INTRODUCTION TO THEORY OF COMPUTATIONS

• As word suggests ‘TOC’ is the study of 'mathematical' machines or systems called

automata and the computational problems that can and cannot be solved using these
machines, i.e. what is the extent to which a problem is solvable on a computer. Theory
of computation can be considered as the study of all kinds of computational model in
the field of computer science and it also considers how efficiently the problem can be
solved (but not is depth).

PROBLEM

• Now a day’s machines (digital, analog, mechanical) play a very important role in the
development of human, we need some mechanism (language) to communicate with the
machines.

SOLUTION

• We need a language for communication with machines.

• But we do not require natural languages to communicate with the machines, as natural
languages are very complex and machine interaction require very fewer complex
languages compare to natural languages.
• Languages can be of two types formal languages and informal languages, here in this
subject we will only discuss formal languages.
• Dictionary defines the term informally as ‘a system suitable for the expression of certain
ideas, facts or concepts including a set of symbols for their manipulation’.
 MATHEMATICL DEFINATION OF LANGUAGE
SYMBOL- Symbols are the basic building blocks, which can be any character/token. (cow,
sheep, sun, white flag etc.) (in English we called them as letters).

ALPHABET- An alphabet is a finite non empty set of symbols, (every language has its own
alphabet). here in toc, we use symbol Σ for depicting alphabet. e.g. Σ = {0,1}. for English Σ = {a,
b, c, …., z} (in English also alphabet is a set of letters, thought in general we called them as
alphabet).

STRING - It is a sequence of symbols (which are the member of set alphabet). E.g. Σ = {a, b}
String- aabb, aa, b, so on. (in English we called them as words).

LANGUAGE - A language is defined as a set of strings. (in natural language (set of

words(predefined) and grammar) we apply this model from words to sentence).

• In the next level we consider programs as a string and programming constructs/tokens

like int, floats as letters/symbols.
 METHODS TO DEFINE LANGUAGE
• In natural language we define the list of words in a dictionary because they are finite
and predefined, but we cannot list all the sentence which can be formed using these
words as they are infinite. So, we have a mechanism called grammar/rules using which
we can decide which sentence is valid and which is invalid.
• Similarly, in our system we have finite number of symbols/letters but using those letters
we can generate infinite strings/words. So, we may have languages that have infinite
number of words, so it is not possible for us to list them, we have to use some
framework, which can somehow represent the same language.
o There are mainly two methods to represent a language
o by a grammar that generates a language [CFG generate CFL]
o by a machine that accepts a language [PDA accept CFL language]
 SOME BASIC OPERATIONS ON STRINGS
So, before we proceed further let’s do a little home work on string, which will help us
throughout the subject.

Length of a string - It is defined as number symbol in the string. Denoted like |W|, e.g.
length of string |00110| = 5.

Concatenation of string- Let x and y be two strings, then concatenation is defined as

the string formed by making a copy of string x followed by a copy of string y. (NOTE- It’s not
commutative)

E.g. w = ab, x= ba
wx = abba
xw = baab
w = w1w2w3……wm x = x1x2x3……xn
wx = w1w2w3……wmx1x2x3……xn
|wx| = |w| + |x|

Reverse of a string – if there is a string w then reverse of a string a denoted by wr it is just

the same string but written in reverse order.

e.g. W = w1w2w3……wn
wr = wn……w3w2w1
|w|=|wr|

Empty/Null String- The string with zero occurrence of symbols. It is denoted by ∈, |∈|=0.
If there is a string w, then wn stands for the strings obtained by repeating w, n times.
w1 = w
w2 = ww
w3 = www
w0 = ε
w∈ = ∈w = w

Substring- Any string of consecutive symbols in some string ‘w’ can be collectively said as a
substring. E.g. w= abab its substrings can be ab, a, ba…etc.

Q Consider a sting ‘GATE’ find the total number of substring possible?

Substring of Substring of Substring of Substring of Substring of

length 0 length 1 length 2 length 3 length 4
Number of 1 4 3 2 1
sting
possible
SUBSTRINGS ∈ G, A, T, E GA, AT, TE GAT, ATE GATE

• If w is any string than empty string ∈ and the string w itself is called a trivial substring
and the remaining of the other are the non-trivial sub string[[n(n+1)/2]-1]

Q Consider a sting ‘GGGE’ find the total number of substring possible?

• If a string has ‘n’ distinct symbols then total number of different sub string will be
[n(n+1)/2] +1
• If there is a string of length n then no of prefix or suffix will be n+1

Q Consider a sting ‘GATE’ find the total number of prefix and suffix possible?

• if symbols are in order but not necessarily consecutive, then it is called subsequence.
Q if ∑ = {a, b} then, find the following?
∑0 =
∑1 =
∑2 =
∑3 =

∑K is the set of all the strings from the alphabet ∑ of length exactly K.

∑k = {W | |W| = K} (using the symbols from the alphabet ∑)

Kleene closure- If ∑ is a set of symbols, then we use ∑* to denote the set of strings
obtained by concatenating zero or more symbols from ∑ of any length, in general any string of
any length which can have only symbols specified in ∑.

∑* = ⋃𝑖=∞
𝑖=0 {𝑤 | |𝑤| = 𝑖} (using the symbols from the alphabet ∑)

Positive closure – If ∑ is a set of symbols, then we use ∑+ to denote the set of strings
obtained by concatenating one or more symbols from ∑ of any length, in general any string of
any length which can have only symbols specified in ∑ (except ∈).

∑* = ⋃𝑖=∞
𝑖=0 {𝑤 | |𝑤| = 𝑖} (using the symbols from the alphabet ∑)

it is denoted by ∑+ = ∑* - ∈
 LANGUAGES
Since languages are sets, the union, intersection and difference of two languages are
immediately defined.

• The complement of a language is defined with respect of ∑*

o Lc = ∑* - L
• The reverse of a language is the set of all the strings after reversal
o LR = {wr | w ∈ L}
• The concatenation of two languages L1 and L2 is the set of all the strings obtained by
concatenating any elements of L1 and L2.
o L1L2 = {xy | x ∈ L1, y ∈ L2}
• Let Ln is defined as L is concatenated with itself n times.
o Ln = {LLL………...L} (n times)
o L* = L0 U L1 U L2 U …… U L∞

Q Given the language L = {ab, aa, baa}, which of the following strings are in L*? (GATE-2012) (1
Marks)

1) abaabaaabaa 2) aaaabaaaa 3) baaaaabaaaab 4) baaaaabaa

(A) 1, 2 and 3 (B) 2, 3 and 4 (C) 1, 2 and 4 (D) 1, 3 and 4
Answer: (C)

Q The number of substrings that can be formed from string given by ‘adefbghnmp’ is? (NET-
DEC-2018)
a) 10 b) 45 c) 55 d) 56
Ans: d

Q In a string of length n, how many proper prefixes can be generated

a) 2𝑛 b) n c) n (n + 1)/2 d) n – 1
Q The number of substrings (of all lengths inclusive) that can be formed from a character
string of length n is
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)
a) n! b) 𝑛2 c) -1 d) +1
2 2
Ans: d

Q Suppose 𝐿1 = {10, 1} and 𝐿2 = {011, 11}. How many distinct elements are there in L = 𝐿1 𝐿2
a) 4 b) 3 c) 2 d) None of these

Q Let 𝑥𝑛 denote the number of binary strings of length n that contain no consecutive 0s, which
of the following recurrences does 𝑥𝑛 satisfy?
a) 𝑥𝑛 = 2𝑥𝑛−1 b) 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥[𝑛] + 1
2

c) 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥[𝑛] + n d) 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑛−2

2

Ans: d

Q The value of 𝑥5 is?

a) 5 b) 7 c) 13 d) 16
Ans: c

Q Match the following

1. Maximum number of prefixes for the n length string A. 2 n – 1

2. Maximum number of proper suffixes for n length string B. n

3. Maximum number of proper non-empty sub strings for n n(n + 1)

−1
length string C. 2

4. The number of strings of length n over the alphabet {0, 1} D. n + 1

E. n – 1

F. 2n
a) 1-A, 2-B, 3-D, 4-F b) 1-B, 2-C, 3-E, 4-A
c) 1-D, 2-B, 3-C, 4-F d) 1-E, 2-F, 3-B, 4-C
Ans: c
 Automaton
An automaton is defined as a system where energy, materials and information are transformed,
transmitted and used for performing some functions without direct participation of man.
Example: automatic machine tools, automatic packing machines, and automatic photo printing
machines.
• Below is the figure of a discrete automaton:

The characteristics of automaton are now described as:

• Input. At each of the discrete instants of time t1, t2, ... tm the input values I1, I2.... Ip each
of which can take a finite number of fixed values from the input alphabet ∑, are applied
to the input side of the model.

• Output. O0, O1 … Oq are the outputs of the model, each of which can take a finite number
of fixed values from an output O.

• States. At any instant of time the automaton can be in one of the states ql, q2, ... qn

• State relation. The next state of an automaton at any instant of time is determined by the
present state and the present input.

• Output relation. The output is related to either state only or to both the input and the
state. It should be noted that at any instant of time the automaton is in some state. On
'reading' an input symbol, the automaton moves to a next state which is given by the state
relation.

Some definitions of various automatons

• An automaton in which the output depends only on the input is called an automaton
without a memory.
• An automaton in which the output depends on the states as well is called automaton with
a finite memory.
• An automaton in which the output depends only on the states of the machine is called a
Moore machine.
• An automaton in. which the output depends on the state as well as on the input at any
instant of time is called a Mealy machine.
 FINITE AUTOMATA
A Finite automaton is a model that has a finite set of states (represented in the figure by
circles) and its control moves from one state to another state in response to external inputs
(represented by arrows).

Finite automata can be broadly classified into two types-

• Finite automata without output

o Deterministic finite automata.
o non deterministic finite automata.
o Non deterministic finite automata with ∈
• Finite automata with output
o Moore machine
o Mealy machine

In general, this type of automata is characterized by machine having no temporary storage, as

it is severely limited in its capacity to remember things during the computation.

Only finite amount of information can be in the control unit by placing the unit into a specific
state but since the number of states is finite, a finite automaton can only deal with situation in
which the information to be stored at any time is strictly bounded.
 DETERMINISTIC FINITE AUTOMATA
A deterministic finite automaton (DFA) is defined by 5-tuple (Q,,,S,F) where:

Q is a finite and non-empty set of states

 is a finite non-empty set of finite input alphabet

 is a transition function, ( : Q ×  → Q)

S is initial state (always one) (S Q)

F is a set of final states (F  Q) (0<=|F|<=N, where n is the number of states)

The various components of the block diagram are explained as follows:

• Input tape: The input tape is divided into squares, each square containing a single symbol
from the input alphabet ∑. The end squares of the tape contain the end marker ¢ at the
left end and the end marker $ at the right end. The absence of end markers indicates that
the tape is of infinite length. The left-to-right sequence of symbols between the two end
markers is the input string to be processed.
• Reading head (R-head): The head examines only one square at a time and will move one
square to the right.
• Finite control: is the inference engine take care of transition

NOTE-
• Produces a unique computation (or run) of the automaton for each input string.
• Deterministic refers to the uniqueness of the computation.
• DFAs are useful for doing lexical analysis (Spell check) in compiler design
 Representation
TRANSITION STATE DIAGRAM- (Graphical, easy to understand, easy to design) A transition
graph or a transition system is a finite directed labelled graph in which each circle represents a
state and the directed edges indicate the transition of one state to another state. The initial
state is represented by a circle with an arrow pointing towards it, the final state by two
concentric circles.
TRANSITION TABLE- it is a two-dimensional table where number of columns is equal to
number of input alphabets and number of rows is equal to number of states.

 

a b

Q q0

q1

TRANSITION ID- δ {qi, a) = qj, this means that on a state qi take an input symbol a machine will
make a transition qj
 ACCEPTANCE BY DFA
Let ‘w’ be any string designed from the alphabet , corresponding to w, if there exist a
transition for which it starts at the initial state and ends in any One of the final states, then the
string ‘w’ is said to be accepted by the finite automata. δ (q0, w) = qf for some qf ∈ F.

Mathematically, it can be represented as: - L(M) = {w  * | *(S, w) F}

Q Consider the following table of an FA

IF the final state is 𝑞4 , the which of the following strings will be accepted?
1. aaaaa 2. aabbaabbbbb 3. bbabababbb
a) 1 and 2 b) 2 and 3 c) 3 and 1 d) all of the above
Ans: d

Q In the automaton below, s is the start state and t are the only final state. (GATE-2006) (2
Marks)
Consider the strings u = ababab, v = bab, and w = aabb. Which of the following statements is
true?
(A) The automaton accepts u and v but not w
(B) The automaton accepts each of u, v, and w
(C) The automaton rejects each of u, v, and w
(D) The automaton accepts u but rejects v and w
Answer: (D)
 DFA Designing
A language a said to be regular language if it can be accepted by a DFA
The best knowledge about DFA can be only understood by designing a number of DFA, by doing
so we will first understand the process of DFA designing and secondly, we will understand
Regular Language.

Q Draw a DFA for the language accepting strings ending with ’01’ over input alphabets ∑ = {0,
1}?
Ans. The required DFA for the above problem will be:

• Initially make a skeleton of the basic DFA ending with 01.

• Then fill up the required states accordingly.
• State q0 can accept any number of 1’s and if it sees 0 as a current input symbol it changes
states to q1, similarly for q1 if it sees 1 as a current input it will immediately change state
to q2 else it will self-loop the 0’s.
• q3 acts as an accepting state here, if q3 has an input 0 so it will change state to q1 and wait
for 1 to occur else if it has 1 as an input the whole pattern needs to be reset.

Q Draw a DFA for the language accepting strings ending with ‘abb’ over input alphabets ∑ = {a,
b}?
Ans. The required DFA for the above problem will be:
Q Draw a DFA for the language accepting strings starting with ‘ab’ over input alphabets ∑ = {a,
b}?
Ans.

• If the string starts with b we direct the transition to a dead state such that it never gets
accepted.
• If we encounter two simultaneous a’s in the beginning, we direct the transition to dead
state.
Q Construct a DFA that accepts a language L over input alphabets ∑ = {a, b} such that L is the set
of all strings starting with ‘aa’ or ‘bb’?
Ans.

• In this case D acts as a dead state, if we encounter ab or ba as starting inputs we put the
transitions into a dead state.
Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts a language ‘L’, where L={a} over the alphabet ∑={a}.

Q design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, where every
accepted string ‘w’ starts with substring s
i) s = b ii) s = ab iii) s = abb
conclusion→ if w = sx, |s| = m, then no of states in the DFA is m+2

Q design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. where every
accepted string ‘w’ ends with substring ‘s’.
i) s = ab ii) s = aa iii) s = bab
conclusion→ if w = xs, |s| = m, then no of states in the DFA is m+1

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. where every
accepted string ‘w’ contains sub string s.
i) abb ii) aba
conclusion→ if w = xsx, |s| = m, then no of states in the DFA is m+1

Q No of states in a minimal in a that accepts all the strings of a, b such that every string must
have ‘aabab’ as sub stray
a) 5 b) 6 c) 7 d) none

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string start and end with a.

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string start and end with same symbol.

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string start and end with different symbol.
Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string w, is like w=SX.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string w, is like w=XS.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string w, is like w=XSX.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Consider the machine M shown below L(M)?

a) L(M) = {words starting with aa or bb} b) L(M) = {words ending with aa or bb}
c) L(M) = {words containing aa or bb as a sub word} d) None of these

Q Let L be the set of all binary strings who’s last two symbols are the same. The number of
states in the minimum state deterministic finite 0 state automation accepting L is (GATE-
1998) (1 Marks)
a) 2 b) 5 c) 8 d) 3
Ans: b

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string ‘w’ accepted must be like
i) |w| = 3 ii) |w|<=3 iii) |w|>=3
Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain exactly two a’s.
Conclusion→ no of states will be n+2, if number of symbols is n

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain at least two a’s.
Conclusion→ no of states will be n+1, if number of symbols is n

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain at most two a’s.
Conclusion→ no of states will be n+2, if number of symbols is n

Q The following DFA accepts the set of all strings over {0, 1} that (GATE-2009) (1 Marks)

a) Begin either with 0 or 1 b) End with 0

c) End with 00 d) Contain the substring 00

Q Consider the machine M (GATE-2005) (2 Marks)

The language recognized by M is :
(A) {w ∈ {a, b}* / every a in w is followed by exactly two b’s}
(B) {w ∈ {a, b}* every a in w is followed by at least two b’}
(C) {w ∈ {a, b}* w contains the substring ‘abb’}
(D) {w ∈ {a, b}* w does not contain ‘aa’ as a substring}
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the following Deterministic Finite Automata (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)

Which of the following is true?

(A) It accepts all strings with prefix as “aababb”
(B) It accepts all strings with substring as “aababb”
(C) It accepts all strings with suffix as “aababb”
(D) None of the above
Answer: (B)
Q Consider the following machine M

What is the language L(M) accepted by this machine?

a) L(M) = {Set of all words starting with aabb}
b) L(M) = {Set of all words having aabb as a sub word}
c) L(M) = {Set of all words ending with aabb}
d) L(M) = {Set of all words with exactly one occurrence of aabb}

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string ‘w’ accepted must be like
i) |w| = 0(mod 3) ii) |w|<=1(mod 4)
Conclusion→ no of states will be n, if the equation is on format m (mod n)

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain
i) number of a’s = 0(mod 2) ii) number of b’s = 1(mod 2)
iii) number of a’s = 2(mod 3) iv) number of a’s = 1(mod 4)
Conclusion→ no of states will be n, if the equation is on format m (mod n)

Q How many minimum states are required in a DFA to find whether a given binary string has
odd number of 0’s, there can be any number of 1’s. (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Answer: (B)

Q The smallest finite automation which accepts the language {x | length of x is divisible by 3}
has (GATE-2002) (2 Marks)
(A) 2 states (B) 3 states (C) 4 states (D) 5 states
Answer: (B)
Q Let ∑ = {0, 1}, then an automaton A accepting only those words from ∑ having an odd
number of 1’s requires _________ states including the start state
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
Ans: a

Q The smallest finite automaton which accepts the language {x length of x is divisible by 500}
has
a) 200 states b) 300 states c) 400 states d) 500 states

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain odd occurrence of the substring ‘ab’.

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain even occurrence of the substring ‘ab’.

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain even occurrence of the substring ‘baa’.

Q how many DFA can be designed, with a fixed initial state, over an alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, and the
number of states be two.

Q how many DFA can be designed, with a fixed initial state, over an alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, and the
number of states be three.
Conclusion → if no of states is |Q| = n, and no of input alphabet |∑| = m
Then no of states will be nn*m * 2n

Q There are exactly __________ different finite automata with three states x, y and z over the
alphabet {a, b} where x is always the start state. (NET-DEC-2015)
a) 64 b) 56 c) 1024 d) 5832
Ans d
Q The possible number of finite automata with 3 states x, y and z, where x is always initial
state, over the alphabet {a, b} are
a) 5830 b) 5832 c) 5834 d) 583

Q how many DFA can be constructed over the alphabet, such that no of states |Q| = 2 and size
of input alphabet is |∑| = 2, that accepts empty language(Φ)?

