UNIT III - THERMAL SYSTEMS

3.1 Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry is the study of the relationship between relative amounts of
substances. The formula of a compound provides information about the relative
amount of each element present in either one molecule of the compound or one mole
of the compound. For example, one molecule of CaCl2 contains 1 mol Ca2+ ions and 2
mol Cl− ions.
Stoichiometry can be used to determine the chemical formula of a compound by
studying the relative amounts of elements present or can be used to study the relative
amounts of compounds that are consumed and produced during a chemical reaction.

3.2 Efficiency computation of Boilers

Efficiency testing helps us to find out how far the boiler efficiency drifts away
from the best efficiency. Any observed abnormal deviations could therefore be
investigated to pinpoint the problem area for necessary corrective action. Hence it is
necessary to find out the current level of efficiency for performance evaluation, which
is a pre requisite for energy conservation action in industry.

Most standards for computation of boiler efficiency, including IS 8753

and BS845 are designed for spot measurement of boiler efficiency. Basically Boiler
efficiency can be tested by the following methods:

1) The Direct Method: Where the energy gain of the working fluid (water and
steam) is compared with the energy content of the boiler fuel.
2) The Indirect Method: Where the efficiency is the difference between the losses
and the energy input.
 3.2.1 The Direct Method Testing

This is also known as 'input-output method' due to the fact that it needs only the useful
output (steam) and the heat input (i.e. fuel) for evaluating the efficiency. This efficiency
can be evaluated using the formula:

x 100

Example 3.1
Water consumption and coal consumption were measured in a coal-fired boiler at
hourly intervals. Weighed quantities of coal were fed to the boiler during the trial
period. Simultaneously water level difference was noted to calculate steam generation
during the trial period. Blow down was avoided during the test. The measured data is
given below.
 3.2.1.1 Merits and Demerits of Direct Method
Merits
 Plant people can evaluate quickly the efficiency of boilers
 Requires few parameters for computation
 Needs few instruments for monitoring

Demerits
 Does not give clues to the operator as to why efficiency of system is lower
 Does not calculate various losses accountable for various efficiency levels
 Evaporation ratio and efficiency may mislead, if the steam is highly wet due to
water carryover

3.3 Energy Conservation Opportunities in Boilers

1. Stack Temperature
The stack temperature (Temperature used to remove water vapor in the exhaust
condenses on the stack walls) should be as low as possible. An estimated 1% efficiency loss occurs
with every 22 °C increase in stack temperature.
2. Feed Water Preheating using Economizer
Feed Water Preheating using economizer would reduce the exit temperature to 65 °C,
thereby increasing thermal efficiency by 5%.
3. Combustion Air Preheat
Combustion air preheating is an alternative to feed water pre-heating. In order to
improve thermal efficiency by 1%, the combustion air temperature must be raised by 20 °C using pre-
heater.
4. Incomplete Combustion
Incomplete combustion can arise from a shortage of air or surplus of fuel or poor
distribution of fuel. It is usually obvious from the colour or smoke, and must be corrected
immediately.
5. Excess Air Control
Controlling excess air to an optimum level always results in reduction in flue gas
losses; for every 1% reduction in excess air there is approximately 0.6% rise in efficiency.
6. Radiation and Convection Heat Loss
Repairing or augmenting insulation can reduce heat loss through boiler walls and
piping.
7. Automatic Blow down Control
Uncontrolled continuous blow down is very wasteful. Automatic blow down controls
can be installed that sense and respond to boiler water conductivity and pH. A 10% blow down
in a 15 kg/cm2 boiler results in 3% efficiency loss.

8. Reduction of Scaling and Soot Losses

In oil and coal-fired boilers, soot buildup on tubes acts as an insulator against heat
transfer. Any such deposits should be removed on a regular basis. It is estimated that 3 mm of soot
can cause an increase in fuel consumption by 2.5% due to increased flue gas temperatures.
Periodic off-line cleaning of radiant furnace surfaces, boiler tube banks, economizers and air
heaters may be necessary to remove stubborn deposits.
9. Variable Speed Control for Fans, Blowers and Pumps
The possibility of replacing the dampers by a VSD should be improve the system
efficiency.
10. Effect of Boiler Loading on Efficiency
The maximum efficiency of the boiler does not occur at full load, but at about two-
thirds of the full load.
11. Proper Boiler Scheduling
Operate a fewer number of boilers at higher loads, than to operate a large number at low
loads.
12. Boiler Replacement
The potential savings from replacing a boiler depend on the anticipated change in
overall efficiency. A change in a boiler can be financially attractive if the existing boiler is :
 old and inefficient
 not capable of firing cheaper substitution fuel
 over or under-sized for present requirements
 not designed for ideal loading conditions

3.4 Efficiency computation of Furnaces

A furnace is an equipment to melt metals for casting or heat materials for change of shape
(rolling, forging etc) or change of properties (heat treatment).
The efficiency of furnace can be judged by measuring the amount of fuel needed per
unit weight of material.

