Stella Maris Polytechnic University

Mother Patern College of Health Sciences

Department of Biology
Pre-medical Physics II (Medi 106) 2023/24

Light and Optics

Fasama H. Kollie
Instructor, Premedical Physics , Department of Biology
Stella Maris Polytechnic University
Mother Patern College of Health Sciences
Content
1. Overview of light and optics
2. Application of optics
• Optical instruments: The principles of microscope, telescopes,
projectors, cameras, prism , binoculars and the human eye. Power of
lens. Angular magnification. Near and far pints, sight defects and
their corrections

3. Properties of light
4. Dispersion of light and Colors
Specific Objectives
• At the end of this topic, the students will be able to:
1. Define light and optics
2. Discuss the role of optics and its behavior and
characteristics in medical and industrial setting
3. Identify and discuss the properties of light and
demonstrate an understanding of them
4. Explain reflection and refraction of light from polished
and rough surfaces
Introduction
Like all the different types of light, the spectrum of visible light is
absorbed and emitted in the form of tiny pockets of energy
called photons. Each photon has a particular energy E = hf.

These photons have both

the properties of a wave as
well as a particle. Hence,
this type of property is
called wave-particle duality
and the study of light in the
area of physics is known as
Optics

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 Light and Optics
• A form of energy in the form of Electromagnetic radiation that has
properties of waves. Electromagnetic radiation within the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that is perceived by the human eye
• Anything that makes vision possible

• There are many different types of electromagnetic (EM) waves. Most of

them cannot be seen by humans. Our eyes see only a small portion of EM
waves called visible light. Visible light has wavelengths measuring between
400-700 nanometers

• In physics, the term light also refers to electromagnetic radiation of different

kinds of wavelengths, whether it is visible to the naked eye or not.

• Light has dual nature: Wave – Particle duality

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Electromagnetic Spectrum & Visible Light

The electromagnetic spectrum, with the visible portion highlighted

We describe the world the way we see it as humans. Other living things on
Earth see the world in different ways.
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 Visible Spectrum – ROY-G-BIV

The longest wavelength of visible light looks red to us. The shortest
wavelength of visible light looks violet to us.

We should also
mention that not all
humans can see all
the colors
© Google Images
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 Cont’d…
• Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range
of 400–700 nanometers (nm), corresponding to frequencies of
750–420 terahertz, between the infrared (with longer
wavelengths) and the ultraviolet (with shorter wavelengths)
• Light travels in a vacuum with a speed of about 186,281 miles
(300,000 kilometers) per second, a million times faster than sound
• Visible light is made up of different colors. The colors are red,
orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. The colors are due
to the different wavelengths of light. The longer the wavelength,
the less energy the wave has. The shorter the wavelength, the
more energy it has.

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Our eyes interpret these wavelengths as different colors. If only a single
wavelength or limited range of wavelengths are present and enter our eyes, they
are interpreted as a certain color

Visible to the human eye

© VectorStock Images

If a single wavelength is present we say that we have monochromatic light. If all

wavelengths of visible light are present, our eyes interpret this as white light. If no
wavelengths in the visible range are present, we interpret this as dark.
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It's All Energy…

• The key thing to remember is that light and EM radiation carry energy.
The quantum theory suggests that light consists of very small bundles of
energy/particles. Scientists call those small particles photons, and the
wavelength determines the energy and type of EM radiation, and the number
of photons tells you how much radiation there is. A lot of photons give a
brighter, more intense type of light. Fewer photons give a very dim and less
intense light. When you use the dimmer switch on the wall, you are decreasing
the number of photons sent from the light bulb. The type of light is the same
while the amount has changed

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 Where does Light Comes from: Source
❖ Luminous source
• Natural/self luminous source: Sun, stars,
glowing worms, fire flies and
incandescent lamps
• Artificial luminous source: matches,
candle light, torch light, electric lamps etc

❖Non-luminous source
• Example: Moon, earth, road signs, pages
of text books and most objects
➢Classified into;
• Transparent: white nylon, thin clothes etc
• Translucent: tinted/colored glasses
• Opaque: human body, walls

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 Propagation of Light
• Process by which light or sound waves travel. Usually light travels in straight
line which is represented with the help of rays and beams. Light wave has
a shorter wavelength, higher frequency and greater speed In air than
sound wave

• Visible but sound wave is not

• Transverse wave while sound wave is a longitudinal wave
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 Rays and Beams