Q how many DFA can be constructed over the alphabet, such that no of states |Q| = 2 and size
of input alphabet is |∑| = 2, that accepts universal language (∑*)?

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that for every
accepted string 2nd from left end is always b.

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that for every
accepted string 4th from left end is always a.
Conclusion→ no of states will be n+2, if position is n

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that for every
accepted string 2nd from right end is always b.
Conclusion→ no of states will be 2n, if position is n

Q The no of final states in a minimal DFA, that accept all string over a, b such that 2nd symbol
from right end is always b.
a) 1 b) 2 c) 4 d) none
Ans: 2

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑= {a, b}, such that every
string ‘w’ which is accepted starts with ‘a’ & length is divisible by 3, i.e. 0(mod 3)?
Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string ‘w’ which is accepted starts with ‘ab’ & length is divisible by 2(mod 4)?
Conclusion→ no of states will be n, n = first condition + second condition -1

Q No of states in a minimal DFA that accept all string over a, b such that every string starts
with ‘abb’ and length is concurrent to 4 (mod 7) is _______________

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string ‘w’ which is accepted starts with ‘abbb’ & length is divisible by 3(mod 15)?

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain be like, no of a = 0(mod 2) || no of b = 0(mod 2) ? cross product
method(one more approach , where concentrate on even and odd logic)

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain be like, no of a = 0(mod 2) && no of b = 0(mod 2)?

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must contain be like, a = 0(mod 2) && no of b = 0(mod 3) && no of c = 0(mod
5)?
Conclusion → if, n (mod m) && p (mod r), then the no of states will be n*m, if n & m are
relatively prime to each other

Q A minimum state deterministic finite automaton accepting the language L={w | w ε {0,1} *,
number of 0s and 1s in w are divisible by 3 and 5, respectively} has (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)
(A) 15 states (B) 11 states (C) 10 states (D) 9 states
Answer: (A)

Q Consider a DFA over ∑ = {a, b} accepting all strings which have number of a’s divisible by 6
and number of b’s divisible by 8. What is the minimum number of states that the DFA will
have? (GATE-2001) (2 Marks)
(A) 8 (B) 14 (C) 15 (D) 48
Answer: (D)
Q The following finite state machine accepts all those binary strings in which the number of l’s
and 0’s is respectively. (GATE-2004) (2 Marks)

(A) divisible by 3 and 2 (B) odd and even

(C) even and odd (D) divisible by 2 and 3
Answer: (A)

Q Given below are two finite state automata (→ indicates the start state and F indicates a final
state) Which of the following represents the product automaton Z×Y? (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)
Answer: (A)

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {0,1}, such that every
string ‘w’ which is accepted has a decimal equivalent
i) 0(mod 3) ii) 2(mod 4) iii) 0(mod 5) iv) 2(mod 6) v) 3(mod 8)
Conclusion→ on a format of m (mod n)
1) if n is odd, number of states will be n
2) if n is even and n=2m, then number of states will be m+1
3) if n is even and n! =2m, then for number of states no direct formula
 COMPLIMENT OF DFA
Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every
string accepted must not contain a substring aaa?

Note: -
• The finite automata which is obtained by interchanging final & non-final states is known
as complement of the finite automata.
• L(FA) U L(FAC) = ∑* L(FA) ∩ L(FAC) = Φ
• L(FA) subset of ∑* and L(FA)C subset of ∑*
• No of states in FA = no of states in complement of FA
• Complement always exist for DFA (as it is a complete system)

Q Deterministic automata of a language over alphabets {0, 1}, which does not contain 3
consecutive 0’s. Minimum how many states ‘S’ DFA will have and how many of them will final
states, F?
a) ISI = 5 and IFI = 1 b) ISI = 5 and IFI = 4
c) ISI = 4 and IFI = 1 d) ISI = 4 and IFI = 3
Ans: d
Q construct the DFA for the following languages:
i) L= {am bn | m, n >= 0}
ii) L = {am bn cp | m, n, p >= 0}
conclusion →if type is L = {am bn | m>= 0, n>=0}, then no of states is no of alphabet +1

Q construct the DFA for the following languages:

i) L= {am bn | m>= 0, n>=1}
ii)L= {am bn | m>= 0, n>=2}
conclusion→ if type is L = {am bn | m>= 0, n>=j}, then no of states is j+2

Q construct the DFA for the following languages:

i) L = {am bn | m>= 1, n>=0}
ii)L = {am bn | m>= 2, n>=0}
conclusion →if type is L = {am bn | m>= i, n>=0}, then no of states is i+3

Q construct the DFA for the following languages:

L = {am bn | m >= 1, n>= 2}
conclusion →if type is L = {am bn | m>= i, n>=j}, then no of states is i+j+2

Q Consider the transition diagram of an DFA as given below:

Q Which should be the final state(s) of the DFA if it should accept strings starting with ‘a’ and
ending with ‘b’?
a) 𝑞0 b) 𝑞1 c) 𝑞0 , 𝑞1 d) 𝑞3
Ans: b
Q Which of the following strings will be accepted if 𝑞0 and 𝑞1 are accepting states?
1. ababab 2. Babaaa 3. aaaba
a) 1,2 b) 2,3 c) 1,3 d) None of these
Ans: c

Q Which of the following represents the set of accepting states if the language to be accepted
contains strings having the same starting and ending symbols?
a) {𝑞0 } b) {𝑞0 , 𝑞3 } c) {𝑞3 } d) {𝑞3 , 𝑞1 }
Ans: b

Q Definition of a language L with alphabet {a} is given as following.

L = {ank| k>0, and n is a positive integer constant}
What is the minimum number of states needed in DFA to recognize L?(CS-2011)
(A) k+1 (B) n+1 (C) 2(n+1) (D) 2(k+1)
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the DFAs M and N given above. The number of states in a minimal DFA that
accepts the language L(M) ∩ L(N) is __________. (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)

(A) 0 (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 3

Answer: (B)

Q Consider the following DFA in which 𝑠0 is the start and 𝑠1 , 𝑠3 are the final sates. What
language does this DFA recognize? (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)
a) All strings of x and y
b) All strings of x and y and even either even number of x and even number of y of odd
number or x and odd number of y
c) All strings of x and y which have equal number of x and y
d) All strings of x and y with either even number of x and odd number of y or odd number of x
and even number of y.
Ans: D
 MINIMIZATION OF FINITE AUTOMATA
It is sometimes difficult to design a minimal DFA directly so, a better approach is to first design
the DFA and then minimize it.
Based on productivity, the states of DFA can be mainly classified in two types-

• PRODUCTIVE STATES- State is said to be productive, if it adds any accepting power to

the machine that is its presence and absence effect the language accepting capability of
the machine.
• NON- PRODUCTIVE STATES- These states don’t any add anything to the language
accepting power to the machine. They can further be divided into three types-
• Dead State- It is basically created to make the system complete, can be defined as
a state from which there is no transition possible to the final state. In a DFA there
can be more than one dead state but logically always one dead state is sufficient
to complete the functionality.
• Unreachable Sate- It is that state which cannot be reached starting from initial
state by parsing any input string.
• Equal State-These are those states that behave in same manner on each and
every input string. That is for any string w where w  * either both of the states
will go to final state or both will go to non-final state. (remember the example of
an equal state DFA). More formally, two states ql and q2 are equivalent (denoted
by q1≅ q2) if both δ (q1, x) and δ (q2, x) are final states or both of them are non-
final states for all x ∈ ∑*. If q1 and q2 are k-equivalent for all k ≥ 0, then they are k-
equivalent.

The process of elimination of states whose presence or absence doesn’t affect the language
accepting capability of deterministic Finite Automata is called minimization of automata and
the result is minimal deterministic finite automata or commonly called as minimal finite
automata as MFA.

NOTE- MFA is always unique for a language.

 Procedure of Minimization
For this first of all, group all the non-final states in one set and all final states in another set.
Now, on both the sets, individually check, whether any of the underlying elements (states) of
that particular set are behaving in the same way, that is are they having same transition on
each input alphabet, if the answer is yes, then these two states are equal, otherwise not.

Q A deterministic finite automation (DFA)D with alphabet {a, b} is given below (GATE-2011) (2
Marks)

Which of the following finite state machines is a valid minimal DFA which accepts the same
language as D?
Answer: (A)

Q IF a DFA is represented by the following transition table, then how many states does the
corresponding minimal DFA contains?

a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5

Q The FSM over an alphabet {a, b} shown in the figure accepts

a) all stings b) no stings c) ϵ - alone d) None of these

Q Consider the set of strings on {0,1} in which, every substring of 3 symbols has at most two
zeros. For example, 001110 and 011001 are in the language, but 100010 is not. All strings of
length less than 3 are also in the language. A partially completed DFA that accepts this
language is shown below. (GATE-2012) (2 Marks)

The missing arcs in the DFA are

Answer: (D)

Q Which of the following set can be recognized by a deterministic Finite state Automation?
(GATE–1998) (2 Marks)
a) The numbers 1,2,4,8, 2𝑛 , written in binary
b) The numbers 1,2,4, 2𝑛 , written in unary
c) The set of binary string in which the number of zeroes is the same as the number of ones.
d) The set { 1, 101, 11011, 1110111,}
Ans a

Q Consider the following deterministic finite state automaton M. (GATE-2003) (2 Marks)

Let S denote the set of seven-bit binary strings in which the first, the fourth, and the last bits
are 1. The number of strings in S that are accepted by M is
(A) 1 (B) 5 (C) 7 (D) 8
Answer: (C)

Q Minimal deterministic finite automaton for the language L = {0n | n ≥ 0, n ≠ 4} will have:
(NET-JUNE-2015)
a) 1 final state among 5 states b) 4 final states among 5 states
c) 1 final state among 6 states d) 5 final states among 6 states
Ans: d

Q Find the no of states in MDFA where no of a” is divisible by 2 or no of b” is at most 1.

a) 4 b) 3 c) 6 d) 5

Q If w ϵ (a, b) * satisfies abw = wab, then | ω| is

a) even b) odd c) null d) none of these

Q Convert the DFA below to MDFA?

And the transition diagram of MDFA is:

Q The finite state machine given in figure below recognizes: (NET-JULY-2018)

(1) any string of odd number of a’s

(2) any string of odd number of b’s
(3) any string of even number of a’s and odd number of b’s
(4) any string of odd number of a’s and odd number of b’s

(NET-DEC-2018)
a) N b) N+1 c) n(n+1)/2 d) 2^n
Ans: b

Q The transition function for the language L = {w | na (w) and nb(w) are both odd} is given by:
δ (q0, a) = q1
δ (q0, b) = q2
δ (q1, a) = q0
δ (q1, b) = q3
δ (q2, a) = q3
δ (q2, b) = q0
δ (q3, a) = q2
δ (q3, b) = q1
The initial and final states of the automata are: (NET-JUNE-2015)
A) q0 and q0 respectively b) q0 and q1 respectively
c) q0 and q2 respectively d) q0 and q3 respectively

Q Given a language L, define Li as follows:

L0 = {ε}
Li = Li-1∙L for all i>0
The order of a language L is defined as the smallest k such that Lk=Lk+1. Consider the language
L1 (over alphabet 0) accepted by the following automaton.

The order of L1 is ______. (GATE-2018) (1 Marks)

(ANSWER- 2)
Q The minimum possible number of states of a deterministic finite automaton that accepts a regular
language L = {w1aw2 | w1, w2 ∈{a,b}* , |w1| = 2, w2>=3} is_______ (GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
ANSWER 8
Q Let Σ be the set of all bijections from {1, ..., 5} to {1, ..., 5}, where id denotes the identity
function, i.e. id(j) = j,∀j. Let ° denote composition on functions. For a string x = x1x2 ... xn ∈ Σn,
n ≥ 0, let π(x) = x1°x2° ... °xn. Consider the language L = {x ∈ Σ* | π(x) = id}. The minimum
number of states in any DFA accepting L is (GATE-2019) (2 Marks)
(ANSWER- 120)
 NON DETEMINISTIC FINITE AUTOMATA

Non determinism means choice of move for an automaton. So rather than prescribing a
unique move in each situation, we allow a set of possible moves.

Non deterministic machine are only theoretical machine i.e. in the first place they are not
implementable and neither we want to implement them, the only reason we study non-
determinism is because they are easy to design and easily be converted into deterministic
machine.

FORMAL DESCRIPTION OF NDFA

A Non-Deterministic finite automaton (NDFA) is a 5-tuple (Q,,,S,F) where:

Q is a finite and non-empty set of states

 is a finite non-empty set of finite input alphabet

 is a transition function : Q ×  → 2Q

q0 is initial state (always one) (q0 Q)

F is a set of final states (F  Q) (0<=|F|<=N), where n is the number of states

Some points to remember

• Every DFA is also an NFA.
• Each NFA can be translated to an equivalent DFA, that they are equivalent in power.
• NFAs like DFA’s only recognize regular languages.
• It need not to be a complete system. There can be a state that doesn’t have any
transition on some input symbol.
• It is possible that a single state led to multiple transition on same input to different
states.

NOTE- A null transition is also possible for NFA, such special NFA are called Null-NFA.
 PROPERTIES OF NFA

i) Accepting power of NDFA= Accepting power of DFA.

ii) NDFA is a theoretical engine and is not implementable, but it is very easy to design compare
to DFA.

iii) No concept of dead state, therefore complementation of DFA is also not possible.

iv) NDFA will respond for only valid strings and no need to respond for invalid strings. (it is a
complete system.
 ACCEPTANCE BY NDFA

Let ‘w’ be any string defined over the alphabet , corresponding to w, there can be multiple
transitions for NFA starting from initial state, if there exist at least one transition for which we
start at the initial state and ends in any One of the final state, then the string ‘w’ is said to be
accepted by the non-deterministic finite automata, otherwise not.

Mathematically, it can be represented as, L(M) = {w  * | *(q0, w) F}

Q design a NDFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, where every accepted
string ‘w’ starts with substring s
i) s = ab ii) s = bb
conclusion→ if w = sx, |s| = m, then no of states in the NDFA is m+1

Q Design a NDFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. where every accepted
string ‘w’ ends with substring ‘s’.
i) s = ab ii) s = bab
conclusion→ if w = sx, |s| = m, then no of states in the NDFA is m+1

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. where every
accepted string ‘w’ contains sub string s.
i) s = bb ii) s = aba
conclusion→ if w = xsx, |s| = m, then no of states in the DFA is m+1

Q Let w be any string of length n is {0,1}*. Let L be the set of all substrings of w. What is the
minimum number of states in a non-deterministic finite automaton that accepts L? (GATE-
2010) (1 Marks)
(A) n-1 (B) n (C) n+1 (D) 2n-1
Answer: (C)

Q Design a NDFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every accepted
string start and end with same symbol.
Q Design a NDFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every accepted
string start and end with different symbol.

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string w, is like w=SX.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string w, is like w=XS.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a minimal DFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that every
accepted string w, is like w=XSX.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a NFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every string ‘w’
accepted must be like
i) |w| = 3 ii) |w|<=3 iii) |w|>=3

Q Design a NFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every string
accepted must contain exactly two a’s.

Q Design a NFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every string
accepted must contain at least two a’s.

Q Design a NFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that every string
accepted must contain at most two a’s.

Q Design a NDFA that accepts all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that for every
accepted string 2nd from right end is always A.
Q The FSM shown in the figure accepts

a) all strings b) no strings c) ϵ - alone d) None of these

Q (GATE-2014) (2 Marks)

(A) {q0, q1, q2} (B) {q0, q1} (C) {q0, q1, q2, q3} (D) {q3}
Answer: (A)

Q Consider the NFAM shown below. (GATE–2003) (2 Marks)

Let the language accepted by M be L. Let 𝐿1 be the language accepted by the NFA 𝑀1 ,
obtained by changing the accepting state and by changing the non – accepting state of M to
accepting states. Which of the following statements is True?
a) 𝐿1 = {0, 1} * - L b) 𝐿1 = {0, 1} * c) 𝐿1 ⊂ L d) 𝐿1 = L
Ans: b
Q Consider the following two finite automata. 𝑀1 accepts 𝐿1 and 𝑀2 accepts 𝐿2 Which one of
the following is TRUE? (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)

a) 𝐿1 = 𝐿2 b) 𝐿1 ⊂ 𝐿2 c) 𝐿1 ∩ ̅̅̅
𝐿2 = ф d) 𝐿1 ∪ 𝐿2 ≠ 𝐿1
Ans: a

Q Consider the non-deterministic finite automaton (NFA) shown in the figure. (GATE-2005) (2
Marks)

State X is the starting state of the automaton. Let the language accepted by the NFA with Y as
the only accepting state be L1. Similarly, let the language accepted by the NFA with Z as the
only accepting state be L2. Which of the following statements about L1 and L2 is TRUE?
(A) L1 = L2 (B) L1 ⊂ L2 (C) L2 ⊂ L1 (D) None of the above
Answer: (D)

Q The minimum number of states of the non-deterministic finite automation which accepts
the language {a b a bn|n >=0} U {a b an|n >= 0} is (NET-DEC-2012)
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6
Ans: c
Q Let w be any string of length n is {0, 1}*. Let L be the set of all substrings of w. What is the
minimum number of states in a non-deterministic finite automaton that accepts L? (GATE-
2010) (2 Marks)
a) n-1 b) n c) n+1 d) 2n-1
ANSWER C
 NFA and DFA Equivalence
• In this topic we will be learning about the equivalence of NFA and DFA and how an NFA
can be converted to equivalent DFA. Let us take an example and understand the
conversion.
• Since every NFA and DFA has equal power that means, for every language if a NFA is
possible, then DFA is also possible.
• So, every NFA can be converted to DFA and vice versa.
• The process of conversion of an NFA into a DFA is called Subset Construction.
• If NFA have ‘n’ states which is converted into DFA which ‘m’ states than the relationship
between n and m will be 1<= m <= 2n
• Consider the following NFA:

• We first draw the transition table of the NFA as:

• Now, the transitions such as: q0, q1 are treated as a new state.
 • Now, we convert the NFA into equivalent DFA such that we will be taking transitions from
the new states too. The transitions over the alphabets of the new states will be the union
of all the transitions over a particular input symbol. Such that:

• For instance, state {q0, q1, b} => {q0, q2} as q1 on b initially transitions to q2 and q0 on b
transitions to q0, so we take the union of the two and treat it as a new state. Similarly,
after the final transitions we get the table as:

• And we convert the table into the DFA as:

Q Can a DFA simulate NFA?

a) no b) yes c) sometime d) depends on NFA

Q Given an arbitrary non-deterministic finite automaton (NFA) with N states, the maximum
number of states in an equivalent minimized DFA is at least (GATE-2001) (2 Marks)
(A) N2 (B) 2N (C) 2N (D) N!
Answer: (B)

Q Let N be an NFA with n states and let M be the minimized DFA with m states recognizing the
same language. Which of the following in NECESSARILY true? (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)
(A) m ≤ 2n (B) n ≤ m (C) M has one accept state (D) m = 2n
Answer: (A)

Q Let N be an NFA with n states. Let k be the number of states of a minimal DFA which is
equivalent to N. Which one of the following is necessarily true? (GATE-2018) (1 Marks)
a) k ≥ 2n b) k ≥ n c) k ≤ n2 d) k ≤ 2n
(ANSWER- D)

Q IF an NDFA accepting L is denoted by (Q, S, d, 𝑞0 , F) the equivalence DFA is denoted M’ = (Q’,

∑, δ, 𝑞0 ’, F’) Which of the following is true?
a) Q’ ⊆ 2𝑄 b) 𝑞0′ = 𝑞0
c) F’ is the set containing all elements of F d) all of above
 Procedure for Conversion
There lies a fixed algorithm for the NFA and DFA conversion. Following two things must be
considered-

• Initial state will always remain same.