The quantity of heat to be imparted (Q) to the stock can be found from
Q = m × Cp (t1 – t2)
Where
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal
m = Weight of the stock in kg
Cp = Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg°C
t1 = Final temperature of stock desired, °C
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace, °C
Example 3.2
An oil-fired reheating furnace has an operating temperature of around 1340°C.
Average fuel consumption is 400 litres/hour. The flue gas exit temperature is 750 °C after air
pre-heater. Air is preheated from ambient temperature of 40 °C to 190 °C through an air pre-
heater. The furnace has 460 mm thick wall (x) on the billet extraction outlet side, which is 1 m
high (D) and 1 m wide. The other data are as given below. Find out the efficiency of the
furnace by direct method.
Exit flue gas temperature = 750°C
Ambient temperature = 40°C
Preheated air temperature = 190°C
Specific gravity of oil = 0.92
Average fuel oil consumption = 400 Litres / hr
= 400 × 0.92 =368 kg/hr
Calorific value of oil = 10000 kCal/kg
Average O2 percentage in flue gas = 12%
Weight of stock = 6000 kg/hr
Specific heat of Billet = 0.12 kCal/kg/°C
Average surface temperature of heating + soaking zone = 122 °C
Average surface temperature of area other than heating and soaking zone = 80 °C
Area of heating + soaking zone = 70.18 m2
Area other than heating and soaking zone = 12.6 m2
Solution:
Heat input = 400 litres / hr
= 368 kg/hr
Heat output = m × Cp × ΔT
= 6000 kg × 0.12 × (1340 – 40)
= 936000 kCal
Efficiency = 936000 × 100 / (368 × 10000)
= 25.43 %
= 25% (app)
Losses = 75% (app)
3.5 Energy Conservation measures in Furnaces

1) Complete combustion with minimum excess air

2) Correct heat distribution
3) Operate furnace at the desired temperature
4) Reduce heat losses from furnace openings
5) Maintain correct amount of furnace draught
6) Optimum capacity utilization of furnace will give maximum thermal
efficiency
7) Waste heat recovery from the flue gases improves system efficiency
8) Minimum refractory losses
The appropriate choice of refractory and insulation materials goes a
long way in achieving fairly high fuel savings in industrial furnaces
9) Use of Ceramic Coatings in furnace chamber promotes rapid and efficient
transfer of heat, thereby extended life of refractories.

3.6 Thermic Fluid Heaters

Thermic Fluid is used as a heat transfer mechanism in some industrial process and
heating applications. Thermic Fluid may be a vegetable or mineral based oil and the oil may
be raised to a high temperature without the need for any pressurization. The relatively high
flow and return temperatures may limit the potential for flue gas heat recovery unless some
other system can absorb this heat usefully. Careful design and selection is required to achieve
best energy efficiency.

Thermic fluid heaters are used just to heat the water, not necessarily producing steam.
Water is heated by passing hot thermic fluid in tubes submerged in water. This arrangement is
similar to the fire-tube boiler.
 The combustion air enters through the fan inlet, travels upwards through the space
between the inner shell & the outer shell, gets pre-heated & enters the top mounted burner Hot
flue gases travel down the full length of the vessel creating the first (radiant) pass The flue
gases then travel upwards through the space between the inner coil & the outer coil creating
the second (convection) pass The third (convection) pass is downwards through the space
between the outer coil & the inner shell to the flue gas outlet.

