CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Objective
1.2. Introduction
1.3. Significance of Communication
1.4. Nature and Development of Communication
1.5. Communication Theories
1.6. Summary
1.7. Review Questions

Objectives
After completing this unit students should be able to:
 Define the meaning, concept of Communication
 Explain the importance of communication in Business
 understand nature and development of Communication
1.1 An overview of Business Communication
The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that
means to impart, to participate, to share or to make common. It is a process of
exchange of facts, ideas, and opinions and as a means that individual or
organization share meaning and understanding with one another.
It is the lifeblood of every business. Information must be conveyed, received,
understood, and acted upon in a proper manner. When there is a breakdown in this
process, organizational efficiency suffers. Most organizations depend on
communication to accomplish their objectives.
Communication may be defined as interchange of thought or information between
two or more persons to bring about mutual understanding and desired action. It is
the information exchange by words or symbols. It is the exchange of facts, ideas
and viewpoints which bring about commonness of interest, purpose and efforts.

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 In other words, it is a transmission and interacting the facts, ideas, opinion,
feeling and attitudes.
Therefore, communication is defined as the process of transmitting and receiving
information. Furthermore, communication has been defined as transferring of
thoughts or ideas from one person (or group of persons) so that they can be
understood and act. It is the ability of mankind to communicate across barriers
and beyond boundaries that has ushered the progress of mankind. It is the ability
of fostering speedy and effective communication around the world that has shrunk
the world and made ‘globalization’ a reality. Communication had a vital role to
play in ensuring that people belonging to a particular country or a culture or
linguistic group interact with and relate to people belonging to other countries or
culture or linguistic group. Communication adds meaning to human life. It helps
to build relationship and fosters love and understanding. It enriches our
knowledge of the universe and makes living worthwhile.
From the above definitions, you might notice that all of them share something in
common. All of the definitions stress that there should at least be two people for
communication to occur & there should also be some kind of message that is intended
to be transmitted from one party to another. And, when people communicate, they
express their ideas & feelings in a way that is understandable to each other. They share
information with each other.

!
o Communication is the life blood of the business. No business can develop in the
absence of effective communication system.
o Communication is the mortar that holds an organization together, whatever its
business or its size.
o When people within the organization communicate with each other, it is
internal communication and when people in the organization communicate with
anyone outside the organization it is called external communication.
o Ability to work well in teams, to manage your subordinates and your
relationship with seniors, customers and colleagues depends on your
communication skill.
1.2 Significance of communication
1.2.1. Purpose of communication
1. For instruction: The instructive function unvarying and importantly deals with
the commanding nature. It is more or less of directive nature. Under this, the

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 communicator transmits with necessary directives and guidance to the next level,
so as to enable them to accomplish his particular tasks. In this, instructions
basically flow from top to the lower level.
2. For integration: It is consolidated function under which integration of activities
is endeavored. The integration function of communication mainly involves to
bring about inter-relationship among the various functions of the business
organization. It helps in the unification of different management functions.
3. For information: The purposes or function of communication in an organization
is to inform the individual or group about the particular task or company policies
and procedures etc. Top management informs policies to the lower level through
the middle level. In turn, the lower level informs the top level the reaction through
the middle level. Information can flow vertically, horizontally and diagonally
across the organization. Becoming informed or inform others is the main purpose
of communication.
4. For evaluation: Examination of activities to form an idea or judgment of the
worth of task is achieved through communication. Communication is a tool to
appraise the individual or team, their contribution to the organization. Evaluating
one’s own inputs or other’s outputs or some ideological scheme demands an
adequate and effective communication process.
5. For direction: Communication is necessary to issue directions by the top
management or manager to the lower level. Employee can perform better when he
is directed by his senior. Directing others may be communicated either orally or in
writing. An order may be common order, request order or implied order.
6. For teaching: The importance of personal safety on the job has been greatly
recognized. A complete communication process is required to teach and educate
workers about personal safety on the jobs. This communication helps the workers
to avert accidents, risk etc. and avoid cost, procedures etc.
7. For influencing: A complete communication process is necessary in influencing
others or being influenced. The individual having potential to influence others can
easily persuade others. It implies the provision of feedback which tells the effect
of communication.

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8. For image building: A business enterprise cannot isolate from the rest of the
society. There is interrelationship and interdependence between the society and an
enterprise operating in the society. Goodwill and confidence are necessarily
created among the public. It can be done by the communication with the different
media, which has to project the image of the firm in the society. Through an
effective external communication system, an enterprise has to inform the society
about its goals, activities, progress and social responsibility.
9. For employees’ orientation: When a new employee enter into the organization at
that time he or she will be unknown to the organization programs, policies,
culture etc. Communication helps to make people acquainted with the co-
employees, superior and with the policies, objectives, rules and regulations of the
organization.
10. Other: Effective decision-making is possible when required and adequate
information is supplied to the decision-maker. Effective communication helps the
process of decision making. In general, everyone in the organization has to
provide with necessary information so as to enable to discharge tasks effectively
and efficiently.
Effective communication is important in a business setting because of the following
reasons:
1. It helps organizations achieve their goals. So important is communication that
without it an organization cannot function. Its activities require human being to
interact, react – communicate. They exchange information, ideas, plans, order needed
supplies, make decisions, rules, proposals, contracts, agreements. Both within
(internal) and outside the organization (external) communication –oral or written- is its
lifeblood. A vital means of attending successfully to matters of company concern is
through effective internal communication. It helps increase job satisfaction,
productivity, safety, and profits as well as decrease absenteeism, grievances, and
turnover. Messages to persons outside the company can have a far-reaching effect on
its reputation and ultimate success.
2. Businesses growth in size: large businesses have a number of branches within a
country or even abroad. For their health and growth, it is extremely important that the

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 central organization maintains a thorough and up-to-date knowledge of the various
activities at the branch offices, keeps the branch offices well acquainted with the
activities at the center, and maintain some kind of link among the various branches.
This calls for effective and efficient network of communication.
3. Complexity of business activity: business activities have become extremely complex
that different departments handle specialization, planning, production, sales, stores,
advertising, financing, accounts etc. Thus, if these departments do not communicate
with one another as well as with management, there will be no coordination among
them.
4. Business Competition: business has become very competitive such that products of
common consumption are available in the market in dozen of brands. All these brands
do not sell equally well. Marketing research has revealed that firms that communicate
better can also sell better.
5. A valuable job requirement: if you can communicate effectively in speaking and
writing, you have an important, highly valued skill. Especially if your career requires
mainly mental rather than manual labor, your progress will be strongly influenced by
how effectively you communicate your knowledge, proposals, and ideas to others who
need or should receive them. Preference for communication skills is found in the job
descriptions listed by numerous companies wishing to employee college graduates.
Some of these requirements could be:
i. Must be able to communicate with all levels of management
ii. Needs ability to compose effective correspondence
iii. Must have ability to communicate and sell ideas
iv. Will prepare special analyses, research reports, and proposals
Job and career opportunities in which effective communication is the main
responsibility are available in various areas, such as customer relations, labor
relations, marketing, personnel, public relations, sales, teaching, etc. Also, technical
and scientific fields need editors, producers, researchers, and writers. Communication
skills are also important in local, state, and federal governments. Even when your
work is mainly with figures, as in the accounting profession, the ability to
communicate to those who read your financial reports is essential.

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6. An essential for promotion: the requisite for a promotable executive is ‘ability to
communicate.’ The ability to write and speak well becomes increasingly important as
you rise in an organization. Too often those who cannot communicate effectively in
either oral or written communications remain ‘buried’ in lower, dead-end jobs.
Members of management spend 60 to 90 percent of their working days
communicating, speaking, writing, and listening. Many surveys and articles have
confirmed the statement that effective communication is essential for success and
promotion in business.
As a trainee on a new job, you have opportunities to speak about problems with co-
workers and to submit memos, reports and letters that test your ability to communicate
clearly and quickly. A frequent complaint of managers is the inability of college
graduates to make them heard, read or understood. Your messages can reveal how
well you are doing a job, and they help management to evaluate your fitness for a
substantial promotion. For example, imagine that you are one of several highly trained
employees in an organization that requires everyone to submit frequent oral and
written reports to clients or company personnel. If there is an opening for promotion
and you each rate about the same except that you alone can write and speak
effectively, then clearly you have the advantage over the others.
7. It helps to meet personal responsibilities: people put things in writing to create a
record, to convey complex data, to make things convenient for the reader, to save
money, and to convey their own messages more effectively. Effective communication-
written and spoken- also helps you to better accomplish various aims in your personal
activities. You will sometimes need to write letters, proposals or reports, or to present
your views orally as committee chairperson, club officers, etc. In these roles you
might communicate with public officials, business, industrial, or professional people;
or personal friends. Whatever your purpose, you will usually achieve them more
effectively when you apply the same skills that help you communicate effectively in
business.
1.2.2 Significance of communication

¬ Activity
1. What are the basic significances of communication?
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The term business communication is used for all messages that we send and
receive for official purpose like running a business, managing an organization,
conducting the formal affairs of a voluntary organization and so on. Business
communication is marked by formality as against personal and social
communication. The success of any business to a large extent depends on efficient
and effective communication. It takes place among business entities, in market
and market places, within organizations and between various group of employees,
owners and employees, buyers and sellers, service providers and customers, sales
persons and prospects and also between people within the organization and the
press persons. All such communication impacts business. Done with care, such
communication can promote business interests. Otherwise, it will portray the
organization in poor light and may adversely affect the business interest.
Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to
effect change to influence action. In any organization the main problem is of
maintaining effective communication process. The management problem
generally results in poor communication. Serious mistakes are made because
orders are misunderstood. The basic problem in communication is that the
meaning which is actually understood may not be what the other intended to send.
It must be realized that the speaker and the listener are two separate individuals
having their own limitations and number of things may happen to distort the
message that pass between them. When people within the organization
communicate with each other, it is internal communication. They do so to work as
a team and realize the common goals. It could be official or unofficial. Modes of
internal communication include face-to-face and written communication. Memos,
reports, office order, circular, fax, video conferencing, meeting etc. are the
examples of internal communication. When people in the organization
communicate with anyone outside the organization it is called external
communication. These people may be clients or customers, dealers or distributors,
media, government, general public etc. are the examples of external
communication.

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1.3 Nature and Development of communication
1.3.1 Nature of Communication

¬ Activity
1. When do we say that communication exists?

There are many ways of communicating and many times what we hear is not what the
other person said, and consequently, what we say frequently can be interpreted in an
entirely different manner by the listener. Generally, communication is said to exist
when:
 There is a person (sender or transmitter) desirous of passing on some information.
 There is another person (receiver) to whom the information is to be passed on.
 The receiver partly or wholly understands the message passed on to her/him.
 The receiver responds to the message; i.e. there is some kind of feedback.
Communication cannot exist in the absence of any of these four components. It is said
to exist when there are at least two parties and there is a message (either oral or
written) that is intended to be communicated. Communication further requires that the
receiver of the message understands it and conform this by nodding or by giving some
kind of gesture or by verbally responding.
For example, let’s say that your professor is writing the answer to a complex
mathematical problem on the chalkboard, but offers neither a verbal explanation for
how he arrived at the answer nor the opportunity for questions. In this instance, the
professor has sent a message (via chalkboard); however, the chances are very good
that many students do not fully understand what the message means. Thus,
communication has not taken place. Therefore, communication is a process of
‘sharing’ rather than simply sending information.
1.3.2 Development of Business Communication
In the past so many years, office technology has improved, and with it has come an
array of developments that make business communication easier, faster, and less
costly than before. Office technology permits information to be produced quickly and
easily. For example, a typist using personal computer as a word processor can produce
in one hour a greater number of typed paged with fewer errors than a typist working

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with a standard electric typewriter. Moreover, if changes have to be made, the
computer-generated pages can be modified by adding, deleting, or rearranging
material without having to retype everything. Information analysis & data retrieval
have been made simpler & faster through modern office technology. Hence,
technology plays a crucial role in the operation of today’s’ modern offices.
Technology can help us reduce the time spent creating various businesses documents,
as well as enhance our ability to create professional-looking documents that will get
attention from others. In addition, technology facilitates the nearly instantaneous
transmission of written and electronic communication using duplicating machines and
electronic mail.
Some of the communication technologies include:
 Computers
 Fax machines
 Scanners
 Satellite networks
 Telephone (voice mail, cellular phones, pagers)
 Telecommunication (electronic mail, video conferencing, on-line information
services)
 Copiers
 Software
1.4 Communication Theories
“Communication is the production and exchange of information and meaning by
use of signs and symbols. It involves encoding and sending messages, receiving
and decoding them, and synthesizing information and meaning. Communication
permeates all levels of human experience and it is central to understanding human
behavior.”
Theories of communication are actually is not something new that came into
picture in twentieth century. In the history of philosophy, Aristotle first addressed
the problem of communication and attempted to work out a theory of it in The
Rhetoric. Aristotle represented communication as might an orator who speaks to
large audiences. Although His model incorporates few elements.