A ray of light is a narrow

beam of parallel light,
which can be represented
by a line with an arrow on
it. A group of rays makes
up a beam of light

Rays are simply visual constructs (typically lines and/or arrows) that are
used to help model how a beam of light propagate. That is, rays depict
the direction in which the beam of light is travelling and how it may be
spreading apart. For instance, in the figure above, the black arrow is a ray
of light which helps us model how light is emerging from a light source.
Beam describes the collection of rays of light

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 Types of Beam
• Three (3) types do exist
1. Convergence beams
2. Divergence beams
3. Parallel beams

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 Transmission Medium
• Vacuum (free space - 299,792,458 meters per second (300,000 km/s)
• Ex: light from the sun to the earth
• Transparent body
• Ex: Plane glass, clean and clear water
• Translucent body
• Ex: Waxed paper, toilet roll, window panes and obscured
glass sheets
• Opaque body
• Ex: Brick walls, wood or planks, cardboard sheets, metal
sheets

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 Application of Optics (Physics)
• The properties of optics are applied in various fields of Physics. The
principle of total internal reflection is adopted in the invention and
operation of the following:
• Binoculars
• Mirage
• Refractometer
• Optical fibers
• Total reflecting prism are employed in periscopes, prism
binoculars, projection, cameras etc.

• Applied to the concept of optical instruments: Simple macroscope,

compound microscope, simple & modified astronomical telescope,
Galilean telescope, terrestrial telescope, binocular,
projector/projection lantern, Lens camera, Human eye, spherometer
etc

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➢ Optical Fibers ➢ Binocular
Short telescope comprising
When you think of fiber optics, you of two astronomical
likely think of their uses for internet telescope, each with two
and cable TV. However, fiber optics right angles isosceles prisms
have other uses and are actually between the objective and
rather prevalent in the medical the eyepiece. The image
community. Optic fibers are widely formed is RID/VEM
used in fiber optic communications,
where they permit transmission over
longer distance and at higher
bandwidth (data base) than wire
cables. Fibers are used instead of
metal wires because signals travel
along them with less loss and are
also immune to magnetic
interference. Fibers are also for
illumination and are wrapped
bundles so that they may be used
to carry images, thus allowing
viewing continued spaces

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 Application of Optics (Medicine)
• Light possesses energy and is capable of interacting with
biological cells, tissues, and organs. Such interaction can be
used to probe the state of such living matter for diagnostics and
analytical purposes or, it could be used to induce changes on
the same living systems and be exploited for therapeutic
purposes
• Optics, as a science, studies the behavior and manipulation of
light and images. It’s an ideal tool to assist Doctors gain better
visual examination capabilities by providing improved
illumination, magnification, access to small or internal body
cavities etc
• Photonics, Biophotonics, Biomedical optics

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 Cont’d…

• The science of light generation, manipulation, transmission, and

measurement is known as photonics. The application of
photonics technologies and principles to medicine and life
sciences is known as biophotonics.
• Nowadays, it is not only optics but also photonics that are used
extensively in a myriad of medical applications, from diagnostics,
to therapeutics, to surgical procedures
• Hence, when we use the term medical optics, we are referring to
biomedical optics and biophotonics as well

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Laparoscopy

Surgical procedure in
which a fiber-optic
instrument
(laparoscope) is
inserted through the
abdominal wall to
view the organs in the
abdomen or to
permit a surgical
procedure

It’s a low risk,

minimally invasive
procedure that
requires only small
incisions
Abdominal laparoscopy

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 A laparoscope is a
long, thin tube
with a high
intensity light and
a high resolution
camera at the
front. The
instrument is
inserted through
an incision in the
abdominal wall.
As it moves along,
© Kenya Laparoscopic surgery services the camera sends
images to a video
monitor.

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 ©Rockwall surgery

A laparoscopy is usually done as an outpatient procedure. This means that you can go home the same day as your
surgery in many cases. It may be performed in a hospital or an outpatient surgical center. You’ll likely be given
general anesthesia for this type of surgery. This means that you’ll sleep through the procedure and typically won’t feel
any pain. To achieve general anesthesia, an intravenous (IV) line is inserted in one of your veins. Through the IV, your
anesthesiologist can give you special medications and well as provide hydration with fluids. During a laparoscopy, the
surgeon makes an incision below your belly button, and then inserts a small tube called a cannula. The cannula is
used to inflate your abdomen with carbon dioxide gas. This gas allows your doctor to see your abdominal organs
more clearly. Once your abdomen is inflated, the surgeon inserts the laparoscope through the incision. The camera
attached to the laparoscope displays the images on a screen, allowing your organs to be viewed in real time
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 Property of Light
Light behaves differently when it falls on different objects.
When light falls on the surface of a non luminous object,
transparent, rough opaque, smooth shiny object etc, they
behave differently.

1. Speed of light
2. Reflection
3. Refraction
4. Dispersion
5. Diffraction
6. Interference
7. Polarization

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 ❶ Speed of Light
• First property associated
with light wave. In a
homogeneous isotropic
medium light rays always
travel in straight lines
• “Rectilinear propagation of
light”
• The rate at which light An experiment could be used to prove that light
travels in free space – travels in a straight line. The propagated rays could be
speed of light observed when a lamp is placed in front of three
cardboards placed in parallel line but spaced from
one another. A tiny rope is passed through the three
• Light travels appx. cardboards. To determine this, an opaque is placed
299,792,458 m/s at the end of the linear propagation where the real
image is formed, that is, the real image show on the
opaque substance through this light is confirmed to
travel in a straight line.

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 Application of Rectilinear Propagation

✓ Shadow
• Images formed when the light path is blocked
• Full shadow/Umbra: formed from a point source of light
• Partial shadow/Penumbra: formed from an extended source Shadow
of light formation
✓ Eclipse
• Shadow formed from a defined light source; the sun
• Solar eclipse: sun blocked by moon and formed on earth
• Lunar eclipse: sun blocked by earth and formed on moon
• Total eclipse: formed when the extreme lines from the sun touch the earth
• Partial eclipse: formed where the intersecting lines from the sun touch the
earth
• Annular eclipse: formed outside the earth when the extreme rays required
for total eclipse intersect before reaching the earth. It is seen beyond the
vertex of the cone produced (umbra cone)

✓ Pin hole camera

• Used in the 11th century for viewing eclipses of the sun without danger to
the eye sight. Used by the artist of the past to achieve correct perspective
in their drawings and painting. Used by surveyors and preferred to lens
camera as the lens produces distortion

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 ❷ Reflection of Light
• Repropagation of light
waves when incidented
at a particular angle on
a plane surface.
Phenomenon in which
light ray bounces back
into the same medium
after striking the
reflecting surface. The
ray of light follows the A plane mirror changes the
law of reflection during direction of light that falls on it.

reflection
• Two (2) types:
Smooth/regular
reflection and
Diffuse/irregular
reflection
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The normal is an
imaginary line which lies
at right angles to
the mirror where
the ray hits it.

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 Types of Reflection
Regular Reflection Irregular Reflection
When a parallel beam of light falls on a When a parallel beam of light falls on a
smooth and highly polished surface, rough surface, then the reflected light is
then the reflected beam is also parallel not parallel but spread over a wide
and directed in a fixed direction. Such area. Such reflection of light is called
reflection of light is called regular irregular/diffuse reflection. Light
reflection. Plane mirror, search lights and reflected from the stone, wooden
automobiles headlights are good table, newspaper etc. are good
examples of regular reflection of light example of diffuse/irregular reflection
of light

Parallel beam of light remains parallel Parallel beam of light does not remain
after reflection parallel after reflection
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 Laws of Reflection
When light shine an incident light ray at a plane mirror, the light is reflected off the mirror and
forms a reflected ray

N
I R

1st Law of Reflection 2nd Law of Reflection

The incident ray, the reflected ray The angle of incidence (with the
normal) is equal to the angle of
and the normal at the point of reflection (with the normal)
incidence, all lie in the same place i=r

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 ❸ Refraction of Light
When light moves from one medium to another the path of the light changes at the
boundary between the substances. This change in path is known as refraction

Change in the direction of light

(bending) when passing
through a transparent medium
due to the difference in the
speeds of light in different
media. Thus, the higher the
optical density of a medium,
the lower the speed of the light
in the medium. This is why rays
of light moving from low to high
optically dense medium bend
towards the normal while the
rays from high to low optically
dense medium bend away
from the normal

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 Refraction is the
change in
direction of light
as it passes
across the
boundary
separating two
media caused by
its change in
speed

A ray at right angles to the boundary is called a normal. The path of this ray is unchanged.
As the ray moves from the less dense to the more dense medium it is deviated towards the
normal. (This is another way of saying that the angle of incidence is larger than the angle of
refraction) Angle of refraction (r) Angle of incidence (i)
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 ➢ A pencil immersed in water
appears to be bent at the
water surface where it
enters the water

When light passes through air into water, for example, it slows down. The light rays are bent slightly.
You can see this if you put a pencil into a half-glassful of water. In the process of refraction, the
direction to which the ray of light follows changes as well as the velocity, but the frequency remains
the same along the line of propagation. The wavelength of the transmission also changes
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Why did the pencil
look bent when it was
in the water?
Light rays slow down as
they reach the edge
of the glass fill with
water, and they
change direction
before reaching your
eyes. This makes the
pencil look bent and
the point of the pencil
appears to be halfway
up the glass

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 Coins Place Under Water tank Appears
to be Raised
A coin in a glass
tumbler appears to rise
as the glass tumbler is
slowly filled with water.
The phenomenon
responsible for this
effect is refraction.

On adding water to the

glass tumbler the coin
appears to rise due to the
refraction of light which
takes place when it goes
from water into air. Thus, a
virtual image of the coin is
formed nearer to the water
surface.
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How This Affects the
Wave Equation

The speed of light is

only constant in a
vacuum. Its value
changes (is
reduced) when it
passes through any
other medium
The wavelength This equation shows you that the
(λ)of the light is wavelength and the speed of light
reduced in a more from one medium to another medium
dense medium. can change without affecting the
The frequency must frequency of the light
remain the same

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 The Laws of Refraction
The refracted ray obeys the following laws. The two laws of refraction were postulated by a
physicist called Willebrord Snell Van Royen (1580 – 1626)

1st Law of Refraction

The incident ray the refracted ray
and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane

2nd Law of Refraction

At the boundary between the two
substance the ration of the sine of
the angle of incidence to the sine of
the angle of refraction is constant

This constant is known as the refractive index (θ2) of Snell’s Law

medium 2 with respect to medium 1 ni sin (i) = nr sin (r)
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Snell’s Law
Snell’s Law gives a relationship between the angles of incidence (θ1)
and refraction (θ2) when a ray of light travels from a rarer medium of
refractive index (n1) to a denser medium of refractive index (n2)

n1 sin(θ1) = n2 sin (θ2)

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 Absolute Refractive Index (n)
We measure the absolute refractive ability of a substance by how
much the light is slowed down compared to the speed of light in a
vacuum. This is called the absolute refractive index (n) of the
substance

Where:
n1 = Refractive index
C – velocity of light in a vacuum/air
v/c1 – velocity of light in the second medium (e.g.: water, kerosene, alcohol,
glass, ice etc)
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☞ Refractive Index
This is Snell’s law in terms of absolute refractive indices

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No. Material Medium Index of Refraction (n)
1. Vacuum 1.000
2. Air 1.000277
3. Water 1.333333
4. Ice 1.31
5. Alcohol 1.36
6. Glass 1.5
7 Diamond 2.417

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Refractive Index

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ni sin (i) = nr sin (r)
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Calculation Under
Refraction
Snell’s Law.. Refractive Index

n1 sin(i) = n2 sin(r)
 Worked Example 2

1) Light of velocity 3.0 x 8

10 m/s is
incident on a material of refracting
index n. if the velocity of light is
8 -1
reduced to 2.4 x10 ms in the
material, what is n?

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 Refracting Surfaces
➢ Refraction at plane surfaces: Air to water
➢ Refraction through Rectangular block:
➢ Refraction through Triangular block:
➢ Refraction through curves surfaces: Lenses

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 ❹ Diffraction of Light
Ability of a light wave to be
further propagated through
an opening in an obstructing
place along its path of
propagation. The energy of
the light propagated is much
higher than the one which is
diffracted. But the energy
becomes more appreciable
when it travels in a small slit
and less appreciable when it
travels through a large slit

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❺ Interference of Light
• Interference is a natural phenomenon that
happens at every place and at every moment.
Yet we don’t see interference patterns
everywhere. Interference is the phenomenon in
which two waves superpose to form the resultant
wave of the lower, higher or same
amplitude. The most commonly seen
interference is the optical interference or light
interference. This is because light waves are
generated randomly by most of the sources. This
means that light waves coming out of a source
do not have a constant amplitude, frequency or
phase.

• The most common example of interference of

light is the soap bubble which reflects wide
colors when illuminated by a light source

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 ❻ Polarization of Light

Normal light vibrates in all directions perpendicular to the propagation of light. If the
light is constrained to vibrate in only one particular plane, then the light is called
polarized light. The phenomenon is called polarization.

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 ❼ Dispersion of Light and Colors
• When white light is passed through a glass prism it splits into its
spectrum of color (Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and
red)
• This process of white light splitting into its constituent colors is
termed as dispersion. Dispersion of light occurs when white light is
separated into its different constituent colors because
of refraction and Snell's law
• White light only appears white because it is composed of every
color on the visible spectrum. Although they are very close, the
index of refraction for each color is unique in non-vacuous
materials. These unique indices cause each wavelength to follow
a different path.

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 Dispersion of White Light through A
Glass Prism
The phenomenon of splitting a ray of white light into its constituent colors
(wavelength) is called dispersion and the band of colors from violet to red is
called spectrum

The fact that refractive indices differ for each wavelength of light produces an effect called dispersion. This
can be seen by shining a beam of white light into a triangular prism made of glass. White light entering such a
prism will be refracted in the prism by different angles depending on the wavelength of the light. When the
light exits from the other side of the prism, we see the different wavelengths dispersed to show the different
colors of the spectrum.
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Visible Light

A triangular prism dispersing a beam of white light. The

longer wavelengths (red) and the shorter wavelengths
(blue) are separated
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 Applications and Natural Phenomena
(Light Dispersion)
• Plenty of seemingly mysterious natural
phenomena are explained by the
dispersion and scattering of light
• Example:
❑ Rainbow formation
✓ The formation of a rainbow is linked to the Rainbow formation
dispersion of light. Since it has a striking similarity
to the dispersion of light in a prism, water The path of
droplets are sometimes called mini prisms the sunlight
inside a
✓ Water droplets are roughly spherical in nature
water
and contain water with a refractive index that droplet
enables light to refract. When sunlight (white
light) strikes water droplets suspended in air, it
refracts and spreads into its constituent colors
through dispersion. When sunlight touches a The rainbow pattern is made up of seven
water droplet (at some particular angle) the light colors in a specific order. This is because
gets refracted and dispersed. Later, the the wavelength of red light is higher so it
refracted light undergoes total internal
deviates the least, while the wavelength of
reflection, which causes the light rays to fall on
violet is lower and deviates the most. This is
the front side of the droplet and emerge from
why the red light is at the bottom and the
the back.
violet light is at the top
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❑ Color of the sky at ❑ Color of the sun
different times Sunlight reaches the earth's
atmosphere and is scattered by gases
As light journeys from the sun to the earth's and particles in the air. Blue (and violet)
atmosphere, violet, indigo, blue, and green light is dispersed more broadly than
lights of the spectrum get scattered because most other colors because it travels as
air particles increase in diameter nearer to the shorter, smaller waves. This is why the
earth's surface. The next spectral color in terms sky often appears blue
of shortest wavelength, yellow, scatters closest
to eye level, causing it to override the other
spectral colors. As a result, the sun appears
yellow.

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 ❑ Use of ultramarine
Ultramarine is
❑ Color of smoke in winter a fluorescent substance which
absorbs ultraviolet radiation from
sunlight and converts it into visible
The smoke coming from light seen as violet, indigo, and blue
chimneys scatters the blue spectral colors. Sunlight is deficient
light the most, so it overrides in these colors, having been
the other spectral colors scattered in the upper atmosphere.
and the smoke appears So, when sunlight falls on clothes
soaked in ultramarine, the deficient
blue. sunlight again contains all the
spectral colors in equal proportion
on account of fluorescence. As a
result, our brain perceives it as white

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THE END
Texts, Materials, and Resources
1. Hewitt PG (2014) Conceptual Physics, 12th ed.
2. Zitzewitz PW et al. (2004) Physics: Principles & Problems. 12th ed. McGraw-Hill/Glencoe
3. CrundellM, Goodwin G, & Mee C (2014) Cambridge International AS and A level Physics. 2nd ed. Holder
Education

Links
1. Encyclopedia.com (Optics):
http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/optics.aspx
2. Image from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prism#/media/File:Prism-side-fs_PNr%C2%B00117.jpg under the
creative commons attribution for reuse and modification.
3. D-Kuru from Wikimedia Commons, Image
from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg/400px-
Double-alaskan-rainbow.jpg under the creative commons attribution for reuse and modification.
4. Image from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rainbow#/media/File:Rainbow1.svg released under the public
domain.
5. https://slidetodoc.com/chapter-22-reflection-and-refraction-of-light-dual/

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