3.7 Steam: Concept, Properties & Usage

Steam has been a popular mode of conveying energy since the industrial revolution.
Steam is used for generating power and also used in process industries such as sugar,
paper, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, chemical, food, synthetic fiber and textiles.
 The following characteristics of steam make it so popular and useful to the industry:

 Highest specific heat and latent heat

 Highest heat transfer coefficient
 Easy to control and distribute
 Cheap and inert

Water can exist in the form of solid (ice), liquid (water) and gas (steam) respectively.
If heat energy is added to water, its temperature rises until a value is reached at which the
water can no longer exist as a liquid. We call this the "saturation" point and with any
further addition of energy, some of the water will boil off as steam. This evaporation
requires relatively large amounts of energy, and while it is being added, the water and the
steam released are both at the same temperature. Equally, if steam is made to release the
energy that was added to evaporate it, then the steam will condense and water at same
temperature will be formed.
3.8 Steam Distribution

The steam distribution system is the essential link between the steam generator and
the steam user. Whatever the source, an efficient steam distribution system is essential if
steam of the right quality and pressure is to be supplied, in the right quantity, to the steam
using equipment. Installation and maintenance of the steam system are important issues,
and must be considered at the design stage.

Figure 3.2 Steam Distribution System

 As steam condenses in a process, flow is induced in the supply pipe. Condensate has a
very small volume compared to the steam, and this causes a pressure drop, which causes
the steam to flow through the pipes. The steam generated in the boiler must be conveyed
through pipe work to the point where its heat energy is required. Initially there will be one
or more main pipes, or 'steam mains', which carry steam from the boiler in the general
direction of the steam using plant. Smaller branch pipes can then carry the steam to the
individual pieces of equipment. A typical steam distribution system is shown in Figure 3.2.
3.9 Steam Traps
The purpose of installing the steam traps is to obtain fast heating of the product and
equipment by keeping the steam lines and equipment free of condensate, air and non-
condensable gases. A steam trap is a valve device that discharges condensate and air from
the line or piece of equipment without discharging the steam.
The three important functions of steam traps are:
• To discharge condensate as soon as it is formed.
• Not to allow steam to escape.
• To be capable of discharging air and other incondensible gases.

3.9.1 Types of Steam Traps

There are three basic types of steam trap into which all variations fall, all three are
classified by International Standard ISO 6704:1982.

Thermostatic (operated by changes in fluid temperature) - The temperature of saturated

steam is determined by its pressure. In the steam space, steam gives up its enthalpy of
evaporation (heat), producing condensate at steam temperature. As a result of any further
heat loss, the temperature of the condensate will fall. A thermostatic trap will pass
condensate when this lower temperature is sensed. As steam reaches the trap, the
temperature increases and the trap closes.
Mechanical (operated by changes in fluid density) - This range of steam traps operates by
sensing the difference in density between steam and condensate. These steam traps include
'ball float traps' and 'inverted bucket traps'. In the 'ball float trap', the ball rises in the
presence of condensate, opening a valve which passes the denser condensate. With the
'inverted bucket trap', the inverted bucket floats when steam reaches the trap and rises to shut
the valve. Both are essentially 'mechanical' in their method of operation.

Thermodynamic (operated by changes in fluid dynamics) - Thermodynamic steam traps

rely partly on the formation of flash steam from condensate. This group includes
'thermodynamic', 'disc', 'impulse' and 'labyrinth' steam traps.

3.10 Condensate Recovery

Figure 3.3 Heat Content of Steam and Condensate at the Same Pressure

The steam condenses after giving off its latent heat in the heating coil or the jacket of
the process equipment. A sizable portion (about 25%) of the total heat in the steam leaves
the process equipment as hot water. Figure 3.3 compares the amount of energy in a
kilogram of steam and condensate at the same pressure. The percentage of energy in
condensate to that in steam can vary from 18% at 1 bar g to 30% at 14 bar g; clearly the
liquid condensate is worth reclaiming. If this water is returned to the boiler house, it will
reduce the fuel requirements of the boiler. For every 60°C rise in the feed water
temperature, there will be approximately 1% saving of fuel in the boiler.
3.10.1 Benefits of Condensate Recovery

• Water charges are reduced.

• Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
• Fuel costs are reduced.
• More steam can be produced from the boiler.
• Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
• Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.

3.11 Flash Steam Recovery

Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is released to a lower pressure
and can be used for low pressure heating.
The higher the steam pressure and lower the flash steam pressure the greater the
quantity of flash steam that can be generated. In many cases, flash steam from high
pressure equipment is made use of directly on the low pressure equipment to reduce use of
steam through pressure reducing valves.
The flash steam quantity can be calculated by the following formula with the help of a
steam table:

Flash steam available % = (S1 –S2) / L2

Where: S1 is the sensible heat of higher pressure condensate.