• Start the construction of ’ with the initial state & continue for every new state that comes
under the input column and terminate the process whenever no new state appears under
the input column.

• Every subset of states that contain the final state of the NFA is a final state in the resulting
DFA.

• ’(q0 , q1, q2 , q3--------, qn-1,a) = ⋃𝑖=𝑛−1

𝑖=0 ( qi , a)

For e.g.
Q Given a Non-deterministic Finite Automation (NFA) with states p and r as initial and final
states respectively and transition table as given below:
a b
P – q
Q r s
R r s
S r s
The minimum number of states required in Deterministic Finite Automation (DFA) equivalent
to NFA is (NET-JUNE-2013)
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 3 (D) 2
Ans: b
 NFA WITH EPSILON MOVES (€-NFA)
An automaton that consist of null transitions is called a Null- NFA i.e. we allow a transition on
null means empty string.

€-NFA is a 5-tuple (Q,,,S,F) where:

Q is a finite and non-empty set of states

 is a finite non-empty set of finite input alphabet

 is a transition function : (Q × { U ε}) → 2Q

S is initial state (always one) (S Q)

F is a set of final states (F  Q) (0<=|F|<=N, where n is the number of states

 NULL-CLOSURE
• Null closure of a set Q is defined as a set of all the states, which are at zero distance from
the state Q. A set of all the states, that can be reached from the state and along a null-
transition.
• €-Closure(qi), The set of all the states which are at zero distance from the state qi is called
€-closure(qi). Or the set of all the states that can be reached from the state q i along €
labelled transition path, is known as €-closure(qi).

For e.g.

Q Consider the following null-NFA.

NULL CLOSURES-

Q0 – {Q0, Q1, Q2} Q1 – {Q1, Q2} Q2 –{Q2}

• Every state is at zero distance to itself.

• In NFA or DFA, distance between two states is always 1, because there could be no null
transitions.
• The Null closure Q is always a non-empty and finite state, because every state’s null
closure is that state only.
• €-closure(Φ) = Φ
• €-closure (q0 , q1, q2 , q3--------, qn) =⋃𝑖=𝑛
𝑖=0 ( €-closure(qi))
 EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN NULL NFA TO NFA
• There will be no change in the initial state.

• No change in the total no. of states

• Me be change in the number of final states.

• All the states will get the status of the final state in the resulting NFA, whose €-closure
contains at least one final state in the initial €-NFA.

Q Consider the following NFA,

Consider the following null NFA and convert it into corresponding DFA

Q Let us find the ε-Closure to above examples:

Q ε-Closure

q0 {q0, q1, q2}

q1 {q1, q2}

q2 {q2}

Now, we check out for the transitions that will be made using: ẟ’(qi, x) = ε-Closure [ẟ[ε-
Closure(qi), x]]
Let us check for ẟ(q0, a) = ε-Closure [ẟ[ε-Closure(q0), a]]
• first, we find ε-Closure of q0: {q0, q1, q2}
 • Now check transition of all three states on input symbol a we get: q0
• After that we again calculate the ε-Closure of the above result q0, we get the result as:
{q0, q1, q2}
• Similarly, we will check it for every state.
The resulting table of NFA will be:

NFA a b c
→ q0 {q0, q1, q2} {q1, q2} {q2}

q1 Φ {q1, q2} {q2}

q2 Φ Φ {q2}

• All those states will be considered as a final state in which we have q2(final state in initial
ε-NFA) in there ε-Closure, i.e. all states will be final in this case.

Q Consider the following NFA with ϵ moves.

Q if the given NFA is converted to NFA without ϵ - moves, which of the following denotes the
set of final states?
a) {𝑞2 } b) {𝑞1 , 𝑞2 } c) {𝑞0 , 𝑞1 , 𝑞2 } d) can’t be determined

Q Which of the following strings will not be accepted by the given NFA?
a) 00 11 22 b) 11 22 c) 21 d) 22
Q Let δ denote the transition function and δ’ denoted the extended transition function of the
ε-NFA whose transition table is given below: (GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
Then, δ’ (q2, aba) is

a) Ø b) {q1, q2, q3} c) {q0, q1, q2} d) {q0, q2, q3}

Ans: c

Q Which of the following is false?

a) The languages accepted by FAs are regular languages
b) Every DFA is an NFA
c) There are some NFAs for which no DFA can be constructed
d) If L is accepted by an NFA with ϵ transition then L is accepted by an NFA without ϵ transition
Answer: (c)

Q An FSM can be used to add two given integers. This remark is

a) true b) false c) may be true d) none of the above
Consider the following languages and find which of them are regular?
L = {am bn | m, n >=0}
L = {am bn cp | m, n, p >= 0}
L = {ax1bx2----zx26 | xi >= 0,0 <= I <= 26}
L = {am bn | 1 <= m <= 100, 1 <= n <= 1200}
L = {am bn | m*n = finite}
L = {an bn| 1 <= n <= 2|GATE|}
L = {an bn| 1 <= n <= 237th prime}
L = {am bn | m = n, 1 <= n <= 22^10}
L = {am bn | m = n | m, n> = 0}
L = {am bn | m < n | m, n >= 0}
L = {am bn | m != n | m, n > 0}
L = {am bn | m is divisible by n}
L = {am bn | m = np, p>=1}
L = {am bn | G (1) | m, n >= 1}
L = {am bn | m + n = even}
L = {am bn cp | m = n = p}
L = {am bn cp | m + p = n}
L = {am bn | m + n = odd}

L = {w c wr | w  Σ*}

L = {w c w | w  Σ *}

L = {w c wr | w  Σ +}

L= {w c w | w  Σ +}

L = {w w | w  Σ *}
L= {w wr | w  Σ +}

L = {w c wr | c, w  Σ *}

L = {c w wr | c, w  Σ *}

L= {w wr c | c, w  Σ *}

L = {w c wr | c, w  Σ +

L = {c w wr | c, w  Σ +}

L= {w wr c | c, w  Σ +}

L = {w c w | c, w  Σ *}

L = {c w w | c, w  Σ *}

L= {w w c | c, w  Σ *}

L = {w c w | c, w  Σ +}

L = {c w w | c, w  Σ +}

L= {w w c | c, w  Σ +}

Q Which of the following are regular sets? (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)

(A) I and IV only (B) I and III only (C) I only (D) IV only
Answer: (A)
Which one of the following is CORRECT? (GATE-2014) (2 Marks)
(A) Only (I) (B) Only (II) (C) Both (I) and (II) (D) Neither (I) nor (II)
Answer: (A)

Q Which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE-2014) (1 Marks)

Answer: (C)

Q Consider the following two statements (GATE-2001) (2 Marks)

(A) Only S1 is correct (B) Only S2 is correct

(C) Both S1 and S2 are correct (D) None of S1 and S2 is correct
Answer: (A)

Q Consider the following languages (GATE-2001) (2 Marks)

Which of the languages are regular?
(A) Only L1 and L2 (B) Only L2, L3 and L4
(C) Only L3 and L4 (D) Only L3
Answer: (D)

Q Which of the following languages is/are regular? (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)

L1: {w x wR ⎪ w, x ∈ {a, b}* and ⎪w⎪, ⎪x⎪ >0} wR is the reverse of string w
L2: {an bm ⎪m ≠ n and m, n≥0
L3: {ap bq cr ⎪ p, q, r ≥ 0}
(A) L1 and L3 only (B) L2 only (C) L2 and L3 only (D) L3 only
Answer: (A)

Q Which of the following languages is (are) non-regular? (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)

L1 = {0m1n | 0 ≤ m ≤ n ≤ 10000}
L2 = {w | w reads the same forward and backward}
L3 = {w ∊ {0, 1} * | w contains an even number of 0’s and an even number of 1’s}
(A) L2 and L3 only (B) L1 and L2 only (C) L3 only (D) L2 only
Answer: (D)

Q Which of the following languages is regular? (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)

a) {w wR |w ∈ {0, 1}+} b) {w wR x| x, w ∈ {0,1}+}
c) {w x wR |x, w ∈ {0,1}+} d) {x w wR| x, w ∈ {0,1}+}
ANSWER C
Q Let P be a regular language and Q be context-free language such that Q  P. (For
example, let P be the language represented by the regular expression p*q* and Q be {pnqn
|n  N}). Then which of the following is ALWAYS regular? (GATE-2011) (1 Marks)
(A) P ⋂ Q (B) P - Q (C)  *- P (D) * - Q
ANSWER C

Q Which of the following are not regular? (NET-JAN-2017)

(A) Strings of even number of a’s.
(B) Strings of a’s, whose length is a prime number.
(C) Set of all palindromes made up of a’s and b’s. Strings of a’s whose length is a perfect
square.
a) (A) and (B) only b) (A), (B) and (C) only
c) (B), (C) and (D) only d) (B) and (D) only
Ans: c

Q Consider the following two languages: (NET-SEP-2013)

L1 = {an bl ak | n + l +k > 5 }
L2 = {an bl ak |n>5, l >3, k≤ l}
Which of the following is true?
(A) L1 is regular language and L2 is not regular language.
(B) Both L1 and L2 are regular languages.
(C) Both L1 and L2 are not regular languages.
(D) L1 is not regular language and L2 is regular language.
Ans: a

Q Given the following statements:

S1: If L is a regular language then the language {u v | u ∈ L, v ∈ LR} is also regular.
S2: L = {w wR} is regular language.
Which of the following is true? (NET-DEC-2013)
(A) S1 is not correct and S2 is not correct.
(B) S1 is not correct and S2 is correct.
(C) S1 is correct and S2 is not correct.
(D) S1 is correct and S2 is correct.
Ans: c
Q Given two languages: (NET-DEC-2014)
L1= {(ab)n ak| n > k, k ≥ 0}
L2= {an bm | n ≠ m}
Using pumping lemma for regular language, it can be shown that
(A) L1 is regular and L2 is not regular.
(B) L1is not regular and L2is regular.
(C) L1is regular and L2is regular.
(D) L1is not regular and L2is not regular.
Ans: d

Q Given the following two languages:

L1 = {u w wR ν | u, v, w ∈ {a, b}+}
L2 = {u w wR ν | u, ν, w ∈ {a, b}+, |u| > |ν|}
Which of the following is correct ? (NET-AUG-2016)
a) L1 is regular language and L2 is not regular language.
b) L1 is not regular language and L2 is regular language.
c) Both L1 and L2 are regular languages.
d) Both L1 and L2are not regular languages.
Ans: a

Q If L is a regular language over ∑ = {a, b}, which one of the following languages is NOT
regular? (GATE-2019) (2 Marks)
a) L⋅ LR {xy | x ∈ L, yR ∈ L}
b) Suffix (L) = {y ∈ ∑* | ∃x ∈ ∑* such that xy ∈ L}
c) Prefix (L) = {x ∈ ∑* | ∃y ∈ ∑* such that xy ∈ L}
d) {w wR | w ∈ L}
Ans: d

(NET-DEC-2018)

a) Only L1 is regular language b) Only L2 is regular language

c) Both L1 and L2 are regular languages d) Neither L1 nor L2 is regular
Ans: d

Q Let L1 = {w ∈ {0, 1}∗ | w has at least as many occurrences of (110)’s as (011)’s}.

Let L2 = {w ∈ {0, 1}∗ | w has at least as many occurrences of (000)’s as (111)’s}.
Which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE-2014) (2 Marks)
(A) L1 is regular but not L2 (B) L2 is regular but not L!
(C) Both L2 and L1 are regular (D) Neither L1 nor L2 are regular
Answer: (A)

(A) is True. Though at first look both L1L1 and L2L2 looks non-regular, L1L1 is in fact regular.
The reason is the relation between 110110 and 011011.
We cannot have two 110′110′s in a string without a 011011 or vice verse. And this would
mean that we only need a finite number of states to check for acceptance of any word in
this language.
That was just an intuitive explanation. Now I say that L contains all binary strings starting
with 1111. Yes, if a binary string starts with 1111, it can never have more no.
of 011011 than 110110.

Q If s is a string over (0 + 1)* then let n0(s) denote the number of 0’s in s and n1(s) the
number of 1’s in s. Which one of the following languages is not regular? (GATE-2006) (2
Marks)
Answer: (C)

Q Let Σ be the set of all bijections from {1, ..., 5} to {1, ..., 5}, where id denotes the identity
function, i.e. id(j) = j, ∀j. Let ° denote composition on functions. For a string x = x1x2 ... xn ∈
Σn, n ≥ 0, let π(x) = x1°x2° ... °xn. Consider the language L = {x ∈ Σ* | π(x) = id}. The minimum
number of states in any DFA accepting L is _________. (GATE-2019) (2 Marks)
Answer: a
 REGULAR EXPRESSIONS
One way of describing regular language is via the notation of regular expression. An expression
of strings which represents regular language is called regular expression.

Regular
Expression

Semi Unrestricted
Restricted RE
Restricted RE RE

+, ., * +, ., *, ⋂ +, ., *, ⋂, ¬

The regular expressions are useful for representing certain sets of strings in an algebraic
fashion. We give a formal recursive definition of regular expressions over ∑ as follows:
Any terminal symbol (i.e. an element of ∑), ∈ and Φ are regular expressions (Primitive Regular
Expressions). A regular expression is valid iff it can be derived from a primitive regular by a finite
number of applications of the above regular set.
• When we view a in ∑ as a regular expression, we denote it by a.
• The union of two regular expressions r1 and r2, written as r1 + r2, is also a regular
expression.
• The concatenation of two regular expressions r1 and r2, written as r1 r2, is also a regular
expression.
• The iteration (or closure) of a regular expression r written as r*, is also a regular
expression.
• If R is a regular expression, then (r) is also a regular expression.
Any set(language) represented by a regular expression is called a regular set (regular language).
If for example, a, b ∈ ∑, then
• a denotes the L = {a}
• a + b denotes L = {a, b}
• a.b denotes L = {ab} concatenation
• a* denotes the set {∈, a, aa, aaa, ...} known as Kleene closure.
• (a + b)* denotes {a, b}*
• a+ Positive closure {a, aa, aaa…}
• R = {a.b + a}b

The precedence order to solve is: * (Kleene Closure) > + Positive Closure > Concatenation > Union

IDENTITIES FOR REGULAR EXPRESSIONS- Two regular expressions P and Q are equivalent (we
write P = Q) if P and Q represent the same set of strings.
Q Let S and T be language over Σ = {a, b} represented by the regular expressions (a + b*)* and
(a + b)*, respectively. Which of the following is true? (GATE-2000) (1 Marks)
(A) S ⊂ T (B) T ⊂ S (C) S = T (D) S ∩ T = φ
Answer: (C)

• Every regular expression can generate only one regular language but, a regular language
can be generated by more than one regular expression I.e. means two different regular
expression can generate same language.
• Two regular expression are said to be equal if they generate same language.
• For e.g., r1 = a*, r2 = (aa)*
 FINITE AUTOMATA AND REGULAR EXPRESSIONS

Q Design a regular express that represent a language ‘L’, where L={a} over the alphabet ∑={a}.

Q design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, where every
accepted string ‘w’ starts with substring s
i) s = b ii) s = ab iii) s = abb

Q design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. where every
accepted string ‘w’ ends with substring ‘s’.
i) s = ab ii) s = aa iii) s = bab

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}. where every
accepted string ‘w’ contains sub string s.
i) abb ii) aba

Q No of states in a minimal in a that accepts all the strings of a, b such that every string must
have ‘aabab’ as sub stray
a) 5 b) 6 c) 7 d) none

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that
every accepted string start and end with a.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that
every accepted string start and end with same symbol.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that
every accepted string start and end with different symbol.
Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that
every accepted string w, is like w=SX.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that
every accepted string w, is like w=XS.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that
every accepted string w, is like w=XSX.
i) s= aa/bb ii) s=aaa/bbb

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that
every string ‘w’ accepted must be like
i) |w| = 3 ii) |w|<=3 iii) |w|>=3

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that
every string accepted must contain exactly two a’s.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that
every string accepted must contain at least two a’s.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that
every string accepted must contain at most two a’s.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that for
every accepted string 2nd from left end is always b.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b} such that for
every accepted string 4th from left end is always a.

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑= {a, b}, such that
every string ‘w’ where |W| = 0(mod 3)?
Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑= {a, b}, such that
every string ‘w’ where |W| = 3(mod 4)?

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑= {a, b}, such that
every string ‘w’ where |W|a = 0(mod 3)?

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑= {a, b}, such that
every string ‘w’ where |W|a = 2(mod 3)?

Q Design a regular express that represent all strings over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b}, such that
every string accepted must contain be like, no of a = 0(mod 2) || no of b = 0(mod 2)?