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 Mass communication research was always traditionally concerned with political
influence over the mass press, and then over the influences of films and radio. The
1950s was fertile for model-building, accompanying the rise in sociology and
psychology. It was in the USA that a science of communication was first
discussed
The earliest model was a simple sender-channel-message-receiver model.
Modifications added the concept of feedback, leading to a loop.
The next development was that receivers normally selectively perceive, interpret
and retain messages.
“The most important thing in communication is to hear what isn't being said.”
Peter Drucker (1909 - 2005)
Since “Communication is the production and exchange of information and
meaning by use of signs and symbols. It involves encoding and sending messages,
receiving and decoding them, and synthesizing information and meaning.
Communication permeates all levels of human experience and it is central to
understanding human behavior.”
Theories of communication are actually is not something new that came into
picture in twentieth century. In the history of philosophy, Aristotle first addressed
the problem of communication and attempted to work out a theory of it in The
Rhetoric. Aristotle represented communication as might an orator who speaks to
large audiences. Although His model incorporates few elements.
Chapter Summary
 The word “communication” derived from the Latin word ‘communicare’ that
means to impart, to participate, to share or to make common.
 Communication is the life blood of the business. No business can develop in the
absence of effective communication system.
 Communication is the mortar that holds an organization together, whatever its
business or its size.
 Some of Purposes of communication, for instruction ,for integration, for
information, for evaluation ,for direction for teaching & for influencing e.t.c

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 Some of the communication technologies may include: ,Computers, Fax
machines, Scanners .Satellite networks ,Telephone (voice mail, cellular phones,
pagers),Telecommunication (electronic mail, video conferencing, on-line
information services) ,Copiers & Software.

&Check list
Dear students tick “yes” or “no” to the following self-check items. If your answer
to any one of the items is “no”, please go back and read the specific section again.
Number Can you Yes No
1 Define the meaning, concept of Communication
2 Explain the importance of communication in Business
3 understand nature and development of Communication

EChapter I: Summary Questions

1. Effective Communication is important in a business setting because :
a. It helps organizations achieve their goals
b. Business growth in size
c. Business competition
d. A valuable job requirement
e. All
2. How do you define communication?

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3. What is the role of communication in management of business?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________What are the different purposes of communication?
Briefly explain any five of them.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
____________ Discuss the different situations when the
communication exists.

4. “Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions and

emotions by two or more persons.” Explain the statement and
discuss the role of feedback in communication.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
________________
5. “Communication is the two way process.” Explain.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________

Discuss the elements of communication process.

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
______________

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 CHAPTER TWO
ELEMENTS AND TYPES OF COMMUNICATION IN
ORGANIZATIONS

2.1 The process and Model of Communication

2.2 Barrier of communication in an Organization
2.3 Forms of communication
2.3.1 Formal Flow of Communication
2.3.2 Informal Communication
2.3.3 Principles of Effective Communication
2.3.4 Get ways to effective Communication
2.3.5 Seven C’s of Communication
2.4 Summary
2.5 Review Questions

Objectives
After completing this unit students should be able to:
 Describe the process of communication
 Explain different types of communication barriers
 understand formal flows of communication
2.1 The process and Model of Communication
2.2.1. The communication Process/cycle
The transmission of sender’s ideas to the receiver and the receiver’s feedback or
reaction to the sender constitute the communication cycle. The process of
communication begins when one person (the sender) wants to transmit a fact,
idea, opinion or other information to someone else (the receiver). This facts, idea
or opinion has meaning to the sender. The next step is translating or converting
the message into a language which reflects the idea. That is the message must be
encoded. The encoding process is influenced by content of the message, the
familiarity of sender and receiver and other situation of factors. After the message
has been encoded, it is transmitted through the appropriate channel or medium.
Common channel in organization includes meetings, reports, memorandums,
letters, e-mail, fax and telephone calls. When the message is received, it is
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 decoded, by the receiver and gives feedback to the sender as the conformation
about the particular message has been carefully understand or not.
The process of communication involves the following elements:
1. Sender or transmitter: The person who desires to convey the message is known
as sender. Sender initiates the message and changes the behavior of the receiver.
2. Message: It is a subject matter of any communication. It may involve any fact,
idea, opinion or information. It must exist in the mind of the sender if
communication is to take place.
3. Encoding: The communicator of the information organizes his idea into series of
symbols (words, signs, etc.) which, he feels will communicate to the intended
receiver or receivers.
4. Communication channel: The sender has to select the channel for sending the
information. Communication channel is the media through which the message
passes. It is the link that connects the sender and the receiver.
5. Receiver: The person who receives the message is called receiver or receiver is
the person to whom the particular message is sent by the transmitter. The
communication process is incomplete without the existence of receiver of the
message. It is a receiver who receives and tries to understand the message.
6. Decoding: Decoding is the process of interpretation of an encoded message into
the understandable meaning. Decoding helps the receiver to drive meaning from
the message.
7. Feedback: Communication is an exchange process. For the exchange to be
complete the information must go back to whom from where it started (or sender),
so that he can know the reaction of the receiver. The reaction or response of the
receiver is known as feedback.

Sender Encoding Message Decoding Receiver

Channel

Feed BackFeejbhFeedback

Fig.2.1 The communication Process

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 ¬ Activity
Briefly describe the communication Process?

2.2 Barrier of communication in an organization

No two persons are exactly alike mentally, physically, or emotionally. Thus the
innumerable human difference plus cultural, social, & environmental differences
may cause problems in conveying an intended message. Although all
communication is subject to misunderstandings, business communication is
particularly different. Various characteristics of the sender, receiver, &
communication situation can create barriers to effective communication.

The major barriers of communication include the following:

1. Channel selection: Communication may be oral, written, visual or audio-
visual. The different communication channels can be personal barriers in that
some individuals always seem to lean toward a particular channel even though a
more effective one exists. All the media have their relative merits and limitations.
While a properly chosen medium can add to the effectiveness of a
communication, an unsuitable medium may act as a barrier to it.
Consider, for example, a superior who uses a written memo to let you know about
the recent denial of a promotion. The more effective channel in this case might
have been face-to-face meeting in which you can ask questions. If a salesperson is
required to submit a report based on the comparative sales figures of the last five
years, he will fail to communicate anything if he writes a lengthy paragraph about
it. He has to present the figures in a tabular form, or preferably make a bar
diagram, which would make communication an instantaneous process. An
employee desirous of expressing his regrets for his earlier misconduct with his
supervisor should meet him personally. Whatsoever a lengthy letter he might
write, it can never be as effective as an earnest look on his face. But if he does not
meet him personally, his written explanation will most probably be
misinterpreted. In offices, if memos are frequently issued to employees to ask
them to explain minor things like late arrivals or early departure they become a
source of irritation. A manager using a memo to complement an employee for a
creditable achievement or to congratulate another employee for a wedding is
surely creating communication barrier through the wrong choice of medium.

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 2. Physical barriers: these include noise, and time & distance.
a. Noise: Anything that interferes with communication & distorts or blocks the
message is noise. Noise is quite often a barrier to communication. In factories oral
communication could be difficult by the loud noise of machines. Electronic noise
like blaring often interferes in communication by telephone. The word “noise” is
also used to refer to all kinds of physical interference like illegible handwriting,
smudged copies of duplicated typescript, poor telephone connections, use of
jargons (terms that have a precise meaning among specialists, but are
unfamiliar to others), distraction that prevents the receiver from paying
attention, a worn printer ribbon that makes a document hard to read, etc.
b. Time & Distance: Time and distance also act as barriers to communication.
Modern communication facilities like fax, telephone and Internet are not available
everywhere. This is especially so in most companies of our country. Even when
these technologies are available, sometimes-mechanical breakdowns render these
facilities ineffective. In such cases, the distance between the transmitter and the
receiver becomes a barrier. There is a kind of communication gap between
persons working in different shifts of a factory. Can you imagine how difficult it
would be to send an urgent message to a business partner living in Holland if it
had to be done through postal mail?
Semantics: refer to the different uses & meanings of words. Words are symbols;
therefore, they do not necessarily have the same meaning for everyone. Semantic
barriers include:
a. Interpretations of words: Do you remember a situation where you and your
friend understood a word communicated by somebody else in a different way?
The knowledge we each have about a subject or word affects the meaning we
attach to it. Individuals have their own network of words & meanings available
for recall that overlap, but do not correspond exactly, with those of others.
Individuals using their own networks can attach different meanings to words.
Receivers decode words & phrases in conformity with their own network, which
may be very different from those of senders. Words are capable of
communicating a variety of meanings. It is quite possible that the receiver does
not assign the same meaning to a word as the sender has intended, that may lead
to miscommunication. For some, a successful career means having prestigious
job title & making lots of money; for others, it may mean having a job they really
enjoy & plenty of personal time to spend with family & friends. Different word
interpretations are

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b. especially noticeable in ‘bypassed’ instructions & in reactions to denotations,
connotations, and euphemisms.
c. Bypassed instructions: when the message sender & receiver attribute different
meanings to the same words or use different words though intending the same
meaning, bypassing often occurs. Example: An office manager handed to a new
assistant a letter, with the instruction “Take it to our store room and burn it.” In
the office manager’s mind (and in the firm’s jargon) the word “burn” meant to
make a copy on a photocopier. As the letter was extremely important, she wanted
an extra copy. However, the puzzled new employee afraid to ask questions,
burned the letter and thus destroyed the only existing copy! To avoid
communication errors of bypassing, when you give instructions or discuss issues,
be sure your words & sentences will convey the intended meaning to the
recipient. Also, when you are the recipient of unclear instruction, before acting on
it, ask questions to determine the sender’s intended meaning.
d. Denotations, Connotations, & Euphoniums: Many of us have at some time been
surprised that a remark intended as a complement, or joke was interpreted by the
receiver as an insult. A statement intended as a good deed can be distorted into
something self-serving. Some of these communication problems may occur
because words have both denotative and connotative meanings, and the sender has
not considered the receiver’s probable interpretation and reactions.
Denotations: the denotative meaning is the meaning on which most people will
probably agree. It often is the dictionary definition. The word informs the receiver
& it names objects, people, or events without indicating positive or negative
qualities. Such words are car, desk, book, house, water conveys denotative
meaning, provided, of course, that the communicators understand the English
language & provided that the receiver has a similar understanding of the context
in which the word is used.
Connotations: in addition to more literal denotative meanings, some words have
connotative meanings that arouse qualitative judgments & personal reactions. The
term ‘meeting room’ is denotative. Director’s lounge, executive suite, boardroom,

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though they each denote a meeting place, also has connotative meanings. The
word ‘student’ is denotative; bookworm, scholar, dropout, school dummy, gunner
are connotative. Some words have favorable connotations in some contexts but
unfavorable meanings in other instances. Compare, for example, fat check & fat
girl; free enterprise & free (rude, bold) manners; cheap products & cheap price.
The communicators’ different backgrounds & interests also affect the connotative
meanings for words. On hearing that a particular person is ‘cool’, members of one
generation may take it to mean the person is fun to be with, while members of
earlier generation may believe it means that the individual is unemotional &
insensitive.
Euphemisms: tactful writer & speakers are euphemisms whenever possible to
replace words that might have blunt, painful, lowly, or distasteful connotations.
Euphemisms are mild, innovative expressions with which most people do not
have negative associations. Expressions like the following have obvious
connotative advantage: maintenance worker or staff member instead of janitor;
slender instead of skinny; restroom instead of toilet. Instead of saying an
employee was fired, a communicator may use such euphemism as laid off,
terminated, or a victim of reorganization or staff cutbacks.
To communicate effectively you need to be aware of the usual connotative
meanings of various terms and also to realize that some people may have their
own unique meanings because of their experiences & background. Thus choose
your words carefully, considering both their connotations and other denotations to
convey the idea you want and achieve the desired results.
4. Perception of reality: The reality of an object, an event, or a person is different
to different people. Reality is not a fixed concept; it is complex, infinite and
continually changing. Besides, each human being has limited sensory perceptions-
touch, sight, hearings, smell, and taste and each person’s mental filter is unique.
People perceive reality in different ways. No two persons perceive reality in
identical manners. We make various abstractions, inferences, and evaluations of
the world around us.

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 c. Abstracting: the process of focusing on some details & omitting others. In
countless instances, abstracting is necessary and desirable - for both written and
oral communications. Whether you write a memo, letter or report or converse by
telephone, you will be limited somewhat by time, expense, space, and purpose.
You will need to select facts that are pertinent to accomplish your purpose and to
omit the rest. We often use abstracting while preparing business reports &
application letters. Precise writing is nothing but the art of abstracting. So how is
abstracting considered a barrier to communication? Abstracting poses a grave
barrier to communication for details, which look pertinent to one reporter, may
look insignificant or trivial to another. You as a communicator must also
anticipate the likelihood that others may not be abstracting as you are. Their
points may be as important as yours though they select differently from the
infinite details in reality. For example, when reporting on an event- a football
game or an accident, no two witnesses give exactly the same descriptions. The
participants will perceive different details than the observers, but all or several
observers may mention some parts of the whole. Juries often determine which
witness’s details are the most credible.
Differences in abstracting occur not only when persons describe events but also
when they describe people, equipment, project, or animals. We do not give
allowances for these differences, and misunderstandings arise. Very often we
yield to the “allness” fallacy.
The allness fallacy states that we believe that whatever we know or say about an
object or event is all that is worth knowing or saying about it. The more we delve
into some subjects the more we realize there is so much more to learn and to
consider. And unfortunately the less we know the more sure we feel that we know
it all. Even experts on certain subjects admit they don’t know all the answers; they
continue to study all available facts, though they sometimes disagree among
themselves. Unfortunately, it is true of some people that the ‘less they know, the
more sure they are that they know it all.’ Thus, it is best for us to avoid assuming
we know all about any subject or circumstances simply because we have a few
facts. Otherwise we may have an inadequate, erroneous impression of the whole,

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as did the six blind men who each felt only one part of an elephant. The one who
felt only the swinging tail thought an elephant was like a rope; the second one
who felt the elephant’s tusk thought an elephant was a spear; the third who
touched the elephant’s side thought an elephant was a wall; the fourth one thought
the elephant was a tree having felt its knee; the fifth one having felt the elephant’s
trunk thought the elephant was a snake; and the last person thought the elephant
was a fan having felt its ear.

d. Inferring: What we directly see, hear, feel, taste, smell or can

immediately verify and confirm & constitutes a fact. But the statements that go
beyond the facts and the conclusions based on facts are called inferences. They
are conclusions made by reasoning from evidences or premises. A very simple
example of inferring is when we drop a letter in the post box, we assume that it
will be picked up by someone and be delivered to the destiny we desired. If
enough rain fall during the summer, we can infer that the price of ‘teff’ will go
down. We infer that the gas station attendant pumps gasoline (not water) into our
car’s tank.
For business & professional persons inferences are essential & desirable in
analyzing materials, solving problems, & planning. Systems analysts, marketing
specialists, advertisers, architects, engineers, and designers are all required to
draw inferences after they have gathered as much factual data as possible. Also,
as consumers in our daily activities, we may make inferences that are necessary &
usually fairly reliable. When we base our inferences on direct observations or on
reasonable evidence, they are likely to be quite dependable; but even so, there are
disappointing exceptions. Conclusions we make about things we have not
observed directly may be true or untrue.
As intelligent communicator we must avoid faulty inferences. We must realize
that inferences may be incorrect & unreliable & may cause miscommunication.
We need to anticipate risks before acting on the inferences. Consider this simple
example. Suppose that a personnel manager observes a particular new employee
has been leaving the office one hour late everyday for the last two weeks. What
can be inferred from this observation? The manager might infer that the worker is:

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  Exceptionally conscientious;
 That he is incapable of doing the required work within the regular time;
 That he has been given more responsibility than should be expected of a
new trainee; or
 Even that he is searching for some secrets from confidential materials after
others have left the office.
Do you suppose the personnel manager should take an action based on any of the
above-mentioned inferences or any other possible inference that the manager
could make? Before acting on any of these inferences, the manager should get
more facts. A wrong inference can surely be a barrier to communication.
a. Making frozen evaluation: another drawback of effective perception is the
frozen evaluation – the stereotyped, static impression that ignores significant
differences or changes. Stereotyping is the tendency to attribute characteristics of
an individual on the basis of an assessment of the group to which the individual
belongs. The manager uses those perceived common characteristics to draw
conclusions about the characteristics of the individual, rather than acquiring
information about those characteristics more directly. It is often based on faulty
inferences. To help you assure that your comprehension of reality will be correct,
you need to recognize that any person, product, or event may be quite different
from others in a group, or may have significant differences today when compared
with characteristics yesterday or some time ago. You should recognize individual
differences within groups & differences within time periods. In all, we should
remember to avoid frozen evaluation made on the basis of what was true for one
(for a group) at one time. Changes occur in everything.

Perhaps you might know someone who asserts “I’ll never again buy any coat
with ELICO label! The one that I bought last year came apart at the seams.” S/he
should realize that (1) probably not all ELICO coats last year ripped at the seam
(ELICO coat #1 is not exactly the same as ELICO coat #2) and (2) ELICO coats
last year may not be the same as ELICO coat this year or next year. A customer
payment record this year is not necessarily exactly the same as last year. Nor can

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you be sure that a successful sales campaign this month will again be successful
next month.

5. Attitudes & Opinions: communication effectiveness is influenced also by the

attitudes & opinions the communicators have in their mental filters. People tend
to react favorably when the message they receive agrees with their views towards
the information, the set of facts, & the sender. In addition, sometimes unrelated
circumstances affect their attitudes, & responses like:

a. Emotional state: a person’s ability to encode a message can become impaired

when a person is feeling strong emotions. For example, when you are angry, it is
harder to consider the other person’s viewpoint & to choose words carefully.
Likewise, the receiver will have difficulty-decoding message when her/his
emotions are strong. For instance, a person who is elated at receiving good news
might not pay close attention to some one else’s words or body language. Some
one who is angry might pay attention but misinterpret a message in light of her/his
anger.
For example, a division sales manager who has just has an argument with a
spouse is not likely to receive a quarterly sales report showing a downturn in
sales with much sensitivity or to be open to explanations as to why sales are low.
However, it is possible that, with time to cool off, the manager will be more
willing to listen to reasons for poor sales.
b. Favorable or Unfavorable information: rejecting, distorting, & avoiding are
three common undesirable, negative ways receivers react to information they
consider unfavorable. For example, if a change in the policy of an organization
proves advantageous to employees, they welcome it as good; if it is contrary to
their beliefs or benefits, they may reject, or resent the company and their boss,
perhaps falsely accusing them of being unfair. Or they may instead, distort, the
meaning and misinterpret the true purpose of the policy change. Or they may
avoid the message, situation or people by putting off acceptance, hoping that the
delay will some how prevent the change & protect them.

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c.Closed mind: some people have a closed mind toward receiving new
information. The closed-minded person is one of the most difficult to
communicate with. Typically this person has only inadequate and mainly
incorrect knowledge of the subject. Yet s/he refuses to consider any new facts,
even from an expert who has made a long, careful study of the problem and the
proposed change. The closed minded person says in essence: “my mind is made
up” “Don’t bother me with facts” “I want what I want”. Closed-minded people
stubbornly reject, distort or avoid a viewpoint before they know the facts.

d. Status consciousness: people in the upper areas of organization’s

hierarchy, those who have more status & power, may be hesitant to listen to those
individuals lower in the hierarchy, feeling for example, that people of lower status
& power do not possess any useful information. By the same token, people of
lower status & power may be reluctant to share information because they believe
that people with higher status & power will not listen. Subordinates are afraid of
communicating any unpleasant information to their managers. They may be afraid
that they might displease their superiors by telling them unpleasant facts. Or they
may fear that unfavorable communication may adversely reflect upon their own
competence. The subordinates also find it difficult to offer proposals for the
improvement of the organization, for such proposals are not usually encouraged.
e. Credibility: people react more favorably when a communicator has
credibility – when they respect, trust, & believe in the communicator. A sender’s
credibility plays an important role in how a message is received & understood. If
the receiver does not consider the sender trustworthy or knowledgeable about the
subject being communicated, s/he will most likely be reluctant even to listen to
the message. For example, if you learn that your professor has no educational
background about management, you may feel that she has little knowledge
concerning the area of management &, thus, place little weight on anything she
tells you concerning the subject. Likewise, a sender may limit what s/he
communicates to a receiver who is not considered trustworthy. For instance, if an
employee offers an idea for a more efficient way to perform a job & his
supervisor takes credit for it, then the employee is more likely to withhold future
information from the supervisor, as he will probably not trust the supervisor with
such information.

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 f. Information overload: refers to the condition of having too much information
to process. The implication is that individuals can effectively process only a
certain amount of information. An example would be if your professor gave you
too much information, too quickly, concerning a term paper’s requirements or if a
manager gave an employee too much information at one time about a report’s
requirements. In either situation, the receiver probably does not receive the entire
message. Managers need to be aware of potential for information overload & to
make appropriate adjustments.
¬ Activity
List out Some of Barriers in Communication?

__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

2.3 Forms of Communication

Communication is divided into external and internal communication. External
communications are those communications which are occurring outside the
organization like communication with other companies, with government, general
public etc. Internal communications are those which are inside the organization.
Internal communications are further divided into two parts, formal or official and
informal.
 Formal: Formal communication flows along prescribed channels which all
members desirous of communicating with one another are obliged to follow.
 Informal: Along with the formal channel of communication every organization
has an equally effective channel of communication that is the informal channel
often called grapevine, because it runs in all directions—Horizontal, Vertical,
Diagonal. It flows around water cooler, down hallways, through lunch rooms and
wherever people get together in groups.

2.3.1 Formal Flow of Communication

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 The formal communication is communication that flows along the organization’s lines
of authority. Formal channels of communication are intentionally defined and
designed by the organization. They represent the flow of communication within the
formal organizational structure.
Advantage
1. It passes through line and authority and consequently ensures the maintenance of
authority as well as accountability of the executives’ in-charge.
2. It helps to develop intimate relations between immediate boss and his
subordinates.
3. It keeps uniformity in the dissemination of information.
Typically, communication flows in four separate directions.
 Downward
 Upward
 Horizontal and
 Diagonal.
2.3.2 Downward Communication
Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of the
organizational hierarchy is called vertical communication. It can involve a manager
and a subordinate or can involve several layers of the hierarchy. It can flow in a
downward or an upward direction.
Formal messages that flow from managers and supervisors to subordinates are called
downward communication. Usually, this type of communication involves:
 Job directions
 Assignment of tasks and responsibilities
 Performance feedback
 Certain information concerning the organization’s strategies and goals.
 Speeches
 Policy and procedure manuals
 Employee handbooks
 Company leaflets
 Briefings on the organization’s mission and strategies

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  Staff meetings and
 Job descriptions are all examples of downward communication.
Most downward communication involves information in one of five categories:
 Job instructions: related to specific tasks: “Before pushing lever # 3, make sure that
both levers 1 and 2 are securely locked into position”.
 Job rationales: explaining the relationship between a task and other organizational
tasks: “if any of these panels are more than 1/1000 of an inch over or undersized, the
assembly crews will not be able to get the perfect fit needed and will return the panels
to us. And, as you know, once a panel has been formed, it cannot be resized, so any
returned panel ends up as scrap.”
 Policy and Procedures: practice of the organization or rules and regulations of the
organization. “All unused sick leaves will be converted into cash bonuses at the end of
every year.”
1. Feedback: on employee performance appraisal/individual performance on assigned
tasks: “You did great on the last project, Selam”.
2. Motivational appeals: efforts to encourage a sense of mission and dedication to the
goals of the organization. “If everyone will put in a little extra effort, we can become
the number one producer of X components.”
Downward communication across several levels is prone to considerable distortion.
As much as 80% of top management’s message may be lost by the time the message
reaches five levels below. There are usually three main reasons for the distortion.
i. Faulty message transmission may occur because of sender carelessness, poor
communication skills, and the difficulty of encoding a message that will be clearly
understood by individuals at multiple levels.
ii. Another is that managers tend to overuse one-way communication methods, such as,
memos, manuals, and newsletters, leaving little possibility for immediate feedback
regarding receiver understanding.
iii. Finally, some managers may intentionally or unintentionally filter communications by
withholding, screening, or manipulating information.
A major problem with managers and downward communication is their assumption
that employees do not need or want to know much about what is going on. Intentional

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filtering typically occurs when a manager seeks to enhance personal power over
subordinates by tightly controlling organizational information.
2.3.3 Upward Communication
Formal messages also flow upward from subordinates to supervisors and managers.
Without upward communication, management would never know how their
downward messages were received and interpreted by the employees and would miss
out on valuable ideas; workers would not get the chance to be part of the company. To
solve problems and make intelligent decisions, management must learn what’s going
on in the organization. Because they can not be everywhere at once, executive depend
on lower-level employees to furnish them with accurate, timely reports on problems,
emerging trends, opportunities or improvements, etc.
The following types of messages are valuable when communicated upward.
1. What subordinates are doing: highlights of their work, achievements, progress,
and future job plan.
2. Outlines of unsolved work problems: on which subordinates now need aid or may
require help in the future.
3. Suggestions or ideas for improvements: within departments or in the organization
as a whole.
4. How subordinates think and feel: about their jobs, their associates, and their
organization.

Forms of upward communication include one-to-one meetings with one’s immediate

supervisor, staff meetings with supervisors, suggestion systems, grievance procedures,
employee attitude survey, progress reports, inquiries, etc.

The distortion that characterizes downward communication also plagues upward

communication. First, individuals are likely to be extremely selective about the
information that they transmit upward. Information favorable to the sender is very
likely to be sent upward. In contrast, information that is unfavorable to the sender will
probably be blocked, even when it is important to the organization. Subordinates are
more likely to filter information when they do not trust their superiors, perceive that
their superiors have considerable influence over their careers, and have a strong desire

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 to move up. Second, managers do not expend sufficient effort in encouraging upward
communication. Managers often behave in manners that exacerbate the situation,
usually through punishing the bearer of bad news or allowing themselves to be
isolated from subordinates at lower levels.
2.3.4 Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication involves exchange of information among individuals on
the same organizational level, such as across or within departments. Thus, it generally
involves colleagues and peers. Horizontal information informs, supports, and
coordinates activities both interdepartmentally and interdepartmentally. Considerable
horizontal communication in organizations stems from staff specialists, in areas such
as engineering, accounting, and human resources management, who provide advice to
managers in various departments. Horizontal communication is especially important in
an organization for the following purposes:
1. To coordinate task when several employees or departments are each working on
part of an important project.
2. To solve problems such as how to reduce waste or how to increase the number
of items assembled each hour.
3. To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a
new survey.
4. To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between coworkers.
5. To build rapport: peer support.
Three major factors tend to impede necessary, work-related horizontal
communication.
i. First, rivalry among individuals or work units can influence individuals to hide
information that is potentially damaging to them or that may aid others.
ii. Second, specialization may cause individuals to be concerned mainly about the work
of their own unit and to have little appreciation for the work and communication needs
of others. For example, scientists in R and D unit that is focused on long-term projects
may find it difficult to interrupt their work to help with current customer problems
identified by the sales department.

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iii. Third, motivation may be lacking when subordinate horizontal communication is not
encouraged or rewarded.

2.3.5 Diagonal Communication

Some organizational structures employ teams comprised of members from different
functional areas, even different levels of the hierarchy. When these individuals from
different units and organizational level communicate, it is diagonal communication.
With more and more firms reducing the number of management layers and increasing
the use of self managed work teams, many workers are being required to communicate
with others in different departments and on different levels to solve problems and
coordinate work. For instance, a team might be formed from all functional areas
(accounting, marketing, operations, and human resources) to work on a specific
product project to ensure that all points of view are considered.

¬ Activity
Discuss the following flows of communication:
 Upward
 Downward
 Horizontal
 Diagonal

2. Informal Communication
It’s known that employees in the work place transmit much information or
messages in their day to day activity and these messages may not flow through a
formal network. Instead, the workers use an informal communication network that
is mainly oral.
The grapevine is an informal communication network throughout the
organization in which messages are rapidly transmitted, usually orally on a one to
one basis.
Rumors about company matters such as a proposed merger, reallocation of the
headquarters office or a cutback in the work force are often spread by means of
the grapevine
Factor responsible for the grapevine phenomenon

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1. Feeling of certainty or lack of direction when the organization is passing through
a difficult period.
2. Feeling of inadequacy or lack of self confidence on the part of employee, leading
to the formation of gaps.
3. Formation of a clique or favored group by the managers, giving other employees a
feeling of insecurity or isolation.
Forms of grapevine communication
A. Single chain: In this type of chain ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’ who tells it to ‘C’
and so on it goes down the line. This type of communication flows from one
person to another person through single chain or communication flows one by
one. When ‘A’ tells something to ‘B’ who tells it to ‘C’ and so on. One interesting
fact comes out from this type of communication that when one person passes
certain information to other and they treat the message as confidential or secret
which further communicated by another with same feeling of confidentiality and
secrecy.

A B C D E

Fig. 2.3a: Single Chain

B. Star chain: In this type of chain person speaks out and tells everyone the
information he/ she has obtained. This chain is often used when information or a
message regarding an interesting but non job related nature is being conveyed.
Sometimes it also called gossip chain.

C
E B
D

Fig. 2.3b: Star Chain

A

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C. Cluster chain: In this type of chain ‘A’ tells something to a few selected
individuals who gain inform a few selected individuals. And the information
flows in similar manner to other individual.

B E E E

C G H H
D

F
K I I

Fig. 2.3c: Cluster Chain P

D. Probability chain: The probability chain is a random process in which a

transmission of the information to other in accordance with the laws of probability
and then these tell still others in a similar manner. The chain may also be called
random.

J I B F

C E
G
K D
E

Fig. 2.3d: Probability Chain

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 2.4 Principles of Effective Communication
It is very difficult to suggest a comprehensive list of vital features of system of
communication. It will depend on the specific needs of the situation. The
following guidelines or principles may be followed to achieve effective
communication:
1. Clarity of message: The basic principle in communication is clarity. The
message must be as clear as possible. No vagueness should creep into it. The
message can be conveyed properly only if it is clearly formulated in the mind of
the both sender and receiver.
2. Speed: A good system of communication must ensure a speedy transmission of
message. The time taken to transmit a message to its destination and speed of the
communication system should be considered on the basis of the urgency of
communicating the message. If message not delivered at time it create problem
for organization.
3. Two-way process: Communication is the two-way process that provides
feedback to the sender from the receiver. Feedback refers to transmission of
information concerning the effect of any act of communication.
4. Reliability: Communication starts on the basis of belief. This atmosphere is built
by performance on the part of the expert. The receiver must have confidence in
the sender. He must have a high regard for the source’s competence on the
subject.
5. Completeness: Every Communication must be complete as adequate. Incomplete
messages create misunderstanding, keep the receiver guessing and delay action.
6. Content: The message must be meaningful for the receiver, and it must be
compatible with his value system. It must have significance for him. In general,
people select those items or information which promises them the greatest
rewards. The content determines the response of the audience.
7. Accuracy: The communication medium should ensure accuracy in the
transmission of messages. Whatever medium chooses by the sender should be
accurate for that particular kind of information which they want to send.

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8. Capability: Communication must take into account the capability of the
audience. Communications are most effective when they required the least effort
on the part of the recipients. This includes factors like reading ability and receiver
knowledge.
9. Economy: The communication system should be as much economical as
possible. But efficiency of the system should not be sacrificed to achieve
economy.
10. Secrecy: The communication system should ensure secrecy and there should be
no leakage of information. It becomes more essential when messages are of
confidential nature.
2.5 Gateways to Effective Communication
Developing and maintaining a system of communication is the key job of any
manager. The characteristics of a good communication system are discussed
below:
1. Two-way channel: In communication, two parties are involved, namely, the
sender or transmitter, and the receiver of the message. An effective
communication demands two-way communication. It should be vertical,
downward and upward. Therefore, a manager should thus not only to inform,
instruct and order but should also be prepared to listen, understand and interprets.
2. Clarity of message: Clarity of facts, ideas, opinion in the mind of communicator
should be clear before communicating. According to Koontz and Donnell, “A
communication possesses clarity when it is expressed in a language and
transmitted in a way that can be comprehended by the receiver.”
3. Mutual trust: A communication system may be considered excellent when
mutual trust or understanding exists between sender and the receiver of the
message. Existence of healthy interpersonal relation between the seniors and their
subordinates is also an indicator of an adequate system of communication in any
department or organization.
4. Timely message: Considerable attention should be given to the timeliness of
communication. Old information is worse than none at all.

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5. Consistency of message: Consistency can be achieved if the communicator keeps
in his mind the objective, policies and program of the enterprise. It should not be
conflicting with the previous communications; otherwise, it would create
confusion and anarchy in the organization.
6. Good relations: The mode of communication should be chosen in such a manner
that it does not hurt the feelings of the receiver. It should create proper
understanding in their minds of the receiver which leads to develop and maintain
the good relationship among the receiver and the sender.
7. Feedback: Feedback provides proper understanding of the message to the
receiver. It helpful in making a two-way communication process. The sender must
try to ascertain whether or not receiver properly understood the message.
8. Flexibility: The communication system should be flexible enough to adjust to the
changing requirements. It should absorb new techniques of communication with
little resistance.

¬ Activity
What are some of the disadvantages of informal communication?

2.6 Seven Cs of Communication

2.6.1 Seven Cs of Written Communication
1. Clarity
Clarity of thought: It comes from a careful consideration of the objective, content
and medium of communication.
Clarity of Expression:
1. Use simple word, easy to understand words:
Avoid them Use them
 Compensate Pay
 Facilitate Help
 Utilize Use

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2. Use Single words for long phrases:
Long Phrases Single Words
 At all times Always
 For the purpose of For
 Previous to Before
 On account of Because
3. Use verbs for nouns (its brings about simplicity and clarity):

Using Nouns Using Verbs

(Difficult) (Simple)
 Come to a conclusion Conclude
 Make a decision Decide
 Submit a proposal Propose
 Take into consideration Consider
4. Avoid double entry
Double entry Simple
 Actual fact Fact
 End result Result
 Period of one week One week
 Previous experience Experience

5. Avoid ambiguity: If your message can mean more than one ambiguous. Faulty
punctuation causes the ambiguity.
Go. slow work in progress
Go slow. work in progress
6. Use short sentences: Use one sentence to express only one idea. If a sentence runs
beyond 30 words, it is better to break it up into two sentences.

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2. Completeness

While answering a letter or in communication with other make it sure that you
have answered the all question. Checking for the five W’s questions.
 Who  Where
 What  Why
 When

3. Conciseness
 Include only relevant facts
 Avoid repetition
 Organize your message well
4. Consideration
 Adopt the you-attitude

We-attitude You-attitude
I want to express my Thank you for
Sincere thanks for your kind words.
The good words…..
 Avoid gender bias
Avoid Use
Chairman Chair person
Policeman Police Sir/Madam
5. Courtesy
In business we must create friendliness with all those to whom we write.
Friendliness is inseparable from courtesy.
 Answer the letters promptly.
 Omit irritating expressions.
(You neglected, you irresponsible, you are unaware).
 Apologies sincerely for an omission/thank enormously for a favor.

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6. Correctness
 Give correct facts.
 Send your message at the correct time.
 Send your message in the correct style.
7. Concreteness
 Always use specific fact and figures.
 Message should be definite and vivid.
 Avoid exaggeration.

2.6.2 Seven Cs of Oral Communication

According to Francis J. Bergin, a person engaged in oral communication must
remember seven Cs. And these are as follows:
1. Clear: An oral communication become effective when the message is clear for
the audience or receiver as the sender wants to convey. Oral messages are often
misunderstood because the speaker does not talk distinctly. So, for this purpose
clear pronunciation is very much required. To minimize this kind of problem a
speaker tries to workout on different, lengthy and unusual words for clear
pronunciation.
2. Concise: Many people enjoy while talking and sometimes oral communication
suffers from the problem of over communication. But when the speaker keeps on
talking for long, his/her message will be distracted. So it will be advisable to
speakers to try to keep the message as brief as possible without changing the real
message.
3. Complete: Like written communication in oral communication also,
completeness required. While communicating with other makes it sure that you
have paid attention on below questions. Checking for the five W’s questions.
4. Correct: In oral communication correctness means the source of information or
from where you get information is right or trustworthy source. Because if your
source of information is correct than the others generate faith on the speakers and
listen them carefully.
5. Concrete: For making oral communication effectively speakers should use
specific fact and ideas and also avoid exaggerating of any information. They try to
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 choose appropriate words which are not affecting a particular individual, society,
culture or nation.
6. Courtesy: Courtesy involves you-attitude. Use polite words for oral
communication. Tries to avoid irritating expression, sincerely apologies for any
mistake, do not use any discriminatory expressions which are related to individual
people, race, ethics, origin, physical appearance etc.
7. Candid: When the speaker chooses the candid approaches, its mean that their
message should be straight, open, frank, outspoken. But not hurting particular
individual.

&Check list
Dear students tick “yes” or “no” to the following self-check items. If your
answer to any one of the items is “no”, please go back and read the specific
section again.
Number Can you Yes No
1 Describe the process of communication
2 Explain different types of communication barriers
3 Understand formal flows of communication
4 Explain Informal communication
5 Basic Principles of effective communication

Chapter II: Summary Questions

1. Which one of the semantic barrier refers to sender & receiver attribute difference
meanings :
a. Interpretations of words
b. Bypassed instructions
c. Denotations, Connotations, & Euphoniums
d. Perception of Reality
2. Dealing with a person’s ability to encode a message:
a. Emotional State
b. Favorable or Unfavorable information
c. Closed mind

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d. Credibility
3. Which type of communication flows along prescribed channels which all
members desirous of communicating with one another are obliged to follow:
a. Formal communication
b. Informal communication
4. One of the following could be advantage of formal communication :
a. It passes through line and authority and consequently ensures the maintenance of
authority as well as accountability of the executives’ in-charge.
b. It helps to develop intimate relations between immediate boss and his
subordinates.
c. It keeps uniformity in the dissemination of information.
d. All
5. Communication that involves a message exchange between two or more levels of
the organizational hierarchy is called ___________________________.

a. Downward c. Horizontal and

b. Upward d. Diagonal.
6. Which type of information could be transmitted through downward communication :
a. Job directions
b. Assignment of tasks and responsibilities
c. Performance feedback
d. Certain information concerning the organization’s strategies and goals.
e. All
7. Which of the following could be the purposes of Horizontal Communication :
a. To share information such as an easier way to perform a task or the results of a new
survey.
b. To solve conflicts such as jealousy or disagreements between coworkers.
c. To build rapport: peer support.
d. All
8. __________________type of communication flows from one person to another person
through single chain or communication flows one by one.

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a. Single Chain c. Cluster Chain
b. Star Chain d. Probability Chain
9. Including only relevant facts is all about :
a. Conciseness c. Completeness
b. Consideration d. Clarity
10. According to Francis J. Bergin, a person engaged in oral communication must
remember :
a. Clear c. Complete
b. Concise d. All
Part one: Matching
A B
___1. The source of the message A. Clarity
___2. Is the carries of the message B. Capability
___3. Is also called the return message C. Channels
___4. Refers to communication in an D. Feed back
Unending process
___5. The message must be put in simple terms
The Process of interpretation of an encoded message
in to the understandable meaning. E. Sender
F. Receiver
G. Continuity

ÑPart I: Multiple choices

1. D
2. A
3. A
4. D
5. B
6. E
7. D
8. A
9. A
10. D
MATHING
1. E
2. C

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 3. D
4. G

CHAPTER THREE
MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

Objective
Introduction
3.1 Written Communication
3.1.1 Business Letter Writing
3.1.2 Business Report Writing
3.2 Oral Communication
3.2.1 Interview
3.2.2 Telephone Communication
3.2.3 Meeting
3.2.4 Active Listening
Summary
Review Questions
Objectives
After completing this unit students should be able to:
 Define the meaning, concept of Communication
 Explain the importance of communication in Business
 understand nature and development of Communication
3.1 Written Communication
Written communication is best suited when the communicator and the receiver are
beyond oral communication medium. The executives in all organizations can
maintain effective inter departmental and intra departmental connection through
messages by written words. The process of communication involves sending
message by written words. Written communication covers all kinds of subject
matter like notices, memorandums, reports, financial statements, business letters
etc. This type of communication simply means a process of reducing message into

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 writing which is extensively used in organizations. Formal communication must
always be in writing such as rules, orders, manuals, policy matter etc.

3.2 Purpose of Writing

The systematic filing of written communication is one of the important aspects of
communication. Filing along with indexing is necessary because of the poor
retention power of human being. The purpose of preserving written messages is to
provide necessary information readily and without any delay and when it is
needed. However, the following gives the main purpose of writing the messages.
1. Future references: The limitation of human mind and poor retention power
cannot be overlooked. Written messages can be preserved as records and
reference sources. Various media of communication can be filed for future
reference. Thus, keeping records are essential for continuous operation of the
business.
2. Avoiding mistakes: In transmitting messages, earlier records help in reducing
mistakes and errors and also prevent the occurrence of fraud.
3. Legal requirements: Written communication is acceptable as a legal document.
That is why some executives think that even if some messages have been
transmitted orally, they should later be confirmed in writing.
4. Wide access: Communication media having become very fast, written
communication enjoy a wide access. If the communicator and the receiver are far
from each other, written communication sent through post or e-mail is the
cheapest and may be the only available means of communication between them.
5. Effective decision-making: Old documents help effective decision-making in a
great way. Decision-making process becomes easier if old records are available.
Because the messages provide the necessary information for decision-making
purpose.
3.3 Principles of Effective Writing
1. Unity: Unity of writing implies a condition of being one. The principle of unity
applies on three levels. First, the individual sentences must be unified. Second,

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 the individual paragraph must be unified. Third, the totality of the message must
be unified.
2. Coherence: To achieve clarity in a written communication the principle of
coherence should be there. Relation and clarity are two important aspects of
coherence. The principle of coherence applies to sentences, paragraphs and to the
message as a whole.
3. Avoid jargon: As far as possible, the writer should avoid jargon. Jargon is a
language which is special to science, commerce, technology, trade or profession.
In private language with persons in the field, jargon may be incorporated. In other
cases, jargon can be used, but the only thing is that the words used must be clear
to others as well.
4. Accuracy: The subject matter must be correct and accurate. The manner in
which the message is transmitted must be correct. Accuracy in writing can be
achieved by careful checking and editing.
5. Brevity: A writing should be shorter by using few words for many. Brevity not
only saves the time but also gives grace to the writing. Business communication
must be brief and direct.
6. 7 Cs of communication: Please refer to Chapter 2.

Written Communication

Merits
 Accurate
 Precise
 Permanent record
 Legal document
 Can reach a large number of people simultaneously
 Helps to fix responsibility.
Limitations

o Time consuming
o Expensive not in terms of postage but of the time of so many
people
o Quick clarification not possible.

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 3.4 Writing Techniques
3.4.1 Adaptation and Selection of Words
Effective writing techniques gives stress on simplicity while using words, short
sentences and brief paragraphs and simplicity in terms of adaptation. Adaptation
of words according to the message addressing to the specific reader. All the
readers do not have the same ability to understand a message, they do not all have
the same vocabulary, the same knowledge about the subject. Thus, to
communicate clearly we should know the person with whom we wish to
communicate. The message should fit the person’s mind. For this reasons it is
advisable to adopt following techniques during written communication.
o Use familiar words
Unfortunately, many business writers do not use familiar language enough
instead; they tend to change character when they begin to put their thoughts on
paper.
Endeavour – Try
Ascertain – Find out
Terminate – End
Demonstrate – Show
Utilise – Use
 Choose the short over the long word. Generally, short words communicate better
as a heavy proportion of long words confuse the reader.
There are some long words such as hypnotize, hippopotamus and automobile are
so well known that they communicate easily. And some short words, such as
vibes, vie (to complete), vex (annoyed or upset), scab (worker) are understood by
only a few. Thus you will be wise to use long words with some caution. Further,
you need to ensure that those you do use will be familiar to your reader.
 Use technical words with caution.
All fields have technical words i.e., ‘jargon’, which becomes a part of our
everyday working vocabulary. In fact, so common will it appear in your mind that

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 you may assume that people outside the fields also know it. And in writing to
those who is outside from your field you may use these words, which leads to
miscommunication.

3.4.2 Masculine Words

Sometimes the use of particular words can support unfair or untrue attitudes
towards as particular sex, usually women. For example using the pronoun ‘he’ to
refer to a doctor, when you do not know if they are male or female, might support
the belief that it is not normal for women to be a doctor.
Writing Effective Sentences
Clear writing is not limited to the words alone. It also means using clear
sentences. Writing simpler sentences largely means writing shorter sentences. The
sentence can be a statement, a question, a command or in the form of an
exclamation. In writing, there is no hard and fast rule for deciding upon the length
of sentences but short sentences are simple because they are easy to understand.
They do not create problem by presenting complicated structure. Short sentences
should be framed as longer sentences have greater changes of having grammatical
errors.
Efficient authors manipulate and experiment with the combinations and number
of short and long sentences for various purpose in mind as per the requirement of
the text.
Characteristics of Effective Sentences
1. Unity: A sentence containing one idea at a time with all its parts contributing to
strengthen the main idea is called the unity of a sentence.
2. Coherence: How the various parts of a sentence are sticking together with no
words inappropriate. The sentences should also be in logical order.
3. Variety: The idea can be creatively expressed in a variety of sentences as the
same kind of thought or idea creates monotony.
4. Economy: The effectiveness of a sentence is judged by the number of words
used to make a sentence take its shape. Concise expressions increase the

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 effectiveness of a sentence.
5. Proper selection: Precise selection and appropriate choice of words not only
makes sentences more connotative but also generates an impact on the reader of
the text.
6. Simplicity: The choice of words, their consistency and the simplicity in choice of
pattern give a sentence an overall simple look.
Business letters and report writing
Need of a business letter
We need to write a business letter to maintain contacts with the external world
including other businessmen, customers and government departments. And also
for the internal purpose like office orders, circulars, memorandums etc. A letter
writing may be less important for a small business establishment, but it is has its
own importance. There is also some other means of communication, like
telephone, telegraph etc. but they can make only a temporary impression on the
receiver’s mind. The message communicated through these media is less likely to
be kept in memory for a long time.
Functions of a Business Letter
 A business letter serves as a record for future reference.
Back references are quite frequent in business communication. Knowledge of the
past transactions, agreements etc. with customers, suppliers and the like can be
had easily, quickly and correctly only when they have been preserved in writing.
 It leaves a more durable impression on the receiver’s mind than an oral message.
 Since it can reach anywhere, it is used to widen the area of operations.
 It is used as a legal document.
 It is used to build goodwill.
Types of Letter
Personal letters are informal and are written to exchange news or to seek favor;
letters to relatives and friends are personal letters. Personal letters are written in a
friendly, informal style. And the nonpersonal letters are used for the business
purpose, it should be written in the formal style. The particular style depends

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 upon the concerned company. There are some classifications of non-personal or
business letters:
Following are generally used in the organization as on broad aspect:
1. Official letters are written to government or semi-government bodies.
2. Demi-official letters (D.O.) are official in purpose but are addressed to a person
by name. D.O. letters may be written if the matter requires personal attention of
the addresses, the matter is of confidential nature, or the matter is urgent and
requires immediate disposal.
3. Internal letters or memos are used both in government offices and business
houses for internal communication.
4. Form letters are used for correspondence of recurring or routine nature. They are
used in case of acknowledgements, reminders, interviews, notice, appointment,
etc. relevant details filled in this letter.

Exhibit: 7.1 Sales Letters

Dear Sir,

With summer approaching, you must be thinking of how to keep your office cool, so that
you and your colleagues can continue to work efficiently. To meet your needs, we have
produced AC of different capacities. The detailed specifications are given in the
enclosed pamphlet. We shall give a guarantee for one year against all manufacturing
defects and repair, or replace any part. At the end of the pamphlet you will find a card.
Please fill it and mail it and we shall send our technician to survey your office, assess
your requirement. If you place the order before 30th March, we shall give you a special
discount of 5 per cent. Our company will transport the AC and install them whenever you
want. We trust, you would like to avail yourself of this special offer.
Yours faithfully,
Daniel Hailu.
Sales Manager

The Rohini Software Company

Exhibit: 7.3 main
K-.09 Status & Enquiry Letter
road,Adama

Gentlemen

This is to inform you that The Rohini Software Company is now open and is located at
K-09,main road, Adama. Our store offers a complete and diverse line of computer
software packages for both personal; and business applications. Our team includes
finance and engineering professionals along with the software experts. Our package are
therefore, developed with the thorough understanding of the relevant work process.
Enclosed, for your review, is a partial list of the items we currently have available. We
hope that you will come and visit us soon.

Cordially yours
Feyisa Tolera
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 Exhibit: 7.2 Circular Letter

Biftu Radio Corporation

K-04 DERARTU Street, Adama

th
25 August 2007
Jos& Bros.Ltd.
Main road
Adama
Confidential
Dear Sirs,
The firm named below wishes to open an account with us for birr.50,000, 3 months and
has given your name as a credit reference. Any information you may furnish us will be
treated as strictly confidential. We shall appreciate an early reply and assure you of our
willingness to reciprocate at any time. A stamped, addresses envelope is enclosed for
your convenience.

Yours faithfully
Mr. Fekadu Alemu
Credit Manager

Exhibit: 7.3 Status & Enquiry Letter

Ayu Hospital,
Adama.
29th April, 2008
The Managing Director
Quest Consultancy
Tesema Belachew
Adama

Sir
I hereby resign from the post of Assistant Marketing Manager and request you to relieve
me after the expiry of one month notice period, that is, from 29th July, 2008.
As you know, I joined this company seven years ago as Junior Marketing Executive and
was promoted only three year back. My career growth is slow and I feel I am stagnating
in this job. With my experience and qualifications, I believe, I would be able to get
elsewhere a better position and a more congenial atmosphere according to my
profession.
I, must, however, assure you that I have enjoyed working in the organization. The
experience gained here would help me make a more valuable and satisfying contribution
to this profession. In the end I would like to thank you and colleagues for the courtesy
and consideration shown to me during my stay here.

Yours faithfully
Teketel mengesha

Exhibit: 7.4 Resignation Letter

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July 22, 2008
Dear Sir
Re: Ch. Number 714526 of 15th July, 2008 for Rs.5000.

Please suspend payment of the cheque referred to above drawn by me favour of ‘self’,
as it appears to have been lost.
Since it happens to be bearer cheque, I have to request you to take immediate steps
toensure that, if presented for payment, it is duly dishonoured.

Kindly confirm.
Yours truly

Exhibit: 7.5 Bank Correspondences

Structure of Business Letter

Elements of Structure or Parts of a Letter
1. Heading
2. Date
3. Reference
4. Inside address
5. Attention lines
6. Salutation
7. Subject
8. Body
9. Complimentary close
10. Signature
11. Identification marks
12. Enclosure
13. Copy to
14. Postscript

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 1. Heading ............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
2. Date .................................................................................................................................
3. Your Reference.................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
4. Inside Address .................................................................................................................
5. Attention ...........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
6. Salutation .........................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
7. Subject .............................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
8. Body ................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
9. Complimentary close .......................................................................................................
10. Signature ..........................................................................................................................
11. Identification Marks..........................................................................................................
12. Enclosure .........................................................................................................................
13. C.C ..................................................................................................................................
14. Post Script .......................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................

Fig. 7.3: Elements of Business Letter

1. Heading: Most business organizations use their printed letterheads for the
correspondence with others. The letter head contains the name, the address, the
telephone number and the telegraph address if any. Generally, the name and
address are printed on the top middle of the page and any other information is
indicated in the margins.
Jonson Academy
Adama, Main Road, Derartu Street.
Telephone: Fax:

Exhibit: 7.6
2. Date: Some letterhead contain, a printed line indicating where the date should be
typed, in others, the typist chooses the right place for it. It should be typed two
spaces below the last line of the letterhead. The date, month and year should be
indicated in the upper right hand corner as;
2 August, 2001

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 August 2, 2001
2nd August, 2001
(First and second option is correct among the three)
Note: Names of the months and year are written in full and no suffix and
as ‘nd’ or ‘th’.

3. Reference: Some letterheads contain two lines to indicate references:

Telegraphs: Telephone
Jonson Academy
Adama, Main Road, Derartu Street.
Your Reference:
Our Reference:

If you are replying, gives the correspondent’s reference number against the first
and your reference number against the second line. Some companies prefer to
indicate the reference number of the correspondent in the body of letters:

Thank you for your letter Number AB/ 46/P497 of August 2, 2001
4. Inside address: The full address of the person or organization you are addressing,
should be written two spaces below the date and two spaces above the attention
line, or if there is no attention line, two spaces above the salutation. The names of
persons, firms, streets, roads etc. should be written as indicated in the source you
got the address from. These details should not be abbreviated. Like Mr. Melaku
Leul Tadese does not write Mr.M.L. Melaku or Mr.Melaku L. Tadese or Mr. M.
Leu Tadese.
It is bad business manners to do so. Special care should be taken to spell the
addresses name correctly. Misspelling his name may give him the impression that
you have little respect for him.
Many companies have a separate dispatch section. This section reproduces on the
envelope what you write as the inside address. If you have not properly mentioned
inside address, than your letter may not reach its destination.
The Bahir Trading Company
Hospital Marg, Agra-282002
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 The General Manager
Hindustan Co-operative Bank Limited
Baroda House, Mumbai – 400001
(In case of limited company)
5. Attention line: To ensure prompt attention, sometimes a letter which is addressed
to a firm or company is marked to particular officer in that organization. This is
done by writing an attention line two spaces below the inside address and two
spaces above the salutation.
This line is generally underlined:
Attention: The Sales Manager
Attention: Mr. AKiya Zelalem
6. Salutation: The salutation in a letter, an essential ingredient, is like greeting a
person when you meet him. It is placed two spaces below the attention line or if
there is no such line, two spaces below the inside address. The choice of
salutation depends upon the personal relationship between the writer and the
reader, and on the firm of the inside address. If you are addressing a firm, a
company, a board, a club, a society and association, an agency use “Dear Sir’s”.
Always remember that the attention line does not alter the salutation. If you write
a letter to an officer by name the salutation will be “Dear Sir” or ‘Dear Mss.’ or
‘Dear Madam’ followed by his or her surname, use the second part of the name
after the salutation.
Dear Mr. Alemayehu
Dear Mss. Alemitu
The following salutations are a little less formal than those give above:
My dear Mr. Tesema
My dear Mss. Chaltu
If the correspondent is a close friend of you’re, may address him or her by first
name:
My dear Alex
My dear Simegn
7. Subject: The purpose of the subject line is to let reader know immediately what
the message is about. Like attention and reference lines, it saves time.
The usual practice is to type this line in a double space between the salutation
and the first line of the body of the letter. There are, however, some organizations
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 which prefer to have the subject line between the attention line and the salutation.
(a) The Rathore Trading Company
04 Subways, New Market
Jupiter- 201001
Attention: The Sales Manager
Dear Sirs,
Subject: Supply of Packing Boxes.
(b) The Navneet Steel Corporation
443, Derartu Street
Aklesia–361001
Attention: Mr. Alemayehu
Subject: Payment of Bill Number N/543 of August 2008
Dear Sirs,
8. Body: The main purpose of a letter is to convey a message and the main
purpose of the message is to produce a suitable response in the reader. This is
done mainly through the body of the letter. It is, therefore, important to organize
and arrange the material very carefully. In the first paragraph, reference, to any
correspondence which has already taken place should be given and in the second
the main message should be stated. In the closing paragraph you must state clearly
what action you will expect the reader to take, or you may end the letter indicating
your expectations, wishes or intentions. The paragraphs are not given any
headings unless the letter is very long and deals with several important points.
9. Complimentary close: The complimentary close is a courteous leave taking
polite way of ending a letter. It is typed two spaces below the last line of the body
of the letter. The complimentary close must agree with the salutation as shown
below:

The salutation The complimentary close

1. Sir, Yours faithfully or
Yours obediently
Yours respectfully
2. Dear sirs, yours faithfully

Sir, or
Madams, yours truly
Madam,
3. Dear Mr. Kebede Yours Sincerely

My Dear Smhar
4. Dear Shewaye Yours Sincerely or

My Dear Amit Yours ever

Dear Lata
5. Dear Member Yours Sincerely
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Dear Customer/ Reader/
53
Subscriber
 10. Signature: The signature is the signed name of the writer. It is placed below
the complimentary close. The name of the writer is generally typed four spaces
below the closing line, providing enough space for the signature.
(i) Yours faithfully
(G.M. Misra)
(ii) Yours faithfully
(Mss. Misra Nure)
Sales Executive
11. Identification marks: These marks are put in the left margin to identify the typist
of the letter, one or two spaces below the signature. Usually, the initials of the
officer who dedicated the letter are put first.
Ex: If the letter has been dictated by Mr .Taye Belihu and typed by
Ato .Alemayehu
SPS/PG
SPS: PG
PG
Pg
12. Enclosure: If there is anything attached to the letter, it must be indicated against
the enclosure line which is typed two spaces below the identification marks.
Generally, the abbreviated from Encl. is typed against which the number of
enclosures is indicated.
Encl. 2
If however, the documents attached are important they are specified:
Encls: 1. Agreement dated 1 October, 2007.
2. Cheque Number p 35672 of 4 October 2007
13. Copy distributions: Sometimes copies of a letter have to be sent to some people
other than the addressee also. In such cases, the names of these persons should be
typed just below the reference initials or the enclosure notation, if any. The names
of the person should be arranged either in order of importance or alphabetically.

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14. Postscript: Postscript is something written after the letter is closed. Writing a
postscript (P.S.) indicated that the writer had forgotten to include something
important in the body of the letter or he had not planned his letters properly. From
the view point of a good business P.S. and it should preferably be avoided.
Form of Layout
1. Stationary: White papers should be preferred as the letters stand out clearly or it
makes easy reading. The standard size of the paper used for business letters is 18
½ by 11 inches. Other sizes used as 8*10 inches, 5*10 inches, 5 ½*8½ inches and 7 ¼*8
½ inches.
2. Typing: Most business letters are typed. There are two reasons for it. Typing
saves time and gives a tidy appearance to the letter. Care should, however, be
taken to get the letters neatly typed.
3. Margins: Margins in a letter add to its attractiveness. Generally, a 1 inch margin
is left on the sides and 1 ½ inches left on the top and the bottom in a standard size
letter.
4. Envelope: Envelope should be chosen to suit the size of the paper on which the
letter is typed. If a window envelope is used, the letter should be folded such that
the inside address will be displayed. The number of folds should be minimum as
per as possible.
Style of Presentation/Form of Letters
1. Indented form: This is the oldest style and is now outdated. In this form, the
inside address is in intended style, and every paragraph being 3 to 5 space away
from the left margin. The indention causes the letter to look uneven at the left
margin. Besides, it takes more time to type because of the indenting. This style is
not used today. Name of the Company & Addresses
Inside Name.................
Date..................
Inside Address.................
.......................................
Salutation................................
Subject.....................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................................
....................................................................
................................................... Body of
Letter .......................................................................................
Complimentary Close
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55
 Fig 7.4: Indented Form
2. Full blocked form: This is the most modern style. All parts of the letters, except
the printed letterhead, are aligned with left margin. A letter in this form saves
more time because indentation is not required for any part. But some
correspondents do not like it because it appears imbalances and heavy on the left
side.

Name & Address of the Company

Date: .................................
Inside Name & Address.................................
Salutation........................
Subject.............................
.............................................................................................................................
......................
.............................................................................................................................
......................
.............................................................................................................................
......................
....................................................... Body of
Letter .....................................................................
.............................................................................................................................
......................

Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.5: Full Blocked Form

3. Modified blocked form: This style is a modification of the full block form. It
eliminates the shortcoming of the full block style by keeping the date and
complimentary close on the right in their usual position. The entire paragraph
being at the left margin, and there is double space between the paragraph. This is
the most popular form, as it has many of the advantage of the full form without its
advantages.

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 Name & Address of the Company
Ref. Number....................
Date…………………….....
Inside Name & Address.................................
Salutation.........................
...................................................................................................................
..........................
................................................. Body of
Letter ...................................................................
...................................................................................................................
..........................
Fig. 7.6: Modified Form Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

4. Semi-intended/Semi-blocked form: This is like the block style except that the
paragraphs of the letter are intended. Those who use it say that it is easier to read
paragraph which be- gins with an indented line because one is used to seeing this
style in print.

Name & Address of the Company

Date:......................
Inside Name & Address.................................
.....................................................................
Salutation.....................................................
Subject............................. ............................
................................................................................................
........
....................................................................................................................................
.........
....................................................................................................................................
.........
................................................. Body of
Letter...................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
.........
Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.7: Semi Indented Form

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5. Hanging indention form: This style is like the block except that the first line of
each paragraph is aligned with the left margin whereas, all other lines in each
paragraph are intended four or five spaces. Its appearance is unusual and may
perhaps catch attention quickly but this fact could be a disadvantage as well. It
may distract the reader by focusing his attention on the form rather the message of
the letter. This style was not popular in the world of business.
Name & Address of the Company
Date:......................
Inside Name & Address.................................
........................................................................
Salutation........................................................
Subject............................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................
................................... Body of Letter ...................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
Complimentary Close
Signature & Designation

Fig. 7.8: Hanging Indention Form

6. NOMA form: This is the most recent experiment in layout style. It is
recommended by National Office Management Association of America (NOMA).
It has been accepted in the UK also. It has most of the features of full block form.
All lines begin at the left margin and the inside address in the block form. The
special features of this form are:
(i) It has no solution and no complimentary close;
(ii) The subject line is in capitals, 3 lines below the inside address;
(iii) Numbered items of a list begin at the left margin but if there is no
number, the items are indented 5 spaces. There is no full-stop at the end of items.
(iv) The writer name and title are typed in capitals in one line below the space
for signature.
(v) The typist initials are in the left bottom corner.

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 Name & Address of the Company
Date ......................
Inside Name & Address .................................
........................................................................
Subject ............................................................
...........................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................
.......
......................................................................................................................................
.......
......................................................... Body of
Letter ...........................................................
......................................................................................................................................
.......
Signature & Designation

3.5 Memorandums
A memorandum is short piece of writing used by an officer of an organization to
communicate within the organization. The literal meaning of the word
memorandum is a note to assist the memory. A memorandum is used for internal
communication between executives and subordinates. It is never sent outside the
organization.
3.5.1 Purpose of Writing Memorandums
Memorandum (memos) may be used for any official communication. Usually,
memos are used:-
1. For conveying schedule message.
2. For submitting periodical reports.
3. For communicating changes in organization.
4. For issuing instruction to the staff.
5. For conforming a decision made at phone.
6. For asking certain special information.
7. For writing suggestions.

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Advantages of Memorandums
1. Inexpensive: Because of its hand to hand circulation within the organization, it
is inexpensive means of communication.
2. Convenient: It is convenient to write and read memo, as all heading like data,
person etc. are usually printed in standardized format. Memos take comparatively
less time for writing, transmission and reading than letters.
3. Future reference: Memos are usually stored in office files or computer’s discs.
As a result, they can be used for future reference.
4. Quick: Memos ensure quick and smooth flow of information in all directions.
With exchanges of memos, the busy executives and employees can interact with
each other without disturbing their routine.
5. Fixing accountability: As memos are records of facts and decisions, they
establish accountability. Therefore, some organizations prefer to use memos even
for small events and request than telephone/verbal communication.

3.5.2 The Memorandum Format

The memo format is different from that of a letter. Since a memo moves from one
department to another or from one employee to another, it is essential to write the
name of the person sending the memo and the name of the recipient and the
designation or department of both the persons. It must also have reference
numbers. The words ‘From’ and ‘To’ are invariably used in memo. There is no
salutation and the writer’s signature is put without writing the subscription or
complimentary close. The memo is properly dated, is written in a direct style and
is as brief as possible. The three factors to be kept in mind while considering the
tone are:
1. Who is going to read the memo?
2. The subject-matter of the memo, and
3. The company in house style.
The tone of a memo need not be very formal, nor should it be so informal that it
loses all seriousness.

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 Company Name
Inter-Officer/Memo
Date: ...............................
Ref. No. ..........................
To: .................................
From...............................
Sub: .....................................................................................
1. ...............................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
2. ...............................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

Copies to
............................
............................

Fig. 7.10: Memo Format

ABC Motors Pvt. Ltd.

Lucknow
Date: ……....…
Office Memorandum
Ref. Number: 592/20…..
To: Debebe Ayalew
Administration

From: Alemayehu Demeke, D.G.M.

Subject: Reading newspapers and magazines in office hours.

I appreciate your interest in the rapidly changing political scene in the country. But
would you please confine your reading of newspapers and magazine before, or after
office hours sitting in the comfort of your drawing room?
You will agree that maintaining office decorum is of utmost importance for the
welfare of the organization.

3.6 Report Writing

A report is a form of systematic presentation of information relating to an event,
progress of action or some business activity. It is a written statement of results,
events, qualities, conditions, progress or interpretation of records. A report is a
basic management tool used in decision-making. A report carries information
from someone who has it someone who need it.

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Oral and Written Reports
An oral report is simple and easy to present. It may consist in the communication
of an impression or an observation. But written report is always preferred
because:
1. An oral report can be denied at any time. But written report is a permanent
record.
2. An oral report tends to be vague. In written report, the writer tries to be
accurate and precise.
3. A written report can be referred to again and again.
4. Distortion during transmission reduces.
3.6.1 Types of Business Reports
 On the basis of legal formalities
1. Informal reports: It is written in the form of a letter from one person to
another. Informal reports typically do not follow any prescribed form or
procedure. They do not have any uniform structure. They are prepared according
to the convenience and requirements of the organization. These reports may be
informative or recommendatory.
2. Formal reports: A formal report is one which is prepared in a prescribed
form and is presented according to an established procedure to a prescribed
authority.
 Statutory: A report prepared according to the form & procedure laid down
by law is called statutory report.
 Non-statutory: Formal reports which are not required under any law but
which are prepared to help management in framing policies or taking other
important decision are called non-statutory report.
❖ On the basis of the frequency of issue, a report can be periodic or special.
1. Periodic or routine reports: They are prepared and presented at regular
prescribed intervals in the usual routine of business. They may be submitted daily.
Branch Manager of banks submits periodic reports to the Head office on the
quantum of business transacted during a particular period.

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2. Special reports: They are related to a single occasion or situation. Reports on the
desirability of opening a new branch or on the unrest among staff in a particular
branch are special reports. Special reports deal with non- recurrent problems.
 On the basis of functions a report can be informative. If a report merely presents
facts pertinent to an issue or a situation, it is informative. On the other hand, if it
analyses the facts, draw conclusions and make recommendations, it may be
described as analytical or interpretative or investigative.
 On the basis of the nature of the subject dealt with, we can have a
 Problem-determining report
 Fact-finding report
 Performance report
 Technical report etc.
 On the basis of the number of persons interested with the drafting of reports, we
can have :
o Reports by individuals
o Reports by committees or sub-committees.
3.6.2 Characteristics and Purpose of a Good Report
Characteristics of a good report
• Precise and brief • Relevant
• Accuracy • Reader-oriented
• Clarity
Purpose of Business Report
1. It presents factual information to management.
2. It records fact and results of investigation or survey for future references.
3. It provides useful information to shareholders, customers, creditors and general
public.
4. It makes recommendation for future use.
3.6.3Guiding Principles of Writing a Report
1. The report should be addressed to some definite authority, i.e. the Managing
Director or Board of Directors.
2. It should contain a short and clear title to know about the report at a glance.

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 3. As the report is generally drafted on the advice or request of some reader, it
should quote the term of reference so that it should be clear why the report is
required.
4. The body of the report should be planned and should be logical in sequence
preferably with headed paragraph.
5. The recommendations, if any, should be boldly marked so as to invite
immediate attention.
It may be signed by the officer responsible for it and it should be dated.
3.6.4 Preparing a Report
The following five steps are suggested to write a report.
 Investigating the source of  Analyzing the data
information  Making an outline; and
 Taking notes  Writing the report

3.6.5 Structure of a Report

1. Letter form: For informal reports, letter form is recommended. Its main part is
heading or the title, data, address, salutation, the body, complimentary close and
signature.
The body of the letter is further divided into:
(i) Introduction: It presents the terms of reference and the subject of study.
(It states problem with the term of reference and relevant circumstances).
(ii) Findings: The next few paragraphs present the findings of the
investigation.
(iii) Recommendation: It logically follows the findings given in the last
paragraph of the body.
2. Memorandum: It is simplest than letter form. The date is mentioned at the top.
It is followed by the name of the person to whom the report is addressed, the
name of the writer and the subject of the report.

3. Next follows the actual text and the conclusion. As in the letter form, the text of
the report is divided into paragraphs with heading and sub-heading.
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 MEMORANDUM
Date...
To: ............................
From: ........................
Subject: ....................
Body of
Letter.......................................................................................................................
.............
..................................................................................................................................
......
..................................................................................................................................
......
..................................................................................................................................
................

Exhibit: 7.11 Format of Memo for Report Writing

4. Letter-text combination form: Long reports are usually written in the letter text
combination form. A complete report in this form is divided into three major
parts:-
(I) Introductory Parts
 Letter of transmittal or letter of presentation
 Cover page

3.7 Oral Communication

Oral communication is the communication where the message or information
exchanges by spoken words. It can be done by both face to face and also through
mechanical devices. And definitely both will take place an important position in
the organization. In an organization face to face communication can be done
through conference, seminar, group discussion, personal interview, etc.
Mechanical devices play an important role in modern business communication
process which include signals, telephone, mobile, e-mail, fax etc.
3.7.1 Advantages of Oral Communication
1. Speed: Once you make contact with your audience, there is no time lag between
the transmission and reception of massage.
2. Speaker is able to get personal attention of the listener: You might spend
hours drafting a memorandum, letter or report only to have recipient scan if
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 superficially or not read it at all. In a personal contact, however, you have much
more command over the receiver’s attention.
3. It saves time: Where action is required to be taken immediately, it is advisable to
communicate orally.
4. It saves money: At one time you can communicate with more then one person
and it saves money as compared to the written communication when it is within
the organization.
5. It allows instantaneous feedback: When you speak directly to one or more
listeners, you can respond to questions as soon as they arise. You can revise
quickly if you have used the wrong word and offended or confused your audience.
6. Supplemented by non-verbal clues: The person receiving oral communication
can combine it with the expressions and other non-verbal clues around the
speaker, the message can be better understood.
7. It is extremely useful while communicating with groups at meetings, assemblies,
etc.
3.7.2 Limitations of Oral Communication
Although it has many advantages, oral communication is not always the best
approach. It suffers from the following disadvantages:
1. No evidence: There is no documentary proof of oral communication and as such
the impact of oral communication is purely temporary.
2. The lengthy messages are not suitable for such type of communication, because of
poor retention power of human being.
3. Expensive and time consuming when the communicator and receiver are far
removed from each other or when the people who need to communicate are
separated by longer distance, personal contact is expensive and time consuming.
Even a cross-town trip for a half-hour meeting can take most of the morning or
afternoon, depending upon traffic or weather.
4. Not appropriate when the matter is controversial.
5. Serious deliberation is not possible: A serious thought is not possible on the
subject because the receiver has to take an immediate decision in response to the
communication received.

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6. More prone to physical noise: An oral message has more probability of getting
distorted because of physical noise of speech, somebody interfering in between,
and likewise.
7. Oral massages do not have any legal validity unless they are taped and made a
part of permanent record.
3.7.3 Two Sides Of Oral Communication
The sender and the receiver are the two sides of oral communication. As sender,
what are the different methods for making oral communication effectively are
described in other section of chapter but as the receiver oral evaluation may
include both positive comments and areas for improvement. Like feedback on any
assignment, it is helpful to offer constructive criticism without personally
attacking the character of the speaker. Let us suggest the following to receivers
for providing oral or written feedback to oral presentations:
 Be descriptive. Describe what you observed the speaker doing rather than passing
judgment, e.g. say “I did not hear a concluding statement” rather than “That was a
stupid way to end your presentation.”
 Be specific. Give the speaker enough information so that she/he can improve for
the next presentation, e.g. say “I would increase the font size on your PowerPoint
slides because I had trouble reading the slides” rather than “Your visual aids were
ineffective.”
 Be positive. “Sandwich” comments such that you begin with a positive comment,
then offer suggestions for improvement, and end with a positive comment.
 Be constructive. Give specific suggestions for improvement rather than simply
telling the speaker what they did wrong.
 Be sensitive. Use tactful language in giving feedback rather than offering blunt
suggestions or comments, e.g. say “Speak a bit louder so those in the back of the
room can hear you” rather than “I couldn’t hear a word you said—speak up!”
 Be realistic. Give the speaker feedback about things that he/she can actually
change. Telling a speaker that she/he is too short is not helpful.

3.7.4 Principles Of Effective Communication

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For making oral communication effective a speaker should take care of their body
language, paralanguage, presentation style, time, place, etc. for details please refer
the Seven Cs of oral communication and also refer about Effective presentation.

3.7.5 Non-Verbal Communication

Verbal communication refers to the communication which occurs with the help of
words. A verbal contact, therefore, suggests an oral contact and verbal evidence
denotes oral evidence. Non-verbal communication refers to the type of
communication that does not use words. Non-verbal communication is closely
associated with the power of observation. The receiver of the communication
should be in a position to see, hear and even feel the communicator. The receiver
of the communication should be in a position to clearly see the face, the gesture,
the tone, the dress, the appearance and also hear the voice of the communicator.
Since it is through observation, non-verbal communication may be both intended
and unintended. It is intended when the communicator tries to convey certain
messages to the target group through conscious gesture, postures and other forms
of body language. Non-verbal communication is unintended when the body
language, posture or appearance of the communicator is interpreted by the
receiver, even though it is not done consciously. A sloppy posture or a causal
attire (cloths) may be interpreted as lack of seriousness, although the speaker may
be quite intent.

Importance of Non-verbal Communication

1. For conveying ideas related to geography, maps, charts, graphs etc. At a
glance, the receiver can understand the matter, because non-verbal methods can
present a large amount of data in a compact form.
2. For traffic signs and signals, non-verbal communication is absolutely essential
because there must be instant response from the drivers or pedestrians.
3. Every human being normally responds quickly to colours, pictures or
sounds than to any language.
4. The only method to convey illiterate people through non-verbal symbols.
Body Language

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 Body language means the changes that occur in the body position and movements
that shows what the person is feeling or thinking. Much of it is involuntary and
unconscious most persons are not aware of their body language. But it makes
powerful impact on others. Body language can be divided into conscious and
unconscious:
1. Unconscious movements are of biological origin, acquired habit and cultural
customs are as follows:
Biological: Certain body shapes, skin colour and features cause persons to
have some kinds of gestures, expressions and postures. Besides, we constantly try
to adjust and adapt our body to our environment which we may or may not find
comfortable.
Habitual: Some movements and expressions are learnt as habit in the process
of adapting oneself to the environment. They also arise from one’s occupation
which requires constant posture or movement of certain kinds. Certain speaking
styles and phrases are also occupational habits.
Cultural: Customs like not sitting cross-legged before elders, not looking
straight in the eye of elder or senior are culture specific. Customs of receiving
guests, introduction, social conduct also include some gestures.
2. Conscious movements, postures and voice modulations are deliberately used.
Actors are specially trained for this, skilled communicators, especially good
presenters also make conscious use of body language.
No one can gain full control of one’s body language, but it is possible to enlarge
one’s awareness of one’s body and gain a good deal of control on one’s posture,
movements and voice modulation. If we develop increased sensitivity to our own
body language, our ability to read other’ body language is increased.

a) Appearance
A person’s general appearance depends on several things. Two of the important
factors that contribute to appearance are grooming and personal hygiene. Care of
skin, nails, feet and hair are expected standards. A person who neglects these

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 aspects makes an unpleasant impression. Appearance makes the first impression,
lack of neatness or cleanliness, carelessness in grooming, clumsy clothes make a
negative impression. Poor health is easily reflected in the appearance.

b) Facial Expressions
It is said that the face is the index of the mind. The thoughts of the mind and the
feeling of the heart often find expression on the face. A cheerful or appreciative
smile, displeased frown, a look of surprise and several other expressions of the
face can convey, with or without words, the attitude, feelings and reaction of the
communicators. There are people who are good at reading facial expressions.
Good communicators, be they speaker or listener, learn to read and interpret facial
expressions.
c) Eye Contact
An eye movement is a key part of facial behaviour, directing other’s attention or
showing surprise or happiness and other emotional displays. Eye contact between
speaker and listener is necessary for indicating that both are interested in the
communication. While making an oral presentation it is important to create
rapport with the audience with eye contact. Presenters make it a point to take in
the whole audience with a sweep of the eye, making brief eye contact with as
many as possible. The comfort level for eye contact is three to five seconds, if eye
contact is held more than 3 to 5 seconds it can cause discomfort to the other
person. It is commonly believed that avoiding eye contact indicates that the
speaker is lying, yet some liars may hold unblinking eye contact and watch to see
your reaction. Persons who lack self-confidence also generally avoid eye contact.
However, the rules and customs of culture influence how people use their face
and eyes.

d) Smile
A smile is a very potent form of facial expression. It opens the door to
communication. A natural, pleasant smile carries great significance in establishing

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 and sustaining human relationships. The significance of smile is beautifully
brought out in the saying, “You are never fully dressed unless you wear a smile.”
e) Posture (Body Position)
Posture refers to the way one stands, sits and walks. The position of hands and
legs and other parts of the body reveals not only an individual’s state of mind
whether he is vibrant, alive and dynamic, nervous and jittery, confident and self
assured etc. but also his grip on the subject matter of communication. An efficient
speaker stands tall, feet together with the weight directly over the instep keeping
his chin on a line parallel to the floor or at right angles to the backbone. Standing
in this posture before a group is essential for successful speaking. A speaker with
a drooping shoulder and a postruding stomach seems to be tired and worn out.
The sitting posture also shows your personality. In a group discussion a
participant when takes a turn to speak changes his posture. However, different
situations demand different postures.
One may keep ones back straight from the waist up, both the feet may be on the
floor, one slightly in front of the other. The walking posture may convey how
confident or diffident, energetic or withdrawn a speaker is. For gracefully a
speaker should remember to move his or her legs freely from the hips, lift to move
his or her feet from the floor, walk in straight line, and avoid stride or taking tiny
steps. For effective speaking, naturally one should cultivate how to shift his or her
posture, how to shift the weight of the body on the legs while speaking and to
learn where to place his or her hands.
f) Gestures
Gestures play a significant role in making the intent of the communication
effective and content productive. The gestures like playing with the ring, twisting
a key chain or clasping one’s hand tightly may indicate the state of mind of the
speaker affecting both the encoding and decoding of his/her message in
communication. An efficient speaker learns to inculcate appropriate gestures by
practising the same in front of mirror. He/she also seeks the guidance, in this
regard, from his/her friends and colleagues. However, in the use of gestures one
should be constantly self-evaluating judging and using the right gesture for the

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 right impact. It is also true that on making gestures one should be careful and
cautious about the cultural limitations, sexual implications, and moral bindings.
Gestures do add meaning to the message but they may turn awkward if not used
keeping time, place and person in the communication. Some
example are handshake, sitting position, thumbs up, hand to face, head nod, collar
pull, thumb and finger rub, eye signals, wink of the eye etc.
g) Clothing And Accessories
Clothing is very important aspect of body language. It requires judgement to
make a subtle impression by what you wear. The colour, design, cut and fitting,
combine to make up the dress. In India we have several choices as it is acceptable
to wear clothing of national style or of western style. Appropriateness for the
occasion is essential, the formality of the occasion, the time of the day, the season,
the cultural background of the people who will be present and the conventions of
your own organization should provide good guidance. Accessories like tie,
footwear, jewellery need careful selection and should be comfortable to wear.
Handbag or briefcase is included in accessories. Whatever you carry on your
hands ought to look comfortable and gracefully carried, otherwise, it will convey
a poor image.
h) Energy
Energy and enthusiasm as an aspect of body language is hard to describe, but
most people have experienced the impact of a person with a high level of energy.
State of physical and mental health play a large part in body language, a healthy
person is energetic and maintains a certain level of enthusiasm in work. A
person’s enthusiasm is reflected in the style, it is usually infectious and make
listeners also feel enthusiastic.
i) Time (Chronemics)
Time given to listen or to speak to people creates a sense of self-esteem in them.
It is equated with care and concern. On the other hand, a person who uses one’s
own time and other people’s time wastefully creates an impression of being
inefficient and disorganised. A sense of timing in conducting meetings, in

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 conveying good or bad news, in making a presentation, generates respect and
goodwill.
j) Space Distance (Proxemics)
Each communicator has a personal zone and territory built or constructed around
himself or herself which he or she does not allow to invade during communication
unless the relationship between the speaker and the listener is intimate. Edward T.
Hall has described human relationship in terms of four kinds of distance as:
1. Intimate–Physical contact to 18 inches.
2. Personal–18 inches to 4 feet.
3. Social–4 feet to 12 feet.
4. Public –12 feet to range of eyesight and hearing.
Paragraph Language
The non-verbal aspects of the spoken words are known as paragraph language. It
includes the qualities of the voice, the way we use our voice, as well as the sounds
we make without uttering of the words. It is possible to control and use paragraph
language effectively, becoming aware of it and playing attention to one’s voice
and speech.
Voice: Voice has characteristics like.
 Tone is the quality of the voice.
 Volume is the loudness or softness, which can be consciously adjusted to the
number of the persons in the audience and the distance between the speaker and
the listener. Speaking too loud shows lack of self-command or abrasive nature.
 Pitch is the high or low note on the scale. A high pitched voice is often
unpleasant, and suggests immaturity or emotional disturbance; a frightened person
speaks in a high pitched voice. It is better to begin softly, in a low pitch and raise
the volume pitch as required.
Speed: Speed is factor of speech. Rapid speech indicates excitement. We increase
speed of speaking to tell an interesting story and reduce speed to explain a
difficult idea.

Pronunciation: Pronunciation means the accepted standard of the way in which a

word is said. Correct and clear pronunciation is important and indicates that the
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speaker is careful and has consideration for the audience.
Accent
Accent is the way a person pronounces the sound of the language. Every language
has its own accent or way of forming the sounds; we carry out mother tongue
accent to other language. Good accent in a new language is learnt by listening to
native speakers of the language.
Stress
Stress on a particular word in a sentence can change the meaning and implication.
Try reading the sentence, ‘what you did in last meeting?’ by stressing a different
word each time and note the difference in the implies meaning. Sometimes when
the speaker hesitates to speak certain word then they stress the word like
Mmmmmm! Ouch! Huh! etc.
Silence
Silence can be very effective way of communication. Silence is a difficult method
of communication to use as it takes a good deal of self-control and self-
confidence to be able to hold one’s tongue. Short silences or pauses are very
effective in giving emphasis to words. A pause before or after certain words
makes the words stand out from the rest. A skilfully placed pause has the power to
make the listener more alert.
But some of it creates barrier for communication like when conversation through
telephone the silence may not be effective because the other person cannot see the
facial expression of the other person.

3.8 Interview

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 The word ‘interview’ means ‘view between’ or ‘sight between’. It suggests a
meeting between two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other, or
for knowing each other or we can say that it is the interaction between interviewer
and interviewee. An interview is a means of two-way communication.
3.8.1 Types of Interview
1. Promotion interview: Persons due for promotion are interviewed even if there is
no competition. This type of interview is more informal and serves as induction
for new responsibilities and duties. And if there, is competition for promotion, the
interview helps in the selection process and may also serve as an opportunity for a
discussion of career opportunities for candidate.
2. Appraisal or Assessment interview: An appraisal interview is one of the
methods of periodical assessment of employees. Annual appraisal interview is the
best method for judging employees performance. A face-to-face confidential talk
is an opportunity for both they discuss on several issues which are related to job.
This interview is more a discussion rather than question-answer. The focus is on
the career development, shortcomings, areas which need improvement, training,
opportunities for promotion etc.
3. Exit interview: An exit interview is given to an employee who has resigned or
leaving the organization. The organization can—
• Find out the precise reason for the employee decision to leave.
• Give information about PF, group insurance and how and when’s the dues will be
paid.
• Get feedback on employee’s opinion about the organization’s policies.
• Give the final pay cheque or information about when it will be ready and how it
will be handed over.
• Check that all books, manuals, tools, equipments which were issued to the
employee have been returned as same.
4. Problem interview: Problem interview basically meant for those employees who
create problem. An employee whose performance or behaviour is unsatisfactory
in spite of warning represents a problem. An interview is more likely to suggest a
solution than warnings and notices. The reason for the employee’s poor

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 performance can be found out in a face-to-face talk, it may be domestic problems,
health problem, lack of training or dissatisfaction with job, environment problem,
hierarchy problem etc. Many organizations have facilities for counseling staff, the
employee may be offered a session with the counselor.
5. Stress interview: A stress interview puts the candidates into difficult situations in
order to test her/his reaction to stress. This method is used for selection for
positions in which the person must be able to face difficult situations without
getting upset. A stress interview tests such qualities as courage, tact, cool temper,
and self-command, on candidates which is needed when confronted by other
individual or groups.
6. Selection interview: The most important objective of the selection interviews is
to measure the suitability of the candidates for specific jobs. Employment
interviews are usually taken by a panel of interviewer. An interview may take
time from 10 minutes to 45 minutes or even longer. Interviewers spend more time
on good candidates. They have to gather enough information about the candidates
to be able to assess their suitability to join the organization. The candidates too
must find out about the organization, its employee policies and culture, what it
expects the recruits to do and what opportunities for career development it offers.
3.8.2 Candidate’s Preparation
In interview not only information and knowledge of the candidate assessed but the
whole personality is assessed. The candidate must be physically, mentally and
psychologically prepared for the interview.
Physical Preparation
1. The candidate is likely to be properly groomed and formally dressed. Clean and
well-cut nails, properly combed hair, well-fitting clothes, neat footwear and a
suitable handbag or brief case are the normal requirements of formal appearance.
2. Posture. The way a candidate carries him while standing, walking, sitting reveals
a good deal about him. Self-confidence, nervousness or over-confidence, are all
reflected in the posture and bearing of the candidate. Note your body movements,
and take care to stop any bad habitual movements.

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3. Good etiquette is necessary for interview. The candidate must know what the
suitable greetings are for the day on a particular time.
• Do not offer to shake hands unless it is offered by an interviewer.
• Do not sit until you are asked to sit down. If you are not asked to sit then take
permission from interviewer to sit.
• Take care, while handling the chair. It should not be dragged noisily. Sit
comfortably and with good posture.
• If you have large briefcase, put it down on the floor near the chair. If you have
small one
• Then keep it on your lap. Be comfortable and well practiced in handling your bag.
• Do not put elbows or hand on the table. Practice keeping hands comfortably when
you are not using them.
• Maintain comfortable posture throughout the interview.
• At the end of the interview, remember to thank the interviewers and wish them
Good day.
Mental Preparation
1. It is advisable to new job-seekers, that they revise concern subjects. Knowledge in
the field of specialization must be up-to-date, take a look at your bio-data and be
prepared to give more information about your interest.
2. Important current issues in the country and in the world will be asked at the time
of interview. Regular reading of newspapers, listening to TV news and discussion
on current issues are suggested.
3. Information about the company where you go for interview, its owners/boards of
directors, its product or services, its turnover, share capitals, market value etc. are
available in the company’s annual report or it is also available at the internet. The
candidate must find out such information as possible about the company whose
employment he seeks.
Psychological Preparation
1. Honesty and openness in answering questions is the best policy. Dishonesty
generally makes a bad impression in the mind of the interviewers. It is better to
admit inability to answer a question than to pretend and guess answer.

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2. Inability to discuss a topic makes a bad impression. If there is any topic that
seems too embarrassing to talk about, it is useful to read up information on it and
talk about it objectively to a few friends for practice.
3. Salary is a topic that must be discussed at the time of interview. It is important to
talk about the compensation package without appearing to be bargaining, or being
driven or defeated.
4. A candidate must have the clarity of purpose and determination to want to know
her/his prospects in the organization. Information about the nature of duties,
working time, deduction, future prospects, other benefits and any of the desired
information must be received before leaving.
Self Evaluation
1. Anyone who wants to be successful in life must make a good self-evaluation.
Knowledge of one’s strengths and weaknesses is very useful in gaining self
confidence.
2. It takes time and should be done carefully and patiently by candidates.
3. Parents and close friends can help in pointing out faults or limitation and in
correcting them and also in finding out strong points and strengthening them.
4. Coming to terms with oneself, knowing how to deal with one’s faults, and how to
make good use of one’s talents and skills is excellent preparation for an interview.
It adds a great deal of self confidence and poise to the personality.
Interviewer Preparation
1. Preparation for the interview has to be made well in advance. The received
application are sorted and scrutinized and qualified candidates are selected for
interviewing.
2. A panel of interviewers is selected on the basis of requirements of the job and the
assessment which has to be made at interview.
3. A date for the interview is fixed, and the interviewers as well as his selected
candidates are sent letters informing them of the date, time and place of the
interview.
4. On the day of the interview, the room in which the interview is to be conducted is
suitably arranged. Another room near the interview room is also arranged for the

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 candidates to be seating while waiting to be interviewed.
5. A senior office staff and a peon attend to the needs of the waiting candidates.
Each panel member has to examine the bio-data of candidates and prepare
questions based on the bio-data for each candidate.
6. Develop rapport to encourage the candidate to be involved. A candidate is more
willing to speak openly if the interview show respect and understanding of his/her
needs.
At the time of interview the interviewer must consider the following points:
1. A relaxed atmosphere can be created by interviewer having a brief conversation
unrelated to the interview and by using the candidate’s name.
2. Friendly responses to what the candidate says make the candidate comfortable
and encourage him to speak.
3. A candidate must never be humiliated even if it is obvious that he is unsuitable.
4. If the interviewer conducted a stress interview than after the interview candidate
should be told that it was stress interviewing and that he need not feel anxious
about it.
5. Leave taking must be pleasant and sociable, with response to the candidate’s
wishing.
Interview Do’s and Don’ts
With the requirements of the position in mind, the interviewer will search for your
strong and weak points and evaluate your intellect and the abilities that you have
developed as a result of your education and past experience. They will also be
interested in personal characteristics such as your motivation and the way you
present yourself.

THE “DO’S”

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• DO follow the interviewer’s leads and prompts, reading whether your answer is
going to be too long or if further information is required to explain on a point
made.
• DO make sure that you highlight your strengths to the interviewer in a factual,
sincere manner. Provide specific examples of your abilities that demonstrate
positive outcomes or achievements.
• DO realise that the interviewer will ask you questions about your skills that relate
to the selection criteria or the requirements of the position. If the position requires
technical orM special knowledge, you can expect to be asked a question that
involves applying theory to solve a problem.
• DO make sure you leave the impression that you are more interested in the
activities involved in the job than the promotional opportunities or benefits that
the organization may offer.
• DO always indicate your interest in the job for which you’re being interviewed.
Never close the door on an opportunity. It is better to be offered the position so
you can consider it in relation to other jobs for which you are applying than to not
have a choice.
• DO ask questions when given the opportunity.
• DO take advantage of the opportunity to add anything else in your favour if
asked.
THE “DON’TS”
• DON’T answer questions with a simple “yes” or “no”. Give good responses and
explain yourse lf whenever possible by referring to relevant examples from your
experiences.
• DON’T respond in a general, vague, or hesitant manner. Keep in mind that you
alone can sell yourself to an interviewer. Project a sense of purpose and direction.
• DON’T ‘over answer’ questions. The interviewer may steer the conversation into
politics or economics. It is best to answer the questions honestly, and say no more
than is necessary.
• DON’T ever make derogatory remarks about your present or former employers.

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• DON’T enquire about salary, holidays, bonuses or retirement at the initial
interview. However, you should know your market value and be prepared to
specify your required salary range if asked.
• DON’T lie. Answer questions truthfully, frankly and as close ‘to the point’ as
possible.
• DON’T focus on negatives: emphasis positive outcomes and learning
experiences.
Negative factors frequently assessed during an interview that most often lead to
rejection include:
• Lack of responsibility taken for actions.
• Lack of interest and enthusiasm.
• Lack of preparation, failure to obtain information about the job and organization.
• Inability to express thoughts clearly, poor diction or grammar, and lack of poise.
• Lack of career planning, purpose or goals.
• Lack of tact, maturity, courtesy or professionalism.
• Evasive – making excuses for poor academic record or other unfavourable factors.
• Overbearing, aggressive, arrogant or conceited.
• Over-emphasis on money – interested only in remuneration.
• Persistent attitude of “What can you do for me?”
• Failure to ask pertinent questions about the job or the organization.
Make sure these negative factors do not apply to you on your interview. And try
to overcome these factors so you should better present yourself in the interview.
Telephone communication
Despite the heavy reliance on e-mail, the telephone is still an extremely important
piece of equipment in offices. With the addition of today’s wireless technology, it
doesn’t matter whether you are in or out of the office. You can always be reached
by phone. As a business communicator, you can be more productive, efficient,
and professional by following some simple suggestions. In this chapter we’ll
focus on traditional telephone techniques as well as cell phone use and voice mail
efficiency.

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 Making Telephone Calls Efficiently and Professionally
Before making a telephone call, decide whether the intended call is really
necessary. Could you find the information yourself? If you wait a while, would
the problem re- solve itself? Perhaps your message could be delivered more
efficiently by some other means. Some companies have found that telephone calls
are often less important than the work they interrupted. Alternatives to telephone
calls include instant messaging, e-mail, memos, or calls to voice mail systems. If
you must make a telephone call, consider using the following suggestions to make
it fully productive:
• Plan a mini-agenda. Have you ever been embarrassed when you had to make a
second telephone call because you forgot an important item the first time? Be-
fore placing a call, jot down notes regarding all the topics you need to discuss.
Following an agenda guarantees not only a complete call but also a quick one.
You’ll be less likely to wander from the business at hand while rummaging
through your mind trying to remember everything.
• Use a three-point introduction. When placing a call, immediately (1) name the
person you are calling, (2) identify yourself and your affiliation, and (3) give a
brief explanation of your reason for calling. For example: May I speak to Jeremy
Johnson? This is Paula Soltani of Coughlin and Associates, and I’m seeking in-
formation about a software program called ZoneAlarm Internet Security. This
kind of introduction enables the receiving individual to respond immediately
without asking further questions.
• Be brisk if you are rushed. For business calls when your time is limited, avoid
questions such as how are you? Instead, say, Lauren, I knew you’d be the only
one who could answer these two questions for me. Another efficient strategy is to
set a “contract” with the caller: Look, Lauren, I have only ten minutes, but I really
wanted to get back to you.
• Be cheerful and accurