled with gas to do the switching. Silicon falls into a family of elements that are neither conductor nor insulator; they're called semiconductors. This type of element will be either a conductor or an insulator depending on some condition. In the case of transistors, an electrical current will cause the silicon to be a conductor, Third Generation: 1965-1971. The third generation of computers is marked by the use of Integrated Circuits (IC's) in place of transistors. A single I.C has many transistors, resistors and capacitors along with the associated circuitry. The I.C was invented by Jack Kilby. This development made computers smaller in siz reliable and efficient. In this generation Remote processing, Time-sharing, Real-time, Multi-programming Operating System were used. High level language (FORTRAN-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL. PL/I, BASIC, ALGOL-68 etc.) were used during this generation NB: © A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance as a circuit element. © A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used ©Stevo 2019 710 store energy electrostatically in an electric field. Fourth Generation: 1971-1980. The fourth generation of computers is marked by the use of Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits. VLSI circuits having about 5000 transistors and other circuit elements and their associated circuits on a single chip made it possible to have microcomputers of fourth generation. Fourth Generation computers became more powerful, compact, reliable, and affordable. As a result, it gave rise to personal computer (PC) revolution. In this generation Time sharing, Real time, Networks, Distributed Operating System were used. All the High level languages like C and C++, DBASE ete. were used in this generation Fifth Generation: 1980-todate. In the fifth generation, the VLSI technology became ULSI (Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology, resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic components or more. This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Art software. jal Intelligence) Al is an emerging branch in computer science, which interprets means and method of making computers think like human beings. Alll the Higher level languages like C and C++, Java, .Net etc. are used in this generation ‘THE TREND IN THE COMPUTER'S TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION > Continual decrease in computer size > Improved speed and power of processing > Dectease in computer's power consumption and its related facilities cost > Number of components per circuit (IC) greatly increased. ADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS * Processing capability/Speed — Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing, measured as number of instructions executed per second. * Accuracy — Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user. * Consistency — Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly the same answer every time that particular process is repeated. * Reliability — Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system. + Memory capability — A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data, * Computer can operate in risky environments e.g. volcanic sites, lethal chemical plants, where it’s ©Stevo 2019 8risky for humans to operate. * Computers help to reduce paper work significantly, * Computers can work continuously without getting bored or tired. * Helps to cut on wage bills by reducing manpower. DISADVANTAGES OF USING COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS + Initial cost of installation is high Can result to retrenchment of staff Computerization projects are not always cost-effective ‘Incase the computers break down or malfunction, it might be extremely difficult to revert back to the old manual system. For this reason, stand by procedures are necessary, but expensive. © Can compromise security of data stored or being transmitted. ‘© Computerization leads to cyber-crime e.g. pornography ete They present a health hazard for example eye strain, trigger-finger syndrome and addiction Due to the rapid change in the computer technology, the computer and related facilities can become outdated very fast, hence posing a risk of capital loss and cost of upgrading. CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUT Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below: Classification by size and capability a) Supercomputers. The largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data very quickly. They use extremely fast processors that are built for speed and are used for processor- intensive calculations such as nuclear reaction simulations and global weather pattern modeling. Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and Fujitsu. b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a carefully controlled environment and specialist staff to operate and used for centralized processing for large commercial organizations. They are designed to provide maximum throughput for a simultaneous variety of workloads. They can also support a large number of terminals and have large on-line secondary storage capacities, Manufacturers include International Business Machine (IBM), ©) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main computer in medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and International Computer Limited (ICL). d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure activities ice. they are designed for an individual, Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. ‘They include desktops, laptops, palmtops and notebooks. ©Stevo 2019 9Examples of computers in this category include: OTHERS I. LAPTOPS * Are among the smallest in modem world and have very large- have low memory and are portable. * The main difference between the microcomputer and the laptop is the size. They are portable. + Expandability and the number of devices supported by the laptops are also limited * They run on battery power, but can also be plugged into a wall outlet. + They typically have a built-in LCD display that folds down to protect the display when the computer is carried around, * They also feature a built-in keyboard and some kind of built-in pointing device (such as a touch pad) ale circuit integration. They II. PERSONAL DIGITAL ASSISTANT (PDA) * It is a handheld microcomputer that trades off power for small size and greater portability. + They typically use a touch-sensitive LCD screen for both output and input (the user draws characters and presses icons on the screen with a stylus). * PDAs communicate with desktop computers and with each other either by cable connection, infrared (IR) beam, or radio waves. * PDAs are normally used to keep track of appointment calendars, to-do lists, address books, and for taking notes. III PALMTOP OR HANDHELD PC + Itisa very small microcomputer that also sacrifices power for small size and portability. These devices typically look more like a tiny laptop than a PDA, with a flip-up screen and small keyboard. hey may use Windows CE or similar operating system for handheld devices. + Some PDAs and palmtops contain wireless networking or cell phone devices so that users can check e-mail or surf the web on the move. Classification by way of processing data (Type of data handled) This is by how the computer represents and processes the data, a) Digital computers Digital computers process data represented in binary format using the numbers 0 and 1. They are used for both business data processing and scientific purposes since digital computation results in greater accuracy than analog computers. They also can perform complex computations. They are the most commonly used type of computers. b) Analog computers ‘These are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes. Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs. These physical changes include changes in electronic voltages, pressure changes, temperature changes ete, Analog values, unlike digital values, are typically many values in a range. Examples of analogue devices include car speedometer and the slide rule. ©) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog computers; ©Stevo 2019 10hybrid computing offers both speed and precision. They offer an efficient and economical method of working out special problems in science and various areas of engineering. Consider the difference between two common types of light switches: a standard light switch and a dimmer switch. The standard light switch has only two values: on and off. As a rule, at any one time the switch will be in either one position or the other. This is similar to digital electrical signals, which have diserete values (like on and off). By way of comparison, the dimmer switch starts at off , but can be changed gradually to stronger and stronger intensities, up to the full on setting. At any one instant, a dimmer switch can have a setting almost anywhere between on and off. This is similar to an analog electrical signal, which may be on or off or somewhere in between, NB/ The main feature that distinguishes digital from analog computers is the nature of the signals. Digital signals have two diserete states, on or off. Analog signals are continuous, An analog signal’s voltage may be constant or vary with time, a) b) ROLE OF ICT IN A BUSINESS s isa classification by the use to which the computer is put Special purpose/ Dedicated computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine, engineering, manufacturing. Embedded systems are examples of special purpose computers. General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word processing ete ENVIRONMENT The use of ICT and technology has affected every aspect of business, transforming not only the way that business is conducted but also creating new business sectors and jobs. Examples are companies like Google, Amazon, Safaricom M-Pesa and e-Bay, Some examples of the nature of this change include: + Marketing and e-Commerce: The use of websites has allowed companies to develop new and cheaper ways of reaching new markets, offering customers the opportunity of buying goods and services whenever they want and often at reduced cost, while also enhancing the level of customer service. Finance: Practically all companies now use software programmes e.g. Sage, QuickBooks and Excel to manage their accounts. This has allowed them to look at financial information when required, monitor and respond to their customers purchasing patterns. The result of this has been for many companies a reduction in their accountancy fees. Out of office working: For many businesses the need for staff to be away from the office attending meetings or to be based in another geographical location has grown alongside employee demands for more flexible working patterns, However effective communication and ability to access information remains critical to the productivity of these staff members. Therefore through the use of technology many companies now use a range of technologies to enable this, These include mobile phones, e-mail, broadband, laptops, etc, thus ensuring that companies are able to be flexible and adaptive depending on their business needs Networks: Virtually all businesses now have or have access to a computer. The existence of two or more computers in an office almost always leads to the creation of a network. The main advantage of doing so is that resources can be shared e.g. printers, internet access, files/information can be managed ©Stevo 2019 uland shared amongst workstations and the security of information can be better managed through a network. Increasingly, networks are not just confined to the office but are being adopted so that they allow home/remote working that supports changing business needs. Inventory management Inventory management systems track the quantity of each item a company maintains, triggering an order of additional stock when the quantities fall below a predetermined amount Customer Relationship Management Customer Relationship Management systems store every interaction a company has with a customer for future reference. The customer has a better, more focused experience and the company benefits from improved productivity. Payroll Systems A payroll system is used to maintain pay accounts of employees, easily and quickly. Human Resource Management HRIS help in recruitment, Human Resource Planning, wage and salary planning, personnel record ©Stevo 2019 12keeping and training and development, POSITIVE USE OF ICT IN THE SOCIETY 1. Industry and commerce It has made the industry and commerce more efficient, productive and reliable «Leading companies use computer technology as a competitive tool to develop new products and services «They are used in manufacturing to schedule operations and process control 2. Health care ‘© Used in medical automation in the areas of automatic diagnosis, electro-cardiogram screening and monitoring ‘Storage of medical records on patients ‘Used in inter-country aided surgeon operations 3. Government Institutions © Used heavily in government ministries such as finance, planning & education to store records and improve work efficiency 4, Education and research ‘Used in education as training aid, and in research institutions, Long distance learning (e-learning) has replaced the old international correspondence courses offered by postage. +I is used in aviation to train pilots using flight simulators. «Engineers and architects use computers to design, test and re-design. Communication Industry In telecommunication industry, it is used in control of exchange switch ‘Railway corporations rely heavily on computers to co-ordinate the movement of their wagons and goods * Air traffic controllers use it for airspace surveillance using radar equipment 6. Police and defense Computers are currently used in fighting erime ‘Police are capable of keeping database of finger prints which are automatically analysed by computers ‘« Integration of computer technology and defense has produced modern military 7. Home and leisure (entertainment) Computer can be used for home shopping ‘There are also entertainment information for those looking for leisure as well as a host of games # They have also been used to help handicapped e.g. instant speech are turned into text on the screen to help deaf, while text are tumed into simulated speech for the blind, 8. Employment Employment in the computer industry world wide has increased by 20% during 1980s to higher percentages In South East Asia countries, 60% of employment opportunities are today in the computing industry. Negative Effects of IC 1. Lack of Social Skills Phe use of online social media outlets causes us to meet face-to-face with much less frequency resulting ina lack of much needed social skills. We lose the ability to read body language and social cues in other people. 2. Excessive use of ICT poses a health hazard ©Stevo 2019 13 in the SocietyTechnology creates the perfect recipe for depression with the lack of human contact, overeating and lack of exercise. This will lead to depression, obesity, sleep disorders, eye strain, back pains ete Other resultant disorders include Internet addiction disorder (IAD) commonly called problematic internet use (PIU) or compulsive internet use (CIU). Other overlapping terms include intemet overuse, problematic computer use or pathological computer use — and even iDisorder. These terms refer to excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. Internet addiction includes a) Cybersexual addiction: compulsive use of adult websites for cybersex and cyber porn. b) Cyber-relationship addiction: Over-involvement in online relationships. ©) Net compulsions: Obsessive online gambling, shopping or day-trading 4) Information overload: Compulsive web surfing or databas e) Computer addiction: Obsessive computer game playing. arches, 3. Pollution E-waste is not always disposed of properly, causing deadly chemicals to leach into the ground. Plants that manufacture the electronics are emitting toxic fumes into the air. 4. Higher energy consumption People don’t tum their devices off; they keep computers on or plugged in, mobile devices charging and televisions plugged in. Also manufacturing all of these high tech toys causes an increase in greenhouse gas emissions. 5. Lack of Social Boundaries ‘Much in the same way that people over share on social media sites, there is an increasing tendency to cross social boundaries. Cyber stalking someone or sending unsolicited nude photos are examples of crossing social boundaries. 6. Encourages the culture of violence After people lose empathy and are accustomed to violence, it becomes the social norm, ©Stevo 2019 14