Q L = {am bn | m, n >= 0}

Q L = {am bn | m>=1, n >= 1}

Q L = {am bn | m>=2, n >= 3}

Q L = {am bn cp | m, n, p >= 1}

Q L = {an bn | n >= 1}

Q Write a regular expression for the language, L = {w c wr |w, c (- {a, b}+}

Q L = {am bn | m + n = even}
 Algebraic Properties of regular expressions-

• Closure Property - Regular expressions satisfy closure property with respect to Union,
Concatenation and kleene closure. If R1 and R2 are regular expression then the following
will also be regular expression.
o r1 + r2
o r1.r2
o r1*
o r1+
• Associative Property- Regular expression satisfy associative property with respect to
union and intersection.
o (r1 + r2) + r3 = r1 + (r2 + r3)
o (r1. r2). r3 = r1. (r2. r3)
• Identity Property- The identity property is satisfied as follows-
o r. ε =r
o r+ ϕ =r
• Inverse Property- The inverse property is only satisfied with respect to concatenation,
for union inverse property isn’t satisfied.
o r. () = ε
o r+ () = ϕ
• Commutative Property-Regular expressions are commutative with respect to union but
not with respect to concatenation.
o r1+ r2 = r2+ r1
o r1. r2 != r2. r1
• Distributive Property-Regular expression satisfy this property as follows-
o r1(r2+r3) = r1r2+r1r3
o (r1+r2) r3 = r1r3+r2r3
o r1+(r2. r3) != (r1+r2)(r1+r3)
o (r1.r2) + r3 = (r1 +r3). (r2 + r3)
• Idempotent Property-Regular expressions satisfies idempotent property with respect to
union but not with respect to concatenation.
o r1+r1=r1
o r1. r1 != r1
 Identities for regular expressions
• φ+r=r
• φ. r = r. φ = φ
• ∈. r = r. ∈ = r
• ∈ * = ∈ and ф * = ∈

• r*r* = r*
• r. r* = r*. r
• r+. r* =r+
• r+ r+ =r+-r

• r+ u r* =r*
• r+ ⋂ r* = r+

• (r*)* = r*
• (r+)*=r*
• ((r+)*)* = r*
• ((r*)*)r+ = r+

• (r1+r2)* =(r1* + r2*)*

• (r1+r2)* =(r1 + r2*)*
• (r1+r2)* =(r1* + r2) *
• (r1+r2)* =(r1* + r2*)
• (r1+r2)* =(r1* . r2*)*
• (r1+r2)* =(r1 . r2*)*
• (r1+r2)* =(r1* . r2)*
• (r1+r2)* =(r1 . r2)*
• (r1+r2)* =(r1* . r2*)
• r1(r2.r1)* =(r1.r2)*r1
•
• L(r*) = [L(r)]*
 • L(r+) = [L(r)]+
• L(r1+R2) = L(r1) U L(r2)
• L(r1.r2) = L(r1).L(r2)
• L((r1)) = L(r1)

Q Which of the following are equal

a) a* b) (aa)* c) a(aa)* d) (a + ε) a*

Q Which one of the following languages over the alphabet {0,1} is described by the regular
expression: (0+1)*0(0+1)*0(0+1)*? (GATE-2009) (2 Marks)
(A) The set of all strings containing the substring 00.
(B) The set of all strings containing at most two 0’s.
(C) The set of all strings containing at least two 0’s.
(D) The set of all strings that begin and end with either 0 or 1.
Answer: (C)

Q Which of the following regular expressions describes the language over {0, 1} consisting of
strings that contain exactly two 1’s? (GATE-2008) (1 Marks)
(A) (0 + 1) * 11(0 + 1) * (B) 0 * 110 *
(C) 0 * 10 * 10 * (D) (0 + 1) * 1(0 + 1) * 1 (0 + 1) *
Answer: (C)

Q Which of the following regular expression identities are true? (NET-DEC-2012)

(A) (r + s)* = r* s* (B) (r + s)* = r* + s*
(C) (r + s)* = (r*s*)* (D) r* s* = r* + s*
Ans: c

Q Consider the following identities for regular expressions: (a) (r + s)* = (s + r)* (b) (r*)* = r* (c)
(r* s*)* = (r + s)* Which of the above identities are true? (NET-AUG-2016)
a) (a) and (b) only b) (b) and (c) only
c) (c) and (a) only d) (a), (b) and (c)
Ans: d

Q The regular expression 0*(10*)* denotes the same set as (GATE-2003) (1 Marks)
(A) (1*0)*1* (B) 0 + (0 + 10)* (C) (0 + 1)* 10(0 + 1)* (D) none of these
Answer: (A)

Q Which of the following is correct

a) (xx)*y = x(xy)* b) (xy)*x = x(yx)*
c) x(xy)* = (xx)*y d) (xy)* = (yx)*
Ans: b

Q Which one of the following regular expressions is NOT equivalent to the regular expression
(a + b + c) *? (GATE-2004) (2 Marks)
(A) (a* + b* + c*)* (B) (a*b*c*)* (C) ((ab)* + c*)* (D) (a*b* + c*)*
Answer: (C)

Q Consider the languages L1 = Φ and L2 = {a}. Which one of the following represents L1 L2*U
L1* (GATE-2013) (1 Marks)?

Answer:(A)

Q Consider the languages L1 = φ and L2 = {1}. Which one of the following represents
L1 * ∪ L1 * L2 *? (NET-JAN-2017)
a) {∈} b) {∈, 1} c) Φ d) 1*
Ans: d
 (NET-DEC-2018)
a) Only I b) Only ii c) Both i and ii d) Neither i nor ii
Ans: a

Q Which one of the following regular expressions represents the language: the set of all binary
strings having two consecutive 0s and two consecutive 1s? (GATE-2016) (2 Marks)

Answer: (B)

Q The regular expression for the complement of the language L = {an bm | n ≥ 4, m ≤ 3} is: (NET-
JULY-2016)
a) (∈ + a + aa + aaa) b* + a* bbbb* + (a + b)* ba(a + b)*
b) (∈ + a + aa + aaa) b* + a* bbbbb* + (a + b)* ab(a + b)*
c) (∈ + a + aa + aaa) + a* bbbbb* + (a + b)* ab(a + b)*
d) (∈ + a + aa + aaa) b* + a* bbbbb* + (a + b)* ba(a + b)*
Ans: d

Q The regular expression corresponding to the language L where L = { x ϵ {0, 1}*|x ends with 1
and does not contain substring 00 } is: (NET-JUNE-2015)
a) (1 + 01) * (10 + 01) b) (1 + 01) * 01
c) (1 + 01) * (1 + 01) d) (10 + 01) * 01
Ans: c

Q Regular expression for the language L = {w ∈ {0, 1}* | w has no pair of consecutive zeros} is
(NET-SEP-2013)
(A) (1 + 010)* (B) (01 + 10)* (C) (1 + 010)* (0 + ∈) (D) (1 + 01)* (0 + ∈)
Ans: d

Q Regular expression for the complement of language L = {anbm | n ≥ 4, m ≤ 3} is (NET-DEC-

2014)
(A) (a + b)* ba(a + b)* (B) a* bbbbb*
(C) (∈ + a + aa + aaa)b* + (a + b)* ba(a + b)* (D) None of the above
Ans: d

Q The number of strings of length 4 that are generated by the regular expression
(0|∈ )1+2(3|∈), where | is an alternation character and {+, *} are quantification characters, is:
(NET-AUG-2016)
a) 08 b) 09 c) 10 d) 12
Ans: d

Q find the no of strings of length <= 3 generated by the (a + ab)+

Q which of the following statements are correct

a) r*, r+ always represent infinite language.
b) r*, r+ always represent infinite language.
c) r* = r+ if and only if r = ε
d) r* = r+ = r if r = Ф
 EQUIVALENCE BETWEEN REGULAR EXPRESSION AND FINITE AUTOMATA-

ARDEN’S THEOREM is the mechanism for the construction of a regular expression from a
finite automaton.

Steps used-

1.For, every individual state of the DFA, write an expression for every incoming and
outgoing input alphabet.

2.Apply Arden’s theorem as follows-

a) If P is free from NULL, then equation R=Q+RP has unique solution, R=QP*

b) If P contains NULL, then equation R=Q+RP has many infinitely many solutions.

Q Consider a DFA and convert it into regular expression using Arden’s theorem?
(A, a) = A
(A, b) = B
(B, a) = B
(B, b) = B
A is the initial state and B Is the final state

Q Consider a DFA and convert it into regular expression using Arden’s theorem?
(A, b) = A
(A, b) = B
(B, a) = C
(C, b) = C
A is the initial state and B,C Is the final state

Q Consider alphabet ∑ = {0, 1}, the null/empty string ∈ and the sets of strings X0, X1 and
X2 generated by the corresponding non-terminals of a regular grammar. X0, X1 and X2 are
related as follows (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)
X0 = 1 X 1 X1 = 0 X1 + 1 X2 X2 = 0 X1 + {∈}
Which one of the following choices precisely represents the strings in X0?
(A) 10 (0* + (10)*)1 (B) 10 (0* + (10)*)*1
(C) 1(0* + 10)*1 (D) 10 (0 + 10)*1 + 110 (0 + 10)*1
Answer: (C)
 Conversion from Finite Automata to Regular expression

Q Write regular expressions for the following machines

Q Which regular expression best describes the language accepted by the non-deterministic
automaton below? (GATE-2006) (1 Marks)

(A) (a + b)* a(a + b)b (B) (abb)* (C) (a + b)* a(a + b)* b(a + b)* (D) (a + b)*
Answer: (A)

Q Let L = {w ∈ (0 + 1)* | w has even number of 1s}, i.e. L is the set of all bit strings with even
number of 1s. Which one of the regular expressions below represents L? (GATE-2010) (2
Marks)
a) (0 * 10 * 1)* b) 0 * (10 * 10*)*
c) 0*(10 * 1*)*0* d) 0 * 1(10 * 1)*10*
ANSWER B

Q Consider the following Finite State Automaton. The language accepted by this automaton is
given by the regular expression (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)
Answer: (C)

Q Consider the automata given in previous question. The minimum state automaton
equivalent to the above FSA has the following number of states (GATE-2007) (1 Marks)
(A) 1 (B) 2 (C) 3 (D) 4
Answer: (B)

Q The regular expression for the following DFA

Is (NET-JUNE-2012)
(A) ab*(b + aa*b)* (B) a*b(b + aa*b)*
(C) a*b(b* + aa*b) (D) a*b(b * + aa*b)*
Ans: d

Q Which of the regular expressions given below represent the following DFA? (GATE-2014) (2
Marks)
I) 0*1(1+00*1)* II) 0*1*1+11*0*1 III) (0+1)*1
(A) I and II only (B) I and III only (C) II and III only (D) I, II, and III
Answer: (B)

Q If the final states and non-final states in the DFA below are interchanged, then which of the
following languages over the alphabet {a, b} will be accepted by the new DFA? (GATE-2008) (1
Marks)

(A) Set of all strings that do not end with ab

(B) Set of all strings that begin with either an a or a b
(C) Set of all strings that do not contain the substring ab,
(D) The set described by the regular expression b*aa*(ba)*b*
Answer: (A)
 Conversion from Regular expression in Finite Automata
R*
(R1.R2)*
(R1+ R2)*
(R1*R2.R3*)
R = a*b(ab)*
R = (a+ ba)*ab*
R = (aa+ aaa)*
R = (a+ aaaaa)*
{a.b + a}b
0 * 10 * 10 *
((ab)* + c*)*
(∈ + a + aa + aaa)b* + (a + b)* ba(a + b)*
0*(10 * 1*)*0*
a*b(b * + aa*b)*
((11*0+0)(0 + 1)*0*1*)
(ab+ bc+ acc).(a+ bc)*.( ∈+ bc*a)*

Q Consider the regular language L = (111 + 11111)*. The minimum number of states in any
DFA accepting this language is: (GATE-2006) (1 Marks)
(A) 3 (B) 5 (C) 8 (D) 9
Answer: (D)

Q The number of states in the minimal deterministic finite automaton corresponding to the
regular expression (0 + 1)*(10) is ____________ (GATE-2015) (1 Marks)
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
Answer: (B)

Q The number of states in the minimum sized DFA that accepts the language defined by the
regular expression (0+1)*(0+1)(0+1)* is __________________ (GATE-2016) (2 Marks)
[Note that this question was originally asked as Fill-in-the-Blanks type]
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
Answer: (A)

Q Let T be the language represented by the regular expression Σ∗0011Σ∗ where Σ = {0, 1}.
What is the minimum number of states in a DFA that recognizes L’ (complement of L)? (GATE-
2015) (2 Marks)
(A) 4 (B) 5 (C) 6 (D) 8
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the language L given by the regular expression (a + b) *b(a +b) over the alphabet
{a, b}. The smallest number of states needed in a deterministic finite-state automaton (DFA)
accepting L is ______. (GATE-2017) (1 Marks)
ANSWER 4

Q Which of the following statements is TRUE about the regular expression 01*0? (GATE-2005)
(1 Marks)
(A) It represents a finite set of finite strings.
(B) It represents an infinite set of finite strings.
(C) It represents a finite set of infinite strings.
(D) It represents an infinite set of infinite strings
Answer: (B)

Q Which of the following regular expressions, each describing a language of binary numbers
(MSB to LSB) that represents non-negative decimal values, does not include even values?
(NET-NOV-2017)
a) 0*1+0*1* b) 0*1*0+1* c) 0*1*0*1+ d) 0+1*0*1*
Ans: c

Q The length of the shortest string NOT in the language (over Σ = {a, b}) of the following
regular expression is ______________. (GATE-2014) (2 Marks)
a*b*(ba)*a*
(A) 2 (B) 3 (C) 4 (D) 5
Answer: (B)
Q Consider the regular expression (a + b) (a + b) ... (a + b) (n-times). The minimum number of
states in finite automaton that recognizes the language represented by this regular expression
contains (NET-JUNE-2012)
(A) n states (B) n + 1 states
(C) n + 2 states (D) 2n states
Ans: b

Q Consider the DFA given.

Which of the following are FALSE? (GATE-2013) (2 Marks)

1. Complement of L(A) is context-free.
2. L(A) = L((11*0+0)(0 + 1)*0*1*)
3. For the language accepted by A, A is the minimal DFA.
4. A accepts all strings over {0, 1} of length at least 2.
a) 1 and 3 only b) 2 and 4 only
c) 2 and 3 only d) 3 and 4 only
Ans: d

Q which of the following re, over the Σ = {0, 1} denotes the set of all strings that not contain
100 as sub-string
a) 0*(0+1)* b) 0*1010* c) 0*1*01 d) 0*(10+1)*

Q the string 1101 does not belong to the set

a) 110*(0+1) b) 1(0+1)*101
c) (10)*(10)*(00+11)* d) (00 + (11)*01)*
Q Match the following NFAs with the regular expressions they correspond to (GATE-2008) (2
Marks)
1. ϵ + 0(01*1 + 00) * 01* 2. ϵ + 0(10 *1 + 00) * 0
3. ϵ + 0(10 *1 + 10) *1 4. ϵ + 0(10 *1 + 10) *10 *

(A) P – 2, Q – 1, R – 3, S – 4 (B) P – 1, Q – 3, R – 2, S – 4
(C) P – 1, Q – 2, R – 3, S – 4 (D) P – 3, Q – 2, R – 1, S – 4
Answer: (C)
Q Pushdown automata can recognize language generated by_________. (NET-JULY-2018)
(1) Only context free grammar (2) Only regular grammar
(3) Context free grammar or regular grammar (4) Only context sensitive grammar
Ans: c

Q Which of the following languages is generated by the given grammar? (GATE-2016) (2

Marks)
S → aS | bS | ε
(A) {an bm |n, m ≥ 0}
(B) {w ∈ {a, b}* | w has equal number of a’s and b’s}
(C) {an |n ≥ 0} ∪ {bn |n ≥ 0} ∪ {an bn |n ≥ 0}
(D) {a, b}*
ANSWER -D

Q Let L denotes the language generated by the grammar S → 0S0/00. (GATE-2000) (1

Marks)
Which of the following is true?
a) L = 0+ b) L is regular by not 0+
c) L is context free but not regular d) L is not context free
Ans: b

Q Language L1 is defined by the grammar: S1 -> aS1b | ε

Language L2 is defined by the grammar: S2 -> abS2 | ε
Consider the following statements:
P: L1 is regular Q: L2 is regular
Which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)
a) Both P and Q are true b) P is true and Q is false
c) P is false and Q is true d) Both P and Q are false
ANSWER C

Q S -> aSa | bSb | a | b (GATE-2009) (2 Marks)

The language generated by the above grammar over the alphabet {a, b} is the set of
(A) All palindromes
(B) All odd length palindromes.
(C) Strings that begin and end with the same symbol
(D) All even length palindromes
Answer: (B)
Q The grammar with production rules S → aSb | SS | λ generates language L given by: (NET-
JUNE-2013)
(A) L = {w ∈ {a, b}*| na (w) = nb(w) and na(v) ≥ nb(v) where v is any prefix of w}
(B) L = {w ∈ {a, b}*| na(w) = nb(w) and na(v) ≤ nb(v) where v is any prefix of w}
(C) L = {w ∈ {a, b}*| na (w) ≠ nb(w) and na (v) ≥ nb(v) where v is any prefix of w}
(D) L = {w ∈ {a, b}*| na (w) ≠ nb(w) and na(v) ≤ nb(v) where v is any prefix of w}
Ans: a

Q Which of the following definitions generates the same Language as L, where L = {WWR |
W ∈ {a, b}*} (NET-DEC-2012)
(A) S → asb | bsa | ∈ (B) S → asa | bsb | ∈
(C) S → asb | bsa | asa | bsb | ∈ (D) S → asb | bsa | asa | bsb | ∈
Ans: b

Q The following CFG (NET-JUNE-2012)

S → aB | bA
A → a | as | bAA
B → b | bs | aBB
generates strings of terminals that have
(A) odd number of a’s and odd number of b’s
(B) even number of a’s and even number of b’s
(C) equal number of a’s and b’s
(D) not equal number of a’s and b’s
Ans: c

Q A context free grammar for L = {w | n0 (w) > n1 (w)} is given by: (NET-JUNE-2015)
a) S → 0 | 0 S | 1 S S b) S → 0 S | 1 S | 0 S S | 1 S S | 0 | 1
c) S → 0 | 0 S | 1 S S | S 1 S | S S 1 d) S → 0 S |1 S | 0 | 1
Ans: c

Q The following Context-Free Grammar (CFG): (NET-DEC-2014)

S → aB | bA
A → a | as | bAA
B → b | bs | aBB
will generate
(A) odd numbers of a’s and odd numbers of b’s
(B) even numbers of a’s and even numbers of b’s
(C) equal numbers of a’s and b’s
(D) different numbers of a’s and b’s
Ans: a

Q Identity the language generated by following grammar where S is the start variable.
(GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
S-->XY
X--> aX | a
Y--> aYb | ∈
a) {am bn| m >= n, n > 0} b) {am bn| m >= n, n >= 0}
c) {am bn| m > n, n >= 0} d) {am bn| m > n, n > 0}
Ans: c

Q The equivalent production rules corresponding to the production rules

S → Sα1 |Sα2 | β1 | β2 is (NET-JUNE-2013)
(A) S → β1 | β2, A → α1A | α2A | λ
(B) S → β1| β2| β1A | β2A, A → α1A | α2A
(C) S → β1 | β2, A → α1A | α2A
(D) S → β1 | β2 | β1A | β2A, A → α1A | α2A | λ
Ans: d

Q Which one of the following grammars generates the language L = {ai bj | i ≠ j} (GATE-
2006) (1 Marks)
Answer: (D)

Q Which of the following definitions below generates the same language as L, where (GATE
-1995) (2 Marks)
L = { 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦 𝑛 such that n > = 1} ?
I. E → xEy | xy II. xy | (𝑥 + sy𝑦 + ) III. 𝑥 + 𝑦 +
a) I only b) I and II c) II and III d) II only
Ans: a

Q Consider the following context-free grammars:

Which one of the following pairs of languages is generated by G1 and G2,

respectively (GATE-2016) (2 Marks)

Ans: d
Q In the context-free grammar below, S is the start symbol, a and b are terminals, and ϵ
denotes the empty string (GATE-2006) (1 Marks)
S → aSa | bSb | a | b | ϵ
Which of the following strings is NOT generated by the grammar?
(A) aaaa (B) baba (C) abba (D) babaaabab
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the context-free grammars over the alphabet {a, b, c} given below. S and T are
non-terminals. (GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
G1: S → aSb | T, T → cT | ϵ
G2: S → bSa | T, T → cT | ϵ
The language L(G1) ∩ L(G2) is
(A) Finite (B) Not finite but regular
(c) Context-Free but not regular (D) Recursive but not context-free
ANSWER B

Q Identity the language generated by following grammar where S is the start variable.
(GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
S --> XY
X --> aX | a
Y --> aYb | ∈
a) {am bn| m>=n, n>0 } b) {am bn| m>=n, n>=0 }
c) {am bn| m>n, n>=0 } d) {am bn| m>n, n>0 }
ANSWER C

Q The two-grammar given below generate a language over alphabet {x, y, z) (GATE – 2007)
(2 Marks)
G1: S → x | z | xS | zS | yB
B → y | z | yB | zB | zB
G2: S → y | z | yS | zS | xB
B → y | y | yS
Which one of the following choices describes the properties satisfied by the strings in these
languages?
a) G1: No y appears before any x, G2: Every x is followed by at least one y
b) G1: No y appears before any x, G2: No x appears before any y
c) G1: No y appears after any x, G2: Every x is followed by at least one y
d) G1: No y appears after any x, G2 Every y is followed by at least one x
Ans: a

Q Given the following statements: (NET-DEC-2013)

S1: The grammars S → asb | bsa | ss | a and S → asb | bsa | a are not equivalent.
S2: The grammars S → ss | sss | asb | bsa | λ and S → ss | asb |bsa | λ are equivalent.
Which of the following is true?
(A) S1 is correct and S2 is not correct. (B) Both S1 and S2 are correct.
(C) S1 is not correct and S2 is correct. (D) Both S1 and S2 are not correct.
Ans: b

Q Consider the grammar given below (GATE – 2007) (2 Marks)

S → xB | yA
A → x | x S| y AA
B → y | y S| y BB
Consider the following strings.
i) xxyyx ii) xxyyxy iii) xyxy iv) yxxy v) yxx vi) xyx
Which of the above strings are generated by the grammar?
a) i), ii) and iii) b) ii), v) and vi) c) ii), iii) and iv) d) i), iii) and iv)
Ans: c

Q The context free grammar given by S → XYX, X → aX | bX | λ, Y → bbb generates

the language which is defined by regular expression: (NET-DEC-2015)
a) (a + b)*bbb b) abbb(a + b)*
c) (a + b)*(bbb)(a + b)* d) (a + b)(bbb)(a + b)*
Ans C

Q The context free grammar for the language (NET-DEC-2013)

L = {an bm | n ≤ m + 3, n ≥ 0, m ≥ 0} is
(A) S → aaa A; A → aAb | B, B → Bb | λ
(B) S → aaaA | λ, A → aAb | B, B → Bb | λ
(C) S → aaaA | aa A | λ, A → aAb | B, B → Bb| λ
(D) S → aaaA | aa A | aA | λ, A → aAb | B, B → Bb | λ
Ans: d
Q Consider a CFG with the following productions. (GATE-2008) (1 Marks)
S → AA | B
A → 0A | A0 | 1
B → 0B00 | 1
S is the start symbol, A and B are non-terminals and 0 and 1 are the terminals. The language
generated by this grammar is
(A) {0n 102n | n ≥ 1}
(B) {0i 10j 10k | i, j, k ≥ 0} ∪ {0n 102n | n ≥ l}
(C) {0i 10j | i, j ≥ 0} ∪ {0n 102n | n ≥ l}
(D) The set of all strings over {0, 1} containing at least two 0’s
(E) None of the above
Answer: (E)

Q Consider the following context-free grammar over the alphabet ∑ = {a, b, c} with S as the
start symbol: (GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
S → abScT | abcT
T → bT | b
Which of the following represents the language generated by the above grammar?
a) {(ab)n(cb)n | n >= 1 }
b) {((ab)n c bm1 c bm2...c bmn | n, m1, m2, ....., mn >= 1 }
c) {(ab)n (cbm)n | n >= 1 }
d) {(ab)n (cbn)m | m, n >= 1 }
ANSWER B
T→ bT | b, this production will generate any number of b’s > 1
S→ abScT | abcT, this production will generate equal number of “ab” and “c” and for every
“abc” any number of b’s ( > 1) after “abc”.

Q The context free grammar for the language L = {an bm ck | k = |n – m|, n > 0, m > 0,
k > 0} is (NET-JUNE-2014)
(A) S → S1 S3, S1 → aS1c | S2 | λ, S2 → aS2 b |λ, S3 → aS3 b| S4 | λ, S4 → bS4 c |λ
(B) S → S1 S3, S1→ aS1 S2 c | λ, S2 → aS2 b| λ, S3 → aS3 b| S4 |λ, S4 → bS4 c |λ
(C) S → S1|S2, S1→ aS1 S2 c | λ, S2 → aS2 b | λ, S3 → aS3 b | S4 |λ, S4 → bS4 c |λ
(D) S → S1 | S3 , S1→ aS1 c|S2 | λ, S2 → aS2 b | λ, S3 → a S3 b| S4 | λ, S4 → bS4 c | λ
Q The equivalent grammar corresponding to the grammar (NET-JUNE-2012)
G: S → aA
A → BB
B → aBb | ∈ is

(A) S → aA
A → BB
B → aBb

(B) S → a | aA
A → BB
B → aBb | ab

(C) S → a | aA
A → BB | B
B → aBb

(D) S → a |aA
A→ BB | B
B→ aBb | ab
Ans: d

Q Non-deterministic pushdown automaton that accepts the language generated by the

grammar: S → aSS | ab is (NET-SEP-2013)
 Ans B

Q A CFG G is given with the following productions where S is the start symbol, A is a non-
terminal and a and b are terminals.
S → aS ∣ A
A → aAb ∣ bAa ∣ ϵ
Which of the following strings is generated by the grammar above?
(A) aabbaba (B) aabaaba (C) abababb (D) aabbaab
Answer: (D)

Q What is the equivalent CFL for the following CFG?

S → aS / aSbS / ϵ
a) {x|x is a palindrome}
b) {x|x = 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0}
c) {x| each prefix of x has atleast as many a’S as b’S
d) {x|x has equal number of a’S and b’S}

Q The grammar S → aaSbb | ab can generate the set

a) {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 |𝑛 = 1,2,3, … } b) {𝑎2𝑛+1 𝑏 2𝑛+1 |= n = 0, 1, 2,..}
c) {𝑎2𝑛+1 𝑏 2𝑛+1 |= n = 1, 2, 3,..} d) none of these

Q Which of the following grammar generates the language L = {𝒂𝒊 𝒃𝒋 | i≠ j}

a) S → AC / CB C → aCb / a / b A → aA / ε B → Bb / ε
b) S → as / sb / a / b
c) S → Ac / CB C → aCb / ε A → aA / ε B → Bb / ε
d) S → AC / CB C → aCb / ε A → aAa B → bB / b

Q The following CFG

S → aS | bS | a | b is equivalent to the regular expression
1. (a* + b)* 2. (a + b)+ 3. (a + b)(a + b)* 4. (a + b)* (a + b)
a) 2 and 3 only b) 2,3 and 4 c) All of the above d) 3 and 4 only

Q The set {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 |𝑛 = 1,2,3 … } can be generated by the CFG

a) S → ab |aSb|ϵ b) S → aaSbb | ab c) S → ab | aSb d) None of these

Q In the context – free grammar below, S is the start symbol, a and b are terminals, and ε
denotes the empty string.
S → aSAb | ε
A → bA | ε
The grammar generates the language
a) ((a + b)*b) b) {am bn |m ≤ n}
c) {am bn |m = n} d) a*b*

Q The following CFG

S → aB | bA
A → ba | aS | bAA
B → b | bS | aBB
generates strings of terminals that have
a) equal number of a’s and b’s
b) odd number of a’s and even number of b’s
c) even number of a’s and even number of b’s
d) odd number of a’s and even number of a’s

Q 𝐿1 has the following grammar

S → aB / BA
A → bAA / aS / a
B → b / bS / aBB
𝐿2 has the following grammar
S → Sba / a
Which of the following statement is true about?
𝐿3 = 𝐿1 ∩ 𝐿2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿4 = 𝐿.1 . 𝐿1 ∗?
a) Both 𝐿3 and 𝐿4 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑥𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 b) 𝐿3 is context free but 𝐿4 is not
c) Both 𝐿3 and 𝐿4 are context free d) 𝐿4 is context free, but not 𝐿3

Q What is the equivalent CFL for the following CFG S → OS 1/ϵ?

a) {X/X is a palindrome} b) {X/X = 0𝑛 1𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 ≥ 0}
c) {X/X = 0𝑛 1𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 0 } d) {X/X = 0𝑛 1𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 > 1}

Q If G, = ({S}, {a}, {S → SS}, S), find language generated by G.

a) L(G) = ϕ b) L(G) = 𝑎𝑛 c) L(G)= a* d) L(G)= 𝑎𝑛 b𝑎𝑛

Q Consider a grammar G as follows

S → aA
A → bbA
A→c
L(G) =?
a) L(G) = {abbc} b) L(G) = {a 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐; n ≥ 0}
c) L(G) = {a 𝑏 2𝑛 𝑐; n > 0} d) L(G) = {a 𝑏 2𝑛 𝑐; n ≥ 0}

Q LL grammar for the language L = {an bm cn+m | m≥0, n≥0} is

(A) S → aSc | S1 ; S1 → bS1c | λ
(B) S → aSc | S1| λ ; S1 → bS1c
(C) S → aSc | S1| λ ; S1 → bS1c| λ
(D) S → aSc | λ ; S1 → bS1c| λ
 Decision properties
• Following properties are decidable in case a CFL. Here we will use Grammar model to proof
decision properties.

i) Emptiness

ii) Non-emptiness

iii) Finiteness

iv) Infiniteness

v) Membership

• Following properties are Undecidable in case a CFL.

i) Equality

ii) Ambiguity

Q Which of the following are decidable? (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)

I. Whether the intersection of two regular languages is infinite
II. Whether a given context-free language is regular
III. Whether two push-down automata accept the same language
IV. Whether a given grammar is context-free
1. I and II 2. I and IV 3. II and III 4. II and IV
ANSWER B

Q Consider the following decision problems? (GATE-2000) (2 Marks)

(P1) Does a given finite state machine accept a given string
(P2) Does a given context free grammar generate an infinite number of stings
Which of the following statements is true?
(A) Both (P1) and (P2) are decidable (B) Neither (P1) nor (P2) are decidable
(C) Only (P1) is decidable (D) Only (P2) is decidable
Ans: a
Q Which one of the following statements is FALSE? (GATE-2004) (1 Marks)
a) There exist context free languages such that all the context free grammars generating them
age ambiguous.
b) An unambiguous context free grammar always has a unique parse tree for each string of the
language generated by it.
c) Both deterministic and non – deterministic pushdown automata always accept the same set
of languages
d) A finite set of string from one alphabet is always a regular language.
Ans: b

Q Which of the following problems is undecidable? (GATE-2014) (1 Marks)

(A) Deciding if a given context-free grammar is ambiguous.
(B) Deciding if a given string is generated by a given context-free grammar.
(C) Deciding if the language generated by a given context-free grammar is empty.
(D) Deciding if the language generated by a given context-free grammar is finite.
Ans: a

Q Which of the following problems is undecidable? (GATE-2007) (1 Marks)

(A) Membership problem for CFGs (B) Ambiguity problem for CFGs.
(C) Finiteness problem for FSAs. (D) Equivalence problem for FSAs.
Answer: (B)

Q Which of the following problems is undecidable? (NET-NOV-2017)

a) To determine if two finite automata are equivalent
b) Membership problem for context free grammar
c) Finiteness problem for finite automata
d) Ambiguity problem for context free grammar
Ans: d

Q Which of the following are decidable? (GATE-2008) (1 Marks)

i) Whether the intersection of two regular languages is infinite
ii) Whether a given context-free language is regular
iii) Whether two push-down automata accept the same language
iv) Whether a given grammar is context-free
a) I and II b) I and IV c) II and III d) II and IV
ANSWER B

Q Which of the following problems is undecidable? (GATE-2014) (1 Marks)

(A) Deciding if a given context-free grammar is ambiguous.
(B) Deciding if a given string is generated by a given context-free grammar.
(C) Deciding if the language generated by a given context-free grammar is empty.
(D) Deciding if the language generated by a given context-free grammar is finite.
Answer: (A)
 Closure Properties of Deterministic Context Free Languages
• Regular languages are closed under following operations
o Complement
o Intersection with regular set
o Inverse Homeomorphism

• Regular languages are not closed under following operations

o Union
o Concatenation
o Kleen closure
o homomorphism
o Substitution
o Reverse operator
o Intersection

Closure Properties of Context Free Languages

• Regular languages are closed under following operations
o Union
o Concatenation
o Kleen Closure
o Substitution
o Homomorphism
o Inverse Homomorphism
o Reverse Operator
o Intersection with regular set

• Regular languages are not closed under following operations

o Intersection
o Complement
o Symmetric Difference
Q Context – free languages are (GATE – 1992) (1 Marks)
a) Closed under union b) Closed under complementation
c) Closed under intersection d) Closed under Kleene closure
Ans: a, d

Q Let L1 and L2 be any context-free language and R be any regular language. Then, which of the
following is correct? (GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
I. L1 ∪ L2 is context-free. II. L1' is context-free.
III. L1 - R is context-free. IV. L1 ∩ L2
a) I, II and IV only b) I and III only
c) II and IV only d) I only
Ans: b

Q Consider the following languages over the alphabet ∑= {a, b, c}.

Let L1 = {an bn cm | m, n >= 0} and L2 = {am bn cn | m, n >= 0}.
Which of the following are context-free languages? (GATE-2017) (2 Marks)
I. L1 ∪ L2 II. L1 ∩ L2
a) I only b) II only c) I and II d) Neither I nor II
ANSWER A

Q Which one of the following statements is FALSE? (GATE-2013) (1 Marks)

L1 = {0p 1q 0r ∣ p, q, r ≥ 0} L2 = {0p 1q 0r ∣p, q, r ≥ 0, p ≠ r}
(A) L2 is context-free. (B) L1 intersection L2 is context-free.
(C) Complement of L2 is recursive. (D) Complement of L1 is context-free but not regular.
Answer: (D)

Q Let L = 𝐿1 ∩ 𝐿2 , where 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are languages as defined below: (GATE – 2009) (2 Marks)
𝐿1 = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 c 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 | m, n ≥ 0} 𝐿2 = {𝑎𝑖 𝑏 𝑗 𝑐 𝑘 | I, j, k ≥ 0}
a) Not recursive b) Regular
c) Context – free but not regular d) Recursively enumerable but not context – free
Ans: c

Q Consider the following languages. (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)

L1 = {ai bj ck | i = j, k ≥ 1} L2 = {ai bj | j = 2i, i ≥ 0}
Which of the following is true?
(A) L1 is not a CFL but L2 is
(B) L1 ∩ L2 = ∅ and L1 is non-regular
(C) L1 ∩ L2 is not a CFL but L2 is
(D) There is a 4-state PDA that accepts L1, but there is no DPDA that accepts L2
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the languages: (GATE-2005) (2 Marks)

L1 = {an bn cm | n, m > 0} L2 = {an bm cm | n, m > 0}
Which one of the following statements is FALSE?
(A) L1 ∩ L2 is a context-free language (B) L1 U L2 is a context-free language
(C) L1 and L2 are context-free language (D) L1 ∩ L2 is a context sensitive language
Answer: (A)

Q Let L be a regular language and M be a context-free language, both over the alphabet Σ. Let
Lc and Mc denote the complements of L and M respectively. Which of the following statements
about the language Lc ∪ Mc is TRUE? (GATE-2005) (2 Marks)
(A) It is necessarily regular but not necessarily context-free
(B) It is necessarily context-free.
(C) It is necessarily non-regular.
(D) None of the above
Answer: (D)

Q Which of the following statements is true? (GATE-2001) (1 Marks)

(A) If a language is context free it can always be accepted by a deterministic push-down
automaton
(B) The union of two context free languages is context free
(C) The intersection of two context free languages is context free
(D) The complement of a context free language is context free
Answer: (B)
Q If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are context free language and R a regular set, one of the languages below is not
necessarily a context free language. Which one? (GATE – 1996) (1 Marks)
a) 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 b) 𝐿1 ∩ 𝐿2 c) 𝐿1 ∩ R d) 𝐿1 ∪ 𝐿2
Ans: b

Q Let L1 is context free language and L2 is a regular language which of the following is/are false
(GATE – 1999) (1 Marks)
a) L 1 – L2 is not context free b) L1 ∩ L2 is context free
c) ~ L1 is context free d) ~ L2 is regular
Ans: c

Q Context – free language is closed under: (GATE – 1999) (1 Marks)

a) Union, intersection b) Union, Kleene closure
c) Intersection, complement d) Complement, Kleene closure
Ans: b

Q Let L be a context - free language and M a regular language. Then the language L ∩ M is
(GATE-2006) (1 Marks)
a) Always regular b) Never regular
c) Always a deterministic context free language d) Always a context – free language
Ans: d

Q Context free grammar is not closed under: (NET-NOV-2017)

a) Concatenation b) Complementation
c) Kleene Star d) Union
Ans: b

Q Given the following statements:

(A) A class of languages that is closed under union and complementation has to be closed
under intersection.
(B) A class of languages that is closed under union and intersection has to be closed under
complementation.
Which of the following options is correct? (NET-JAN-2017)
A) Both (A) and (B) are false. b) Both (A) and (B) are true.
c) (A) is true, (B) is false. d) (A) is false, (B) is true.
Ans: c

Q Let L = {0n1n|n ≥ 0} be a context free language. Which of the following is correct? (NET-JULY-
2016)
a) L` is context free and Lk is not context free for any k ≥ 1.
b) L` is not context free and Lk is not context free for any k ≥ 1.
c) Both L` and Lk is for any k ≥ 1 are context free.
d) Both L` and Lk is for any k ≥ 1 are not context free.
Ans: c

Q Assume the statements S1 and S2 given as : (NET-SEP-2013)

S1: Given a context free grammar G, there exists an algorithm for determining whether L(G) is
infinite.
S2: There exists an algorithm to determine whether two context free grammars generate the
same language.
Which of the following is true?
(A) S1 is correct and S2 is not correct.
(B) Both S1 and S2 are correct.
(C) Both S1 and S2 are not correct.
(D) S1 is not correct and S2 is correct.
Ans: a

Q The statements s1 and s2 are given as : (NET-JUNE-2013)

s1: Context sensitive languages are closed under intersection, concatenation, substitution and
inverse homomorphism.
s2: Context free languages are closed under complementation, substitution and
homomorphism.
Which of the following is correct statement?
(A) Both s1 and s2 are correct.
(B) s1 is correct and s2 is not correct.
(C) s1 is not correct and s2 is correct.
(D) Both s1 and s2 are not correct.
Ans: b
 (NET-DEC-2018)

a)

b)

c)

d)

Q Suppose 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are two language over ∑*

L = ∑*- ((∑* - 𝐿1 ) ∪ (∑* - 𝐿2 ))
𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are CFL. Which of the following statement is true?
1. L is necessarily CFL 2. L may or may not be CFL 3. L ⊆ 𝐿1
a) only 2 b) 1 and 3 c) 2 and 3 d) all of correct

Q CFG is not closed number

a) Intersection b) complement c) difference d) all of the above

Q Which of the following is not true?

a) CFLs are closed under union and concatenation.
b) Regular languages are closed under union and intersection
c) CFLs are not closed under intersection and complementation.
d) IF L is a CFL and R is a regular set then L∩R is not a CFL.

Q If 𝐿1 is regular and 𝐿2 is CFL over ∑* which of the following statement is incorrect?

a) 𝐿1 ∪ 𝐿2 is CFL b) 𝐿1 ∩ 𝐿2 is regular c) 𝐿1 * is regular d) None of the above

Q CFLs are not closed under

a) union b) Concatenation c) Closure d) Intersection

Q CFLs are not closed under

a) union b) Kleene star c) Complementation d) product

Q Context free languages are closed under

a) Union b) Intersection c) Complementation d) Set difference

Q Context – free languages and regular languages are both closed under the operations (s) of
i) Union ii) Intersection iii) Concatenation
a) i) and ii) only b) ii) and iii) only c) i) and iii) only d) All of the above

Q Consider the statements.

S1: All Context Free Languages over one symbol alphabet are regular.
S2: All non-self-embedded context-free languages are regular.
Which of the above statements are true?
a) Only S1 b) Only S2 c) Both S1 & S2 d) None of S1 & S2

Q Let L1 and L2 are context free languages, L3 and L4 are regular languages then which of the
following languages are always context-free
a) (L1  L2) – (L1  L4) b) (L1 L3) – (L2  L4)
c) (L1  L2) / (L3  L4) d) (L3  L4) / (L1  L2)

Q Let G1 and G2 be Context Free Grammars and R be a regular expression. Then which of the
following are decidable.
a) Is L(G1)  L(G2) = ? b) Is L(G1) = L(G2)?
c) Is L(G1) = L(R)? d) None of the above

Q Which of the following is undecidable

a) Equivalence of regular languages b) Equivalence of context free languages
c) Finiteness check on context free languages d) Emptiness of regular languages

Q CFG is not closed number

a) Intersection b) complement c) difference d) all of the above

Q Consider the following decision problems (GATE-2000) (2 Marks)

(P1) Does a given finite state machine accept a given string
(P2) Does a given context free grammar generate an infinite number of stings
Which of the following statements is true?
(A) Both (P1) and (P2) are decidable (B) Neither (P1) nor (P2) are decidable
(C) Only (P1) is decidable (D) Only (P2) is decidable
Answer: (A)
Q Consider the following languages. (GATE-2008) (2 Marks)
L1 = {ai bj ck | i = j, k ≥ 1} L2 = {ai bj | j = 2i, i ≥ 0}
Which of the following is true?
(A) L1 is not a CFL but L2 is
(B) L1 ∩ L2 = ∅ and L1 is non-regular
(C) L1 ∩ L2 is not a CFL but L2 is
(D) There is a 4-state PDA that accepts L1, but there is no DPDA that accepts L2
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the language L1, L2, L3 as given below. (GATE-2011) (2 Marks)

L1 = {ap bq | p, q N}
L2 = {ap bq | p, q N and p=q}
L3 = {ap bq cr | p, q, r N and p = q = r}
Which of the following statements is NOT TRUE?
(A) Push Down Automata (PDA) can be used to recognize L1 and L2
(B) L1 is a regular language
(C) All the three languages are context free
(D) Turing machine can be used to recognize all the three languages
Answer: (C)

Q Consider the languages (GATE-2010) (2 Marks)

L1 = {0i 1j | i != j} L2 = {0i 1j | i = j}
L3 = {0i 1j | i = 2j+1} L4 = {0i 1j | i != 2j}
(A) Only L2 is context free (B) Only L2 and L3 are context free
(C) Only L1 and L2 are context free (D) All are context free
Answer: (D)

Q (GATE-2006) (1 Marks)

(A) L1 only (B) L3 Only (C) L1 and L2 (D) L2 and L3

Answer: (D)
Here, wr is the reverse of the string w. Which of these languages are deterministic Context-
free languages? (GATE-2014) (2 Marks)
(A) None of the languages (B) Only L1
(C) Only L1 and L2 (D) All the three languages
Answer: (C)

Q Consider the following languages (GATE-2016) (1 Marks)

L1 = {an bm cn: m, n >= 1}
L2 = {an bn c2n: n >= 1}
Which one of the following is TRUE?
(A) Both L1 and L2 are context-free
(B) L1 is context-free while L2 is not context-free.
(C) L2 is context-free while L1 is not context-free
(D) Neither L1 nor L2 is context-free.
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the languages: (GATE-2005) (2 Marks)

L1 = {w wR |w ∈ {0, 1}*}
L2 = {w # wR | w ∈ {0, 1}*}, where # is a special symbol
L3 = {w w | w ∈ (0, 1}*)
Which one of the following is TRUE?
(A) L1 is a deterministic CFL (B) L2 is a deterministic CFL
(C) L3 is a CFL, but not a deterministic CFL (D) L3 is a deterministic CFL
Answer: (B)

Q Which of the following languages are context-free? (GATE-2015) (2 Marks)

L1 = {am bn an bm ⎪ m, n ≥ 1}
L2 = {am bn am bn ⎪ m, n ≥ 1}
L3 = {am bn ⎪ m = 2n + 1}
(A) L1 and L2 only (B) L1 and L3 only
(C) L2 and L3 only (D) L3 only
Answer: (B)

Q i) {w wR | w in (a + b)*} and ii) { w $ wR | w in (a + b)*} are

a) Both accepted by deterministic push down automata
b) Only ii) is accepted by a DPDA and i requires a NDPDA
c) Only i is accepted by a DPDA and ii requires a NDPDA
d) None of the above

Q Which of the following languages can’t be accepted by a deterministic PDA?

a) The set of palindromes over alphabet {a, b}
b) The set of all strings of balanced parenthesis
c) L = {W c 𝑊 𝑅 |𝑊 𝑖𝑛 (0 + 1) ∗}
d) L = {0𝑛 1𝑛 | n ≥ 0}

Q Which of the following language is true about the language L = (𝑎𝑃 |P is a prime)
a) It is not accepted by a T.M b) It is regular but not C.F.L
c) It is CFL but not regular d) It is neither regular non CFL

Q Which of the following language over {a, b, c} is accepted by a deterministic pushdown

automaton? (GATE – 1997) (1 Marks)
a) {w ⊂ 𝑤 𝑅 | w ϵ {a, b) *} b) {𝑤𝑤 𝑅 | w ϵ {a, b, c) *}
c) { 𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑛 | n ≥ 0} d) {w| w is a palindrome over {a, b, c}}
Ans: a

Q Which of the following languages is accepted by a non – deterministic pushdown

automaton (PDA) but NOT by a deterministic PDA?
a) {an bn c n |n ≥ 0} b) {a1 bm c n |l ≠ m or m ≠ n}
c) {an bn |n ≥ 0} d) {an bn |m, n ≥ 0}

Q Which of the following languages is/ are context free?

1. {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑚 𝑑𝑚 | n ≥ 1, m ≥ 1} 2. {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑑𝑛 | n ≥ 1, m ≥ 1}
3. {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑛 𝑑𝑚 | n ≥ 1, m ≥ 1} 4. {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑚 𝑑 𝑛 | n ≥ 1, m ≥ 1}
a) 1 and 2 b) 3 and 4 c) 2 and 4 d) 1,2,3 and 4

Q Consider the language

𝑳𝟏 = {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑛 𝑑𝑚 |n ≥1, m ≥1} and 𝑳𝟐 = {𝑎𝑛 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑑𝑛 |n ≥1, m ≥1}
a) Both 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are context free b) 𝐿1 is not context free but 𝐿2 is context free
c) both are not context free d) 𝐿1 is context free but 𝐿2 is not context free

Q Which of the following languages over {a, b, c} is accepted by deterministic push down
automata?
a) {ω| ω is palindrome over {a, b, c}} b) {ω ω𝑅 | ω ϵ {a, b, c}*}
c) {a𝑛 b𝑛 c 𝑛 | n ≥ 0} d) {ω c ω𝑅 | ω ϵ {a, b, ) ∗}

Q Which of the following is a CFL?

a) L = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 | 𝑚 ≥ 1} b) L = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑚 𝑑 𝑛 | 𝑚 ≥ 1 and n≥ 1}
c) L = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑝 | 𝑚 < 𝑛 ≥ 𝑝} d) {W 𝑊 𝑅 | 𝑊 𝑖𝑛 (a + b)*}

Q Consider the following set of languages

𝑳𝟏 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 | n = 𝑚2 𝑳𝟐 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 𝑑𝑛 | m, n > 0 𝑳𝟑 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑛 𝑑𝑛 | m, n > 0
Which of the above language is not context free?
a) 𝐿1 and 𝐿3 b) 𝐿2 and 𝐿3 c) 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 d) All 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 and 𝐿3

Q Which of the following statement must always be true for A and B? Suppose A and B are
two sets of strings from ∑*, such that B ⊆ A
i) If A is finite then, B is finite
ii) If A is regular then, B is regular
iii) If A is context free then, B is context free
a) i) only b) ii) only c) iii) only d) All three

𝑸 Which of the following languages are context free?

𝑳𝟏 = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑛 | m ≥ 1 and n ≥ 1} 𝑳𝟐 = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑛 | n ≥ 1} 𝑳𝟑 = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑚 𝑐 𝑚 | m ≥ 1}
a) only 𝐿1 b) 𝐿2 and 𝐿3 c) only 𝐿2 d) 𝐿3

Q L = {𝑎𝑚 𝑏 𝑛 𝑐 𝑚+𝑛 | m, n ≥ 1}
a) Regular b) C.F.L but not regular
c) C.S.L but not CFL d) Type – 0 but not context sensitive

(NET-JULY-2018)
a) Only L1 is Context Free Language
b) Only L2 is Context Free Language
c) Both L1 and L2 are Context Free Languages
d) Neither L1 Nor L2 are context free languages
Ans: a

Q Given the following two languages:

L1 = {an bn | n ≥ 0, n ≠ 100}
L2 = {w ∈ {a, b, c}*| na(w) = nb(w) = nc(w)}
Which of the following options is correct? (NET-JAN-2016)
a) Both L1 and L2 are not context free language
b) Both L1 and L2 are context free language.
c) L1 is context free language, L2 is not context free language.
d) L1 is not context free language, L2 is context free language
Ans: c

Q Given the following two statements:

A. L = {w | na(w) = nb(w)} is deterministic context free language, but not linear.
B. L = {an bn} ∪ {an b2n} is linear, but not deterministic context free language.
Which of the following options is correct? (NET-JAN-2017)
a) Both (A) and (B) are false. b) Both (A) and (B) are true
c) (A) is true, (B) is false. d) (A) is false, (B) is true.
Ans: b

Q Given the following two languages:

L1 = {an b an | n > 0}
L2 = {an b an bn + 1 | n > 0}
Which of the following is correct? (NET-DEC-2015)
a) L1 is context free language and L2 is not context free language
b) L1 is not context free language and L2 is context free language
c) Both L1 and L2 are context free languages
d) Both L1 and L2 are not context free languages
Ans: a

Q Given the following two languages: (NET-JUNE-2014)

L1= {an bn| n > 1} ∪ {a}
L2= {w C wR | w ∈ {a, b}*}
Which statement is correct?
(A) Both L1 and L2 are not deterministic.
(B) L1 is not deterministic and L2 is deterministic.
(C) L1 is deterministic and L2 is not deterministic.
(D) Both L1 and L2 are deterministic.
Ans: d

Q Consider the languages:

L1 = {w wR |w ∈ {0, 1}*}
L2 = {w # wR | w ∈ {0, 1}*}, where # is a special symbol
L3 = {ww | w ∈ (0, 1}*)
Which one of the following is TRUE?
a) L1 is a deterministic CFL b) L2 is a deterministic CFL
c) L3 is a CFL, but not a deterministic CFL d) L3 is a deterministic CFL
Ans. B

Q The language {am bn Cm+n | m, n ≥ 1} is

a) regular b) Context-free but not regular
c) context sensitive but not context free d) Type-0 but not context sensitive
Ans. B

Q Which of the following languages are context-free?

L1 = {ambnanbm ⎪ m, n ≥ 1}
L2 = {ambnambn ⎪ m, n ≥ 1}
L3 = {ambn ⎪ m = 2n + 1}
a) L1 and L2 only b) L1 and L3 only
c) L2 and L3 only d) L3 only
Ans. B
Q Which one of the following languages over ∑ = {a, b} is NOT context-free? (GATE-2019) (2
Marks)
a) {an bi | i ∈ {n, 3n, 5n}, n≥ 0} b) {w an wR bn | w ∈ {a, b}*, n≥ 0}
c) {w wR | w ∈ {a, b}*} d) {wan bn wR | w ∈ {a, b}*, n≥ 0}
Ans: b

Q Consider the following languages:

I. {ambncpdq ∣ m + p = n + q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
II. {ambncpdq ∣ m = n and p = q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
III. {ambncpdq ∣ m = n = p and p ≠ q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
IV. {ambncpdq ∣ mn = p + q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0} Which of the above languages are context-
free? (GATE-2018) (2 Marks)
a) I and IV only b) I and II only
c) II and III only d) II and IV only
(ANSWER-B)

Q The language L = {an bn am bm | n ≥ 0, m ≥ 0} is (NET-SEP-2013)

(A) Context free but not linear (B) Context free and linear
(C) Not Context free and not linear (D) Not Context free but linear
Ans: a

Q Consider the following languages:

L1 = {am bn │ m ≠ n}
L2 = {am bn │ m = 2n+1}
L3 = {am bm │ m ≠ 2n}
Which one of the following statements is correct? (NET-NOV-2017)
a) Only L1 and L2 are context free languages
b) Only L1 and L3 are context free languages
c) Only L2 and L3 are context free languages
d) L1, L2 and L3 are context free languages
Ans: d

Q The language L = {0i21i | i≥0} over the alphabet {0,1, 2} is: (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)
a) not recursive. b) is recursive and is a deterministic CFL.
c) is a regular language. d) is not a deterministic CFL but a CFL
Q Consider the following languages:
L1 = {an bm cn : m, n >= 1} L2 = {an bn c2n : n >= 1}
Which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE-2016) (2 Marks)
a) Both L1 and L2 are context-free
b) L1 is context-free while L2 is not context-free.
c) L2 is context-free while L1 is not context-free.
d) Neither L1 nor L2 is context-free.
ANSWER B

Q Consider the following languages:

I. {am bn cp dq ∣ m + p = n + q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
II. {am bn cp dq ∣ m = n and p = q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
III. {am bn cp dq ∣ m = n = p and p ≠ q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
IV. {am bn cp dq ∣ mn = p + q, where m, n, p, q ≥ 0}
Which of the above languages are context-free? (GATE-2018) (1 Marks)
a) I and IV only b) I and II only
c) II and III only d) II and IV only
(ANSWER-B)

Q The language {am bn Cm+n | m, n ≥ 1} is (GATE-2004) (1 Marks)

(A) regular (B) context-free but not regular
(C) context sensitive but not context free (D) type-0 but not context sensitive
Answer: (B)

Q The language L= {0i 2 1i | i ≥ 0} over the alphabet {0,1, 2} is: (GATE-2007) (1 Marks)
(A) not recursive (B) is recursive and is a deterministic CFL.
(C) is a regular language. (D) is not a deterministic CFL but a CFL.
Answer: (B)

Q Which one of the following is FALSE? (GATE-2009) (2 Marks)

(A) There is unique minimal DFA for every regular language
(B) Every NFA can be converted to an equivalent PDA.
(C) Complement of every context-free language is recursive.
(D) Every nondeterministic PDA can be converted to an equivalent deterministic PDA.
Answer: (D)

Q The language L = {ai b ci │ i >= 0} over the alphabet {a, b, c} is:

a) a regular language.
b) not a deterministic context free language but a context free language.
c) recursive and is a deterministic context free language.
d) not recursive.

Q The language L is defined as

L = {an bn cm dm | m, n  1} L = {an bm cm dn | m, n  1} Otherwise
Then the language L is best described as
a) Regular b) Context-Free but not regular
c) Context-Sensitive but not Context-Free d) No one decide until the will be declared
 Moore and Mealy Machine
• Both Moore and mealy machine are special case of DFA
• Both acts like o/p producers rather than language acceptors
• In Moore and mealy machine no need to define the final states
• No concepts of dead states and no concepts of final states
• Mealy and Moore Machines are equivalent in power.
 Moore Machine
General Definitions
• A Moore machine is a six-tuple (Q, ∑, Δ, δ, λ, q0), where
1. Q is a finite set of states:
2. ∑ is the input alphabet:
3. Δ is the output alphabet.
4. δ is the transition function ∑ x Q into Q
5. λ is the output function mapping Q into Δ and
6. q0 is the initial state.
• In Moore machine for every state output is associated.
• If the length of i/p string is n, then length of o/p string will be n+1
• Moore machine response for empty string 

Examples: The below table shows the transition table of a Moore Machine.

Here, For the input string 0111, the transition of states is given by q 0 🡪 q3 🡪q0 🡪q1🡪q2. The
output string is 00010.
Q construct a Moore machine take all the string of a’s and b’s as i/p and counts the no of a’s in
the i/p string in terms of 1, ∑ = {a, b}, Δ = {0, 1}?
Q construct a Moore machine take all the string of a’s and b’s as i/p and counts the no of
occurrence of sub-string ‘ab’ in terms of 1, ∑ = {a, b}, Δ = {0, 1}?
Q construct a Moore machine take all the string of a’s and b’s as i/p and counts the no of
occurrence of sub-string ‘aa’ in terms of 1, ∑ = {a, b}, Δ = {0, 1}?
Q construct a Moore machine where ∑ = {0, 1}, Δ = {a, b, c}, machine should give o/p a, if the
i/p string ends with 10, b if i/p string ends with 11, c otherwise?
 Mealy Machine
• Mealy machine is a six-tuple (Q, ∑, Δ, δ, λ, q0), where all the symbols except λ have the
same meaning as in the Moore machine. λ is the output function mapping ∑ x Q into Δ.
• in case of mealy machine, the output symbol depends on the transition.
• If the length of i/p string is n, then length of o/p string will be n
• Mealy machine do not response for empty string 

Example: The below table shows the transition table of a Mealy Machine.

For the input string 0011, the transition of states is given by q 1 🡪q3 🡪q2🡪q4🡪q3 and the output
string is 0100.

Q construct a Mealy machine take all the string of a’s and b’s as i/p and counts the no of a’s in
the i/p string in terms of 1, ∑ = {a, b}, Δ = {0, 1}?
Q construct a Mealy machine take all the string of a’s and b’s as i/p and counts the no of
occurrence of sub-string ‘ab’ in terms of 1, ∑ = {a, b}, Δ = {0, 1}?
Q construct a Mealy machine take all the string of a’s and b’s as i/p and counts the no of
occurrence of sub-string ‘aa’ in terms of 1, ∑ = {a, b}, Δ = {0, 1}?
Q construct a Mealy machine where ∑ = {0, 1}, Δ = {a, b, c}, machine should give o/p a, if the
i/p string ends with 10, b if i/p string ends with 11, c otherwise?
 CONVERSION OF MOORE TO MEALY MACHINE
• Let us take an example to understand the conversion:
• Convert the following Moore machine into its equivalent Mealy machine.

• The transition table of given Moore machine is as follows:

• To convert a mealy machine to moore machine all you need to do is just push out the
outputs of states onto to the incoming transitions.
• While conversion from moore to mealy machine, the number of states will we same and
there will be no extra states.
• The equivalent Moore Machine will be:
 PROCEDURE FOR TRANSFORMING A MEALY MACHINE INTO A MOORE MACHINE
Consider the Mealy Machine:

Transition table for above Mealy machine is as follows:

• For state q1, there is only one incident edge with output 0. So, we don't need to split
this state in Moore machine.
• For state q2, there is 2 incident edge with output 0 and 1. So, we will split this state into
two states q20 (state with output 0) and q21(with output 1).
• For state q3, there is 2 incident edge with output 0 and 1. So, we will split this state into
two states q30 (state with output 0) and q31 (state with output 1).
• For state q4, there is only one incident edge with output 0. So, we don't need to split
this state in Moore machine.
 • if mealy machine have m states and the resultant moore machine have n states then
m <= n <= m* Δ
Transition table for Moore machine will be:

• Transition diagram for Moore machine will be:

Q Given the following state table of an FSM with two states A and B, one input and one
output:

Present Present Next Next

Input Output
State A State B State A State B
0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 1

If the initial state is A=0, B=0, what is the minimum length of an input string which will take the
machine to the state A=0, B=1 with Output = 1? (GATE-2009) (2 Marks)
(A) 3 (B) 4 (C) 5 (D) 6
Answer: (A)
Explanation: (0, 0) –1–> (0, 1) –0–> (1, 0) –1–> (0, 1) and output 1

Q The following diagram represents a finite state machine which takes as input a binary
number from the least significant bit. (GATE-2005) (1 Marks)

Which one of the following is TRUE?

(A) It computes 1’s complement of the input number
(B) It computes 2’s complement of the input number
(C) It increments the input number
(D) It decrements the input number
Answer: (B)

Q The Finite state machine described by the following state diagram with A as starting state,
where an arc label is x / y and x stand for 1-bit input and y stands for 2- bit output (GATE-2002)
(2 Marks)

(A) Outputs the sum of the present and the previous bits of the input.
(B) Outputs 01 whenever the input sequence contains 11.
(C) Outputs 00 whenever the input sequence contains 10.
(D) None of these
Answer: (A)

Q The Moore machine has six tuples (Q, ∑, ∆, δ, λ, 𝑑0 ). Which of the following is true?
a) δ is the output function
b) δ is the transition function ∑ into Q
c) λ is the transition function ∑ x Q into Q
d) λ is the output function mapping Q into Δ

Q For the previous question, δ is the transition function from

a) Q to R b) δ x ∑ to d c) ∑ x Q to Q
 CONTEXT-FREE LANGUAGES AND PUSH DOWN AUTOMATA
• Context-free languages are applied in parser design.
• They are also useful for describing block structures in programming languages.
 Push Down Automata
BASIC DEFINITIONS
• We Already understand the limitation of finite automata, that it cannot do the infinite
comparison between the symbols.
• Let us consider L = {an bn | n >= 1}. This is not regular, as it has to remember the number
of a's in a string and so it will require an infinite number of states, which is logically not
possible.
• This difficulty can be avoided by adding an auxiliary memory in the form of a 'stack'. The
reason we choose stack because it is the simplest memory possible.
• This type of arrangement where a finite automaton has a stack leads to the generation
of a pushdown automaton.

Problem
after this much study now we understand that there are number of languages which cannot
be accepted by finite automata, actually finite automata is able to perform to generic
operations it can count and it can remember order. But a task like comparison between two
symbols cannot be performed by finite automata.

Solution
We require memory so that we can compare between two or more different symbols, though
there are a number of options available for memory like array, stack, queue, link list, trees etc.
out of them all stack is the most appropriate here as indexing is not required in stack as it is a
zero-address data structure. It is also easy to check extreme conditions like over flow under
flow.

Finite automata + memory (1 stack) = push down automata

Application: - used in describing much of the syntax of high-level programming languages, as

well as related languages like legal algebraic expressions and balanced strings of parentheses.

Context free Grammar generates context free language which is accepted by push down
automata
 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PDA
• Finite control unit is also called as memory unit it is static and limited. So to process the
i/p string if the static memory is not sufficient then we can use the stack.
• i/p tape is divided into cells where is cell is capable of holding one symbol at a time. At
stack of infinite size, which support three operations push, pop and skip.
• The accepting power of a pda is more than that of finite automata and less than that of
linear bounder automata.
• The power of non-deterministic pda is more than the power of deterministic pda.
 Formal Definition of PDA
A PDA is a 7-tuple, namely (Q, ∑, Γ, δ, q0, Z0, F), where
(i) Q – is a finite nonempty set of states,
(ii) ∑ – is a finite nonempty set of input symbols,
(iii) Γ – is a finite nonempty set of pushdown symbols,
(iv) q0 – is a special state called the initial state,
(v) Z0 – is a special pushdown symbol called the initial symbol on the pushdown store.
(vi) F – is a set of final states, a subset of Q and
(vii) δ – is a transition function from Q x (∑ U {∈}) x Γ to the set of finite subsets of Q x Γ*.
 Representation of States

Presentation through states diagram

1.4 BASIC OPERATIONS ON STACK

(1) PUSH – one symbol can be inserted into the stack at one time.

δ(qi, a, z0) = (qj, az0)

(2) POP – one symbol can be deleted from the stack at one time.

δ(qi, a, z0) = (qj, ε)

(3) SKIP – IT means no stack operation, status of the stack will remain same, before a after the
operation

δ(qi, a, z0) = (qj, z0)

note- if pda perform a push or a pop operation at least one’s during processing of string than
we say that pda is using the stack.

Instantaneous Description (ID)

• An instantaneous description (ID) is (q, x, α), where q ∈ Q, x ∈ ∑* and α ∈ Γ*.

• An initial ID is (q0, x, Z0), this means that initially the pda is in the initial state q 0, the
input string to be processed is x and the PDS has only one symbol, namely Z0.
 ACCEPTANCE BY PDA
• The set accepted by pda by final state is defined by

Or acceptance by null stack/ empty stack,

In this case the special pushdown symbol is popped off.

There is no change in the language acceptance capability of the pda either we accept by final
state of empty state.
Example: Design a Deterministic Push Down Automata for {an bn | n >= 1}
• The a's in the given string are added to the stack. When the symbol b is encountered in
the input string, an a is removed from the stack. Thus, the matching of number of a's
and the number of b's is accomplished.

Steps:
• First, we have to count number of a's and number of b should be equal.
• We will achieve this by pushing a's in STACK and then we will pop a's whenever "b"
comes.
• So, in the end of the strings if nothing is left in the STACK then we can say that language
is accepted in the PDA.

Example: Design a PDA for {anb2n | n ≥ 1}

Steps:
• We will be pushing a’s as they come and when we encounter a b we will change state
without popping a.
• When we encounter 2nd ‘b’ we will pop out a ‘a’.
• Loop this process until for every two b’s, one ‘a’ is popped out and the stack empties.
Example: Construct a PDA for language L = {0n1m | n >= 1, m >= 1, m > n+2}
Design will consist:
First 0’s are pushed into stack. When 0’s are finished, two 1’s are ignored. Thereafter for every
1 as input a 0 is popped out of stack. When stack is empty and still some 1’s are left then all of
them are ignored.
• On receiving 0 push it onto stack. On receiving 1, ignore it and goto next state
• On receiving 1, ignore it and goto next state
• On receiving 1, pop a 0 from top of stack and go to next state
• On receiving 1, pop a 0 from top of stack. If stack is empty, on receiving 1 ignore it and
goto next state
• On receiving 1 ignore it. If input is finished then goto last state
Example: Design a PDA for w c wr | w ∈ (a, b)*
W is a string and wr is a reverse of a string. Ex: w = abc then wr = cba
Steps
• Starting state will accept everything and we will be pushing everything until we get a ‘c’.
• ‘c’ is a string separator and we will not pop anything and skip to change state.
• Now in next state the topmost symbol and current symbol should match as stack by
default acts as an string reverser, now for every matching symbols we will pop.
• We continue to do this until the stack is empty.

Q construct the PDA for the following languages?

a) L = {a, ab} b) L = {a bn | n >= 0} c) L= {an bn | n >= 1}
d) L = {an b2n | n >= 1} e) L = {an cm bn | n, m >= 1} f) L = {w c wr | w € (a, b)*}

Q consider the following mapping and find the correct language?

δ (q0, 1, z0) = (q0, xz0)
δ (q0, 1, x) = (q0, xx)
δ (q0, 0, x) = (q1, €)
δ (q1, 0, x) = (q1, €)
δ (q1, 0, z0) = (q1, z0)
δ (q1, €, z0) = (qF, z0)
a) L = {am bn | m = n} b) L = {am bn | m != n}
c) L = {am bn | m >= n} d) L = {am bn | m <= n}
Ans: d
Q consider the following mapping and find the correct language?
δ (q0, a, z0) = (q1, z0)
δ (q0, b, z0) = (q2, z0)
δ (q1, a, z0) = (q1, z0)
δ (q1, b, z0) = (q2, z0)
δ (q2, a, z0) = (q2, z0)
δ (q2, b, z0) = (q1, z0)
δ (q1, €, z0) = (qf, z0)
a) ending with a
b) ending with a, contain even number of a
c) ending with a, contain odd number of a
d) contain even number of b
Ans: d

Q construct PDA that accepts L = {|w|a = b | w € (a, b)+} ?

Q construct pda that accepts a language L = {w wr | w € (a, b)*}?

 Non- Deterministic PDA

Non- Deterministic PDA can also be defined using 7 tuples s.t. the transition function δ is
defined as: Q x (∑ U {∈}) x Γ to the set of finite subsets of Q x Γ*.
δ: Q x {∑ U ∈} x Γ → 2(Q x Γ* )
i.e. on a given input symbol and stack symbol a NPDA can move to more than one state.
Rest all other tuples are same as DPDA.
Let us take an example to understand about NPDA.
Example: Design a NPDA for wwr | w∈ (a, b)+
An example string for such case is: abba
As seen in the previous example we were aware about the center, but in this case we are not
aware about the center. So we will be making a NPDA where the NPDA will be assuming two
cases:
1. Center has been reached when we have two same symbols in input and top of stack as
in case of abba, as this is the only way to determine center.
2. Center has not been reached and the NPDA will have to continue pushing symbol as in
an example case of ‘aaaa’, in this case we cannot assume that center is reached when
we have two same symbols in input and top of stack.

Here we are moving to two different states on inputs:

• (a, a / ∊) we are going to q1 and popping a, assuming that center has been reached.
• (a, a / aa) we are assuming that center has not reached and we keep on pushing a.
• (b, b /∊ ) we are assuming that center has not been reached.
• (b, b / bb) we are assuming that center has not reached and we keep on pushing b.

Some points to remember about PDA and NPDA

• Clearly for the above example we can design a NPDA but cannot design a DPDA, so
NPDA and DPDA are not equivalent in power.
• NPDA is more powerful than DPDA.
Prefix property: - a language L is said to have prefix property if there is no two different string
x and y in L such that one is the prefix of other. If a language is CFL and not RL and have prefix
property then we can design a deterministic pda to accept it, hence the language is DCFL.

Q Let Nf and Np denote the classes of languages accepted by non-deterministic finite automata
and non-deterministic push-down automata, respectively. Let Df and Dp denote the classes of
languages accepted by deterministic finite automata and deterministic push-down automata,
respectively. Which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE-2005) (1 Marks)
(A) Df ⊂ Nf and Dp ⊂ Np (B) Df ⊂ Nf and Dp = Np
(C) Df = Nf and Dp = Np (D) Df = Nf and Dp ⊂ Np
Answer: (D)

Q The language accepted by a Pushdown Automation in which the stack is limited to 10 items
is best described as (GATE-2003) (1 Marks)
(A) Context Free (B) Regular (C) Deterministic Context Free (D) Recursive
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the transition diagram of a PDA given below with input alphabet &Sum; = {a, b}and
stack alphabet &Gamma; = {X, Z}. Z is the initial stack symbol. Let L denote the language
accepted by the PDA. (GATE-2016) (2 Marks)
Answer: (D)

Q The languages
1. {0n 1n | n>=1} and 2. { 0n 12n | n >= 1} U {0n 1n | n >= 1} are
a) both accepted by deterministic push down automata
b) 1can be accepted by a DPDA but 2 requires a NDPDA
c) 2 can be accepted by a DPDA but 1 requires a NDPDA
d) None of the above

Q A PDM behaves like a TM when the number of auxiliary memories it has, is

a) 0 b) 1 or more c) 2 or more d) none of these

Q Consider the following set of languages over one symbol alphabet

L1: set of left linear languages L2: set of right linear languages
L3: set of DCFLs L4: set of CFLs
Choose the correct statement from the following
a) L1  L2  L3  L4 b) L1  L2  L3 = L4
c) L1 = L2  L3 = L4 d) L1 = L2 = L3 = L4

Q Which of the following is not true?

a) The set of languages accepted by deterministic and non-deterministic PDAs are not equal
b) L = {w c w R |𝑤 in (0 + 1)* & c ∉ {0,1}} can be accepted by deterministic PDA
c) L = {w c w R |𝑤, 𝑐 in (0 + 1)*} can not be accepted by a deterministic PDA
d) L= { 0𝑛 01 |𝑛 ≥ 0} can be accepted by a deterministic PDA
answer: (c)

Q The pushdown automation M = ({q0, q1, q2}, {a, b}, {0, 1}, δ, q0, 0, {q0}) with (NET-DEC-2014)
δ(q0, a, 0) = {(q1, 10)}
δ(q1, a, 1) = {(q1, 11)}
δ(q1, b, 1) = {(q2, ∈)}
δ(q2, b, 1) = {(q2, ∈)}
δ(q2, ∈, 0) = {(q0, ∈)}
Accepts the language
(A) L = {an bm | n, m ≥ 0} (B) L = {an bn| n ≥ 0}
(C) L = {an bm | n, m > 0} (D) L = {an bn| n > 0}
Ans: d

Q The language accepted by the non- deterministic pushdown automaton (NET-SEP-2013)

M= ({q0, q1, q2}, {a, b}, {a, b, z}, δ, q0, z, {q2}) with transitions
δ (q0 a, z) = {(q1 a), (q2, ∈)};
δ (q1, b, a) = {(q1, b)}
δ (q1, b, b) = {(q1 b)}, δ (q1, a, b) = {(q2, ∈)}
is
(A) L(abb*a) (B) {a} U L(abb*a)
(C) L(ab*a) (D) {a} U L(ab*a)
Ans: b

Q A pushdown automation M = (Q, Σ, Γ, δ, q0, z, F) is set to be deterministic subject to which of

the following condition(s), for every q ∈ Q, a ∈ Σ ∪ {∈} and b ∈ Γ
(s1) δ(q, a, b) contains at most one element
(s2) if δ(q, ∈, b) is not empty then δ(q, c, b) must be empty for every c ∈ Σ (NET-JUNE-2013)
(A) only s1 (B) only s2
(C) both s1 and s2 (D) neither s1 nor s2
Ans: c
Q Consider the NPDA 〈Q = {q0, q1, q2}, Σ = {0, 1}, Γ = {0, 1, ⊥}, δ, q0, ⊥, F = {q2}〉, where (as per
usual convention) Q is the set of states, Σ is the input alphabet, Γ is stack alphabet, δ is the
state transition function, q0 is the initial state, ⊥ is the initial stack symbol, and F is the set of

accepting states, The state transition is as follows:

Which one of the following sequences must follow the string 101100 so that the overall string
is accepted by the automaton? (GATE – 2015) (1 Marks)
a) 10110 b) 10010 c) 01010 d) 01001
ANSWER B

Q Consider the pushdown automaton (PDA) below which runs over the input alphabet (a, b, c).
It has the stack alphabet {Z0 , X} where Z0 is the bottom of – stack marker. The set of states of
the PDA is {s, t, u, f} where s is the start state and f is the final state. The transition of the PDA
given below is depicted in a standard manner. For example, the transition. For example the
transition (s, b, X) → (t, X, Z0 ) means that if the PDA is in state s and the symbol on the top of
the stack is X, then it can read b from the input and move to state after popping the top of
stack and pushing the symbol Z0 and X (in that order) on the stack.(GATE-2003) (2 Marks)
(s, a, Z0 ) → (s, XXZ0 )
(s, ε, Z0 ) → (f, ε)
(s, a, X) → (s, XXX)
(t, b, X) → (t, ε)
(t, b, X) → (t, ε)
(t, c, X) → (u, ε)
(u, c, X) → (u, ε)
(u, ε, Z0 ) → (f, ε)
The language accepted by the PDA is
a) {al bm c n | l = m = n} b) {al bm c n | l = m}
c) {al bm c n | 21 = m + n} d) {al bm c n |m = n}
Ans: c
Q Given the following statements: (NET-JUNE-2012)
(i) The power of deterministic finite state machine and non- deterministic finite state machine
are same.
(ii) The power of deterministic pushdown automaton and non- deterministic pushdown
automaton are same.
Which of the above is the correct statement(s)?
(A) Both (i) and (ii) (B) Only (i)
(C) Only (ii) (D) Neither (i) nor (ii)
Ans: b
 Introduction
Language usually contains infinite number of strings (string length is finite), we cannot
tabulate each and every string to represent the language, therefore like automata,
grammar is also a mathematical model of representing a language, using which we can
generate the entire language. Therefore, a grammar is usually thought of as a language
generator.
 Formal Grammar

BASIC DEFINITIONS
A phrase-structure grammar (or simply a grammar) is a 4-tuple (VN, ∑, P, S), where
1. VN is a finite nonempty set whose elements are called variables,
2. ∑ is a finite nonempty set whose elements are called terminals, VN ⋂ ∑= Ф.
3. S is a special variable (i.e., an element of VN (S  Vn)) called the start symbol. Like
every automaton has exactly one initial state, similarly every grammar has exactly
one start symbol.
4. P is a finite set whose elements are α → β. where α and β are strings on VN ⋃ ∑. α has
at least one symbol from VN, the element of P are called productions or production
rules or rewriting rules. {Σ U Vn}* some writer refers it as total alphabet

For a formal valid production,

α→β

α  {Σ U Vn}* Vn {Σ U Vn}*

β  {Σ U Vn}*

Some points to note about productions

1. Reverse substitution is not permitted. For example, if S → AB is a production, then
we can replace S by AB but we cannot replace AB by S.
2. No inversion operation is permitted. For example, if S → AB is a production, it is not
necessary that AB →S is a production.
3. To generate a string in the language, one begins with a string consisting of only a
single start symbol. The production rules are then applied in any order, until a string
that contains neither the start symbol nor designated nonterminal symbols is
produced. A sequence of rule applications is called a derivation.
4. A production rule is applied to a string by replacing one occurrence of the production
rule’s left-hand side in the string by that production rule’s right-hand side.
 Defining a language by grammar
The concept of defining a language using grammar is, starting from a start symbol using the
production rules of the grammar any time, deriving the string. Here every time during
derivation a production is used as its LHS is replaced by its RHS, all the intermediate
stages(strings) are called sentential forms. The language formed by the grammar consists of
all distinct strings that can be generated in this manner.

L (G) = {w | w  ∑* , S →* W}

• →*(reflexive, transitive closure) means from s we can derive w in zero or more steps
• Using same idea, we do processing of natural languages in computers, Actively used
in compliers
• L (G) is the set of all terminal strings derived from the start symbol S.
• G1 and G2 are equivalent if L (G1) = L (G2).

Let us take some examples to understand how to find L (G).

Example:

Ans. S → 0S1 → 02S12 →…→ 0n1n, The string will end using S→ ^
Therefore,
0n1n ∈ L (G)
 Chomsky Classification of Languages
• Chomsky classified the grammars into four types in terms of productions (types 0-3).
• This hierarchy of grammars was described by Noam Chomsky in 1956. From type 0 to
type 3, we will be putting more and more restrictions. We will see that more restrictive
is grammar easy will be the language and more liberal is the grammar difficult will be the
language. Based on the production rules of the grammar, we can classify the formal
grammar into four types, based on which we generate different languages.
 LANGUAGES AND AUTOMATA
Following are the machines that accepts the following grammars.

LANGUAGES AND THEIR RELATION

Let L0, LCS, LCF and LR be the languages such that they denote families of languages of type 0,
context free languages, context sensitive languages and regular languages.
• By definition, LR ⊆ LCF, LCS ⊆L0 , LCF ⊆ L0.
• LCF ⊆ LCS, The inclusion relation is not immediate as we allow A🡪 Λ in context-free
grammars even when A ≠ S (start symbol), but not in context-sensitive grammars (we
allow only S🡪 Λ in context-sensitive grammars).
• So, in general, LR ⊆ LCF⊆ LCS⊆ L0

Important Remark
• Two grammars of different types may generate the same language.
 Type 0 Grammar
• also known as Unrestricted Grammar, phase structured grammar, recursively
enumerable grammar used to generate recursive enumerable language which is
accepted by a Turing machine.
• A type 0 grammar is without any restrictions.
• No restriction on the production rule, that is if there is a production from
α→β
α  {Σ U Vn}* Vn {Σ U Vn}*
β  {Σ U Vn}*
 Type 1 Grammar
• Also known as case sensitive language, length increasing grammar, non-contracting
grammar, used to generate context sensitive language which is accepted by a linear
bounded automaton.
αAβ→αδβ
α , β  {Σ U Vn}* A  Vn δ  {Σ U Vn}+

or

α→β

α  {Σ U Vn}* Vn {Σ U Vn}*

β  {Σ U Vn}+

|α| <= |β|

• As from the rule we can understand that we cannot have null production, in order to
solve that problem, Production S→, is allowed if S do not appear on the right-hand
side of the production.
• A grammar is called type 1 or context-sensitive or context dependent if all its
productions are type 1 productions.
• Very difficult to have a parse tree
• FORTRAN, PL1 with CGF we use STD
 Type 2 Grammar
• Also known as Context Free Grammar, which will generate context free language that
will be accepted by push down automata. (NPDA default case)
• if there is a production, from

α→β

α  Vn |α| = 1

β  {Σ U Vn} *

• In other words, the L.H.S. has no left context or right context.

• A grammar is called a type 2 grammar if it contains only type 2 productions.
• Eg ALGOL 60, PASCAL
 Type 3 Grammar

Used to generate Regular Grammar which will generate regular language which will be
accepted by finite machine.

Regular grammar can be of two types either left linear or right linear.

• Left linear grammar, support two types of production

A → a / Ba

A, B  Vn |A| = |B| = 1

a  ∑*

• right regular grammar

A → a / aB

A, B  Vn |A| = |B| = 1

a  ∑*

– however, if left-linear rules and right-linear rules are combined, the language need no
longer be regular.

Examples:
Q Consider the grammar
S → aaaS | a | aa
L(G) =?
a) L(G) = {w: |w| mod 3 = 0} b) L(G) = {w: |w| mod 3 = 1 or 2}
c) L(G)= L(a*) d) d) L(G) = L(a*)- (λ)

Q The basic limitation of FSM is that

a) It cannot remember arbitrary large amount of information
b) It sometimes fails to recognize grammars that are not regular
c) It sometimes fails to recognize grammars that are regular
d) All of these

Q Finite state machine can recognize language generated by __________. (NET-NOV-2017)

a) Only context free grammar
b) Only context sensitive grammar
c) Only regular grammar
d) any unambiguous grammar
Ans: c

Q The regular grammar for the language L = {an bm | n + m is even} is given by (NET-AUG-
2016)
a) S → S1 | S2
S1 → a S1| A1
A1 → b A1| λ
S2 → aaS2| A2
A2 → b A2| λ

b) S → S1 | S2
S1 → a S1| aA1
S2 → aaS2| A2
A1 → b A1| λ
A2 → b A2| λ

c) S → S1 | S2
S1 → aaa S1| aA1
S2 → aaS2| A2
A1 → b A1| λ
A2 → b A2| λ

d) S → S1 | S2
S1 → aa S1| A1
S2 → aaS2| A2
A1 → bb A1| λ
A2 → bb A2| λ
Ans: d

Q Let Σ = {a, b} and language L = {aa, bb}. Then, the complement of L is (NET-AUG-2016)
a) {λ, a, b, ab, ba} ∪ {w ∈ {a, b}* | |w| > 3}
b) {a, b, ab, ba} ∪ {w ∈ {a, b}* | |w| > 3}
c) {w ∈ {a, b}* | |w| > 3} ∪ {a, b, ab, ba}
d) {λ, a, b, ab, ba} ∪ {w ∈ {a, b}* | |w| ≥ 3}
Ans: d

Q The regular grammar for the language L = {w | na (w) and nb (w) are both even, w ∈ {a,
b}*} is given by : (Assume, p, q, r and s are states) (NET-DEC-2014)
(A) p → aq | br | λ
q → bs | ap
r → as | bp
s → ar | bq
p and s are initial and final states.

(B) p → aq | br
q → bs | ap
r → as | bp
s → ar | bq
p and s are initial and final states.

(C) p → aq | br | λ
q → bs | ap
r → as | bp
s → ar | bq
p is both initial and final states.

(D) p → aq | br
q → bs | ap
r → as | bp
s → ar | bq
p is both initial and final states.
Ans: c
Q A regular grammar for the language L = {an bm | n is even and m is even}is given by (NET-
SEP-2013)
(A) S → aSb | S1
S1 → bS1a | λ

(B) S → aaS | S1
S1 → bSb | λ

(C) S → aSb | S1
S1 → S1ab | λ

(D) S → aaS | S1
S1 → bbS1 | λ
Ans: d

Q Given the following productions of a grammar: (NET-SEP-2013)

S → aA | aBB
A → aaA |λ
B → bB | bbC
C→ B
Which of the following is true?
(A) The language corresponding to the given grammar is a set of even number of a’s.
(B) The language corresponding to the given grammar is a set of odd number of a’s.
(C) The language corresponding to the given grammar is a set of even number of a’s
followed by odd number of b’s.
(D) The language corresponding to the given grammar is a set of odd number of a’s
followed by even number of b’s.
Ans: b

Q If G is a grammar with productions

S → SaS | aSb | bSa | SS | ϵ
where S is the start variable, then which one of the following strings is not generated by G?
(GATE-2017) (1 Marks)
(A) abab (B) aaab (C) abba (D) babba
ANSWER D
Q Consider the following grammar (GATE – 2004) (2 Marks)
S → bS | aB | b
A → bA | aB|
B → bB | aS| a
Let 𝑁𝑎 (w) and 𝑁𝑏 (w) denote the number of a’s and b’s in a string w respectively. The
language L(G)I {a, b}* generated by G is
a) {w | 𝑁𝑎 (w) > 3 𝑁𝑏 (w)} b) {w | 𝑁𝑏 (w) > 3 𝑁𝑎 (w)}
c) w | 𝑁𝑏 (w) = 3k, k 𝐼̂ {0, 1, 2,…….}} d) w | 𝑁𝑎 (w) = 3k, k 𝐼̂ {0, 1, 2,…….}}
Ans: c

Q Consider the regular grammar: (GATE-2005) (1 Marks)

S → X a | Ya
X → Za
Z → Sa | B
Y → Wa
W → Sa
Where S is the starting symbol, the set of terminals is {a} and the set of non – terminals is
{S, W, X, Y, Z). We wish to construct a deterministic is (DFA) to recognize the same
language. What is the minimum number of states required for the DFA?
a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5
Ans: b

Q What is the regular expression for the language generated by

S → aS | bA A → d | ccA
a) a*bd b) a* (bd)(bcc)* d c) a* b(cc)* d d) None of these

Q Write the grammar for the regular expression a*b*

a) S → AB, A → aA | bB | ϵ, B → bB |aA | ϵ
b) S→ AB, A → aA | ϵ, B → bB | ϵ
c) S → ab | ϵ, A → aA | ϵ, B → bB | ϵ
d) None of these
Q α → β and |α| ≤ |β| is a production rule for _________ grammar.

Q Language L1 is defined by the grammar: S1 -> aS1b | ε

Language L2 is defined by the grammar: S2 -> abS2 | ε
Consider the following statements (GATE-2016) (2 Marks)
P: L1 is regular Q: L2 is regular
Which one of the following is TRUE?
(A) Both P and Q are true (B) P is true and Q is false
(C) P is false and Q is true (D) Both P and Q are false
Answer: (C)

Q Match the following: (NET-JUNE-2012)

(i) Regular Grammar (a) Pushdown automaton
(ii) Context free Grammar (b) Linear bounded automaton
(iii) Unrestricted Grammar (c) Deterministic finite automaton
(iv) Context Sensitive Grammar (d) Turing machine

(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)

(A) (c) (a) (b) (d)
(B) (c) (a) (d) (b)
(C) (c) (b) (a) (d)
(D) (c) (b) (d) (a)
Ans: b

Q Consider a language A defined over the alphabet sum = {0, 1} as The expression A = left {
0^{left lfloor n / 2 right rfloor}1^{n}: n> = 0 right } The expression left lfloor n / 2 right rfloor
means the floor of n/2, or what you get by rounding n/2 down to the nearest integer.
Which of the following is not an example of a string in A? (NET-DEC-2015)
a) 011 b) 0111 c) 0011 d) 001111
Ans: c

Q Consider the following context-free grammars:

Which one of the following pairs of languages is generated by G1 and G2, respectively?

Answer: (D)

Q Match the following: (NET-JUNE-2013)

a. Context sensitive language i. Deterministic finite automation
b. Regular grammar ii. Recursive enumerable
c. Context free grammar iii. Recursive language

d. Unrestricted grammar iv. Pushdown automation

Codes :

a b c d
(A) ii i iv iii
(B) iii iv i ii
(C) iii i iv ii
(D) ii iv i iii
Ans: c

Q If all the production rules have single non - terminal symbol on the left side, the grammar
defined is: (NET-JUNE-2015)
a) context free grammar b) context sensitive grammar
c) unrestricted grammar d) phrase grammar
Ans: a
 CONSTRUCTION OF A REGULAR GRAMMAR
Let us understand this with the help of an example:
Construct a regular grammar G generating the regular set represented by P = a*b(a + b)*.
• We draw the corresponding DFA to the given problem.

Now since we have the DFA it becomes fairly easy to generate the grammar.
Let G = ({A0, A1}, {a, b}, P, A0), A0 and A1 are representing the states q0 and q1
respectively.
where P is given by:
A0 → aA0, A0→ bA1, A0→ b and
A1→ aA1, A1→ bA1, A1→ a, A1→ b
G is the required regular grammar.
CONSTRUCTION OF A TRANSITION SYSTEM M ACCEPTING L(G) FOR A GIVEN REGULAR
GRAMMAR G
Let us take an example to understand:
Let G =({A0, A1}, {a, b}, P, A0), where P consists of
A0 → aA1, Al → bA1, A1 → a, A1→ bA0.
Construct a transition system M accepting L(G).
Solution:
Let M = ({ q0, q1, qf}, {a, b}, δ, q0 {qf}), where q0 and q1 correspond to A0 and A1
respectively and qf is the new (final) state introduced.
A0→ aA1 induces a transition from q0 to q1 with label a.
 Similarly, A1→ bAl and A1 → bA0 induce transitions from q1 to q1 with label b and from
ql to q0 with label b, respectively.
Al→ a induces a transition from q1 to qf with label a. So the resulting transition system is:
 Decision properties
• Approximately all the properties are decidable in case a finite automaton. Here we will use
machine model to proof decision properties.

i) Emptiness
ii) Non-emptiness
iii) Finiteness
iv) Infiniteness
v) Membership
vi) Equality
• Emptiness & Non-emptiness
Step 1: - select the state that cannot be reached from the initial states & delete them (remove
unreachable states)

Step 2: - if the resulting machine contains at least one final states, so then the finite automata
accepts the non-empty language.

Step 3: - if the resulting machine is free from final state, then finite automata accepts empty
language.

• Finiteness & Infiniteness

Step 1: - select the state that cannot be reached from the initial state & delete them (remove
unreachable states)

Step 2: - select the state from which we cannot reach the final state & delete them (remove
dead states)

Step 3: - if the resulting machine contains loops or cycles then the finite automata accepts
infinite language

Step 4: - if the resulting machine do not contain loops or cycles then the finite automata
accepts infinite language

• Membership
Membership is a property to verify an arbitrary string is accepted by a finite automaton or
not i.e. it is a member of the language or not.

Let M is a finite automata that accepts some strings over an alphabet, and let ‘w’ be any
string defined over the alphabet, if there exist a transition path in M, which starts at initial
 state & ends in anyone of the final state, then string ‘w’ is a member of M, otherwise ‘w’ is
not a member of M.

• Equality
Two finite state automata M1 & M2 is said to be equal if and only if, they accept the
same language.

Minimise the finite state automata and the minimal DFA will be unique.
 Closure Properties of Regular Languages
• Regular languages are closed under following operations
o Kleen Closure
o Positive closure
o Complement
o Reverse Operator
o Prefix Operator
o Complement
o Union
o Intersection
o Set Difference operator
o Prefix operator
o Symmetric Difference
o Quotient Operator
o Substitution
o Homomorphism
o Inverse Homomorphism
o Max
o Min
o Cycle
Q Which of the following is TRUE? (GATE-2007) (2 Marks)
a) Every subset of a regular set is regular.
b) The union of two non-regular sets is not regular.
c) Every finite subset of a non-regular set is regular.
d) Infinite union of finite sets is regular
ANSWER C

Q Which of the following statements is false? (GATE – 1998) (1 Marks)

a) Every finite subset of a non – regular set is regular

b) Every subset of a regular set is regular
c) Every finite subset of a regular set is regular
d) The intersection of two regular sets in regular
Ans: b

Q Which of the following is TRUE? (GATE – 2007) (1 Marks)

a) Every subset of a regular set is regular
b) Every finite subset of a non-regular set is regular
c) The union of two non – regular sets is not regular
d) Infinite union of finite sets is regular
Ans: b

Q Which of the following statements about regular languages is NOT true? (GATE-2006) (1-
Marks)
a) Every language has a regular superset
b) Every language has a regular subset
c) Every subset of a regular language is regular
d) Every subset of a finite language is regular
Ans: c

Q Which of the following is true? (GATE – 2007) (1 Marks)

a) Infinite union of regular set is regular
b) The union of two non-regular net is not regular
c) finite union of infinite set is regular
d) every R.L is also C.F.L
Ans: b

Q Let 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 are regular sets defined over alphabet ∑*. Mark the false statement
a) 𝐿1 ∪ 𝐿2 is regular b) 𝐿1 ∩ 𝐿2 is not regular
c) ∑* -𝐿1 is regular d) 𝐿1 ∗ is regular

Q Which of the following statements are true?

i) The complement of a language is always regular
ii) The intersection of regular languages is regular
iii) The complement of a regular language is regular
a) i) and ii) only b) ii) and iii) only c) i) and iii) only d) All of the above
ANSWER: (B)

Q If L is a regular language over ∑ = {a, b}, which one of the following languages
is NOT regular? (GATE – 2019) (1 Marks)
a) L⋅ LR {xy | x ∈ L, yR∈ L}
b) Suffix (L) = {y ∈ ∑* | ∃x ∈ ∑* such that xy ∈ L}
c) Prefix (L) = {x ∈ ∑* | ∃y ∈ ∑* such that xy ∈ L}
d) {w wR | w ∈ L}
Answer: (B)

Q Consider the following two statements (GATE-2016) (1 Marks)

I. If all states of an NFA are accepting states then the language accepted by the NFA is Σ∗.
II. There exists a regular language A such that for all languages B, A ∩ B is regular.
Which one of the following is CORRECT?
(A) Only I is true (B) Only II is true
(C) Both I and II are true (D) Both I and II are false
Answer: (B)

Q The symmetric difference of two sets S1 and S2 is defined as

S1 ⊖ S2 = {x | x ∈ S1 or x ∈ S2, but x is not in both S1 and S2}
The nor of two languages is defined as nor (L1, L2) = {w | w |∈L1 and w |∈ L1}. Which of the
following is correct? (NET-JULY-2016)
a) The family of regular languages is closed under symmetric difference but not closed under
nor.
b) The family of regular languages is closed under nor but not closed under symmetric
difference.
c) The family of regular languages are closed under both symmetric difference and nor.
d) The family of regular languages are not closed under both symmetric difference and nor.
Ans: c

Q Consider the following two languages:

L1 = {0i1j| gcd (i, j) = 1}
L2 is any subset of 0*
Which of the following is correct? (NET-JULY-2016)
a) L1 is regular and L2* is not regular
b) L1 is not regular and L2* is regular
c) Both L1 and L2* are regular languages
d) Both L1 and L2* are not regular languages
Ans: b

Q Given L1=L(a*baa*) and L2=L(ab*). The regular expression corresponding to language

L3 = L1/L2 (right quotient) is given by (NET-JUNE-2013)
(A) a*b (B) a*baa* (C) a*ba* (D) None of the above

Q Let L1, L2 are regular languages and L3 & L4 are non-regular languages then which of the
following need not be regular?
a) (L1  L2) / (L3  L4) b) (L1  L2) / (L3  L4)
c) (L1  L3) / (L2  L4) d) L1 / L3

0𝑛 1𝑛
Q Let X = {0, 1}, L = X* and R = { > 0} then the language L ∪ R and R respectively
𝑛
a) Regular, Regular b) None regular, Regular
c) Regular, Not regular d) Not regular, Not regular