S2 is the sensible heat of the steam at lower pressure (at which it has been
flashed). L2 is the latent heat of flash steam (at lower pressure).
Figure 3.4 Quantity of Flash Steam Graph
 Flash steam can be used on low pressure applications like direct injection and can
replace an equal quantity of live steam that would be otherwise required. The demand for
flash steam should exceed its supply, so that there is no build up of pressure in the flash
vessel and the consequent loss of steam through the safety valve. Generally, the simplest
method of using flash steam is to flash from a machine/equipment at a higher pressure to a
machine/equipment at a lower pressure, thereby augmenting steam supply to the low
pressure equipment.

In general, a flash system should run at the lowest possible pressure so that the
maximum amount of flash is available and the backpressure on the high pressure systems
is kept as low as possible.
Flash steam from the condensate can be separated in an equipment called the 'flash
vessel'. This is a vertical vessel as shown in the Figure 3.5. The diameter of the vessel is
such that a considerable drop in velocity allows the condensate to fall to the bottom of the
vessel from where it is drained out by a steam trap preferably a float trap. Flash steam
itself rises to leave the vessel at the top. The height of the vessel should be sufficient
enough to avoid water being carried over in the flash steam.
 Figure 3.5 Flash Steam Recovery

The condensate from the traps (A) along with some flash steam generated passes
through vessel (B). The flash steam is let out through (C) and the residual condensate from
(B) goes out through the steam trap (D). The flash vessel is usually fitted with a 'pressure
gauge' to know the quality of flash steam leaving the vessel. A 'safety valve' is also
provided to vent out the steam in case of high pressure build up in the vessel.

Purpose of Insulation
A thermal insulator is a poor conductor of heat and has a low thermal conductivity.
Insulation is used in buildings and in manufacturing processes to prevent heat loss or heat
gain. Although its primary purpose is an economic one, it also provides more accurate
control of process temperatures and protection of personnel. It prevents condensation on
cold surfaces and the resulting corrosion. Such materials are porous, containing large
number of dormant air cells. Thermal insulation delivers the following benefits: • Reduces
over-all energy consumption • Offers better process control by maintaining process
temperature. • Prevents corrosion by keeping the exposed surface of a refrigerated system
above dew point • Provides fire protection to equipment • Absorbs vibration
Refractories: Properties and Types
1. Meaning of Refractories
2. Properties of Refractories
3. Refractory Fibres
4. Uses.
Meaning of Refractories:
The term refractories embraces all materials used in the arts for the construction of heat
resisting containers, using the word in its broadest sense, whether it be to afford space for
the evolution of gases in combustion processes or the holding of molten charges or of
solids undergoing heat-treatment.
The two principal functions involved in the use of refractory materials are to those of
thermal insulation and conduction. In the outside walls of a furnace, refractories serve the
purpose of confining the heat and preventing excessive loss to the atmosphere; in a muffle
or retort, they serve to conduct the heat through the walls to the charge.
Although, in general, the heat resisting quality of refractories is of paramount importance,
this is by no means the only requirement and may at times be only a secondary
consideration. Refractories may be expected to be relatively unaffected by high
temperatures under stress whether negligible or heavy; to resist mechanical abrasion at
various temperatures; to resist the intrusion of molten metals, slags or metallic vapours, as
well the action of superheated steam and hydrocarbons, sulphurous oxide, chlorine or
other gases; and to withstand sudden temperature changes.
Under one set of conditions, high thermal conductivity may be required and under another
high insulation value, while in still other cases high electrical resistance at moderately high
temperatures may be demanded. It is obvious that no single refractory will completely
fulfill all these functions, and hence the proper selection of a suitable material is often a
complicated task.
Properties of Refractories:
A good refractory material should have the following properties:
1. It should be able to withstand high temperatures generated in the furnace.
2. It should be able to withstand sudden alternating heating and cooling, i.e., thermal
shocks.
3. It should be able to withstand abrasion and rough usage.
4. Its contraction and expansion due to the inevitable temperature variation should be
minimum possible.
5. It should be able to withstand fluxing action of the slags and the corrosive action of
gases.
6. It should have good heat insulating properties.
7. It should be chemically inactive at elevated temperatures.
8. It should be impermeable to gases and liquids as far as possible.
9. If used in electric furnaces, it must have low electrical conductivity.
Types of Refractories:
According to their chemical behaviour, the refractory materials which are mainly
oxides or carbides of metals or non-metals or their mixtures, are classified as follows:
1. Acid refractories. 2. Basic refractories. 3. Neutral refractories.
1. Acid Refractories:
Acid refractories are those which really combine with bases and are therefore, termed
“Acid”. They are materials consisting of silica or containing silica as their chief
constituent greatly in excess of the bases present. The important acid refractories are
quartz, sand, ganister, dinas rock etc. Most tire-clays contain SiO2 in excess of the amount
indicated by the formula Al2O3.2SiO2.2H2O and are therefore, classed as acid.
Silica:
The pure silica fuses at a very high temperature, viz., 1713°C, but when heated in contact
with basic substances it forms silicates, some of which fuse easily. Therefore, the presence
of bases in silica to be used as refractory materials is to be guarded against. Silica occurs
as quartzite, Dinas rock and ganister. Ganister is a naturally occurring high siliceous rock
(98% SiO2). In the prepared state it is used in the form of bricks. Good deposits of silica in
India occur in the Gaya and Monghyr districts of Bihar.
Silica bricks are made from hard, dense fine grained quartzite (known as ganister). After
crushing, the rock is ground with water and mixed with about 2 percent lime. From this
mixture, bricks may be moulded by hand or by power press; after drying in hot air, they
are baked for proper time and at the proper temperature. The lime being base reacts
chemically with acidic SiO2 and fuses at a number of places in the brick and gives its
strength. The bricks expand 3.5 percent after the baking is finished.
Silica bricks possess the following properties:
1. Low porosity and free from air pockets.
2. Good thermal expansion and conductivity.
3. Remarkable load bearing capacity especially at high temperatures.
4. Not susceptible to thermal spalling at temperatures above 400°C.
5. Ability to withstand thermal shock poor.
Silica bricks are extremely suitable for those parts of a furnace which are subjected to
uniformly high temperature, e.g., fire bridges, roofs of Acid and Basic Open and Hearth,
Electric furnaces, copper smelting and refining furnaces etc.
Fire Clay:
The main constituent of fire-clay is kaolinite, Al2O3. 2SiO2. 2H2O. The fire clays,
however, contain varying proportions of alumina and silica. Impurities in fire clays such as
alkalies, sand, oxides of iron and silicates of calcium and magnesium adversely affect their
properties. At high temperature the fire clays lose their water of hydration and mainly
consist of alumina and silica.
The fireclay bricks are manufactured in the same manner as silica bricks. The clay in a
finely crushed state is mixed with a definite amount of water in a pug mill. The mixture is
then pressed into moulds, dried and finally burnt. To control the shrinkage, and accelerate
the rate of production about 20 to 80% of burnt or calcined clay called Grog is mixed in
the clay, while using flint clay, plastic clay is employed as binder. By altering the
properties of flint clay and plastic clay in the brick mixture the properties of the bricks
made can be controlled.
Important properties of fire-clay bricks are:
1. Coefficient of thermal expansion is low.
2. Sufficient strength at high temperature.
3. Resist spalling.
4. Not so refractory as silica bricks but much cheaper.
Fire clay bricks are used for the following:
1. Linings of blast furnaces for the melting of iron, copper, lead ores etc.
2. The linings of flues and shocks.
3. Heat treatment furnaces.
4. Glass furnaces.
5. Checker-work of regenerative furnaces.
6. Reverberatory furnaces.
7. Pottery kilns.
2. Basic Refractories:
Basic refractories consists mainly of basic oxides without free silica and resist the action
of bases. The most common basic refractories are Magnesite, Dolomite, lime etc. But lime,
because of its dehydrating tendency is never used as a refractory.
Magnesite:
This is most important basic refractory material. It is made by “dead burning’ the mineral
magnesite which is essentially magnesium carbonate. At any temperature above about
700°C, magnesite is dissociated to magnesia and carbon dioxide, but the properties of the
resultant product differ greatly according to the temperature of burning.
Below 900°C the product is “caustic magnesia”, which is readily hydrated to magnesium
hydroxide, and is used in cement. Microscopic examination shows no crystals, so that it is
often called amorphous magnesia. Prolonged firing at 1800°C gives an insoluble,
unreactive “dead burnt” magnesite, easily recognized as the crystalline mineral.
In the manufacture, magnesite is first “dead burnt” to remove shrinkage as much as
possible, then crushed, graded for minimum porosity, bonded, and moulded under
hydraulic pressure. Bonding is done by adding an organic binder, or by use of a little
caustic magnesia, which sets to a hydrated cement with water, or the crushed, deal burnt
magnesite itself is allowed to stand in water for some days until the surface of the particles
has undergone hydration.
Magnesite possesses the following properties:
1. Thermal conductivity greater than that for fire-clays and silica.
2. Highly resistant to the action of basic slags and iron oxide.
3. Starts losing strength at temperatures above 1500°C.
Magnesite bricks are not capable of resisting sudden changes of temperature and show a
tendency to spall under such conditions. They are costlier than silica and fireclay bricks
and used in the construction of those parts of a furnace which are required to withstand the
corrosive action of basic slags.
They are used for:
1. Hearths of basic open-hearth and copper reverberatory furnaces.
2. Electric arc and induction furnaces.
3. Lining of L.D. crucible (in the manufacture of steel).
Dolomite:
It is a double carbonate of calcium and magnesium and occurs abundantly in India. It is
burnt generally in shaft furnaces. Dolomitic bricks have low conductivity and
refractoriness as compared to magnesite bricks. Calcium oxide present in the bricks has a
tendency to combine with water and carbon dioxide present in the atmosphere, and causes
disintegration of the bricks. They are cheaper than magnesite bricks but are poor in
performance. It is extensively used for repairing the banks and the bottoms of the Basic
Open- hearth furnaces.
Burned bricks made from dolomite have not been successful in service. It is possible to
produce brick that will not hydrate under reasonable treatment, but the stabilizing agents
added cause high shrinkage when the brick is heated to high temperature. Such bricks are
also sensitive to spalling influences.
3. Neutral Refractories:
Neutral refractories are substances which do not combine with either acidic or basic oxides
and for this reason constitute the most satisfactory furnace lining, e.g., chromite and
carbon in graphite form.
Chromite:
Chromite refractories are made from core ores which mainly contain chromite, FeO .
Al2O3. The ore is finely powdered and mixed with a small amount of binding material,
such as fire-clay, bauxite and magnesia. The mixture is moulded into bricks, dried and
burnt in a kiln at a temperature of about 1500°C to 1700°C.
Chrome bricks possess the following properties:
1. Low porosity.
2. High resistant to both acid and basic slags
3. High thermal conductivity.
4. Low resistance to spalling.
Chrome bricks are extensively used in steel industry for lining open hearths and also in the
bottom of soaking pits.
Graphite:
It is a form of pure carbon and is natural product. It occurs mixed with calcareous and
siliceous rocks. It is employed in making graphite crucibles using clay as the bond.
Graphite bricks have the following properties:
1. Reduced oxidising action (on the metal) at high temperatures.
2. Resist acid and basic slags.
3. Free from scaffolds formation due to the adherence of metals to the lining.
Kaynite:
Its composition is Al2O3 . SiO2 (Disthene) and crystals are triclinic. It decomposes at a
temperature of 1350°-1330°C. Its hardness is 5 to 7 mhos.
Sillimanite:
It occurs naturally in Assam and Rewa in India. Its composition is Al2O3 . Si2 (flbrolite)
and occurs as long needle-shaped crystals. It has high softening point (above 1800°C). It
has very low electrical conductivity. It is employed for making blocks, bricks, crucibles,
refractory fittings for electrical goods and tubes for surface combustion.
In the Table 6.1 are shown the common refractory materials with their chemical
composition, melting point etc.
Refractory Fibres:
These are made from high purity alumina and silica grains melted in electric furnace and
blasted by high velocity gases into light fibres.
Ceramic fibres are available in the form of felts, blocks and blankets.
The heat losses through ceramic fibres are low compared to other refractory materials.
They have excellent temperature resistance, outstanding thermal stability and good
resistance to vibration.
Refractory fibres, in general, are considered in four broad categories namely:
(i) Alumina silica fibres.
(ii) Pure silica fibres.
(iii) Pure metal oxide fibres.
(iv) High silica leached fired glass fibres.
Uses of Refractories:
1. Because of low thermal conductivity the refractory ceramic fibres are fast replacing and
are used for lining of furnaces, kilns and other high temperature equipment.
2. Silica fibres are very expressive, hence, limited industrial use. They find applications in
aerospace industry.
3. Alumina silica fibres are generally used from 1000 to 1500°C temperature because of
their low cost and good thermal properties (they have average diameter ranging from 1.5
to 3.0 microns).
4. Metallic oxide, alumina fibres are used for 1500 to 1600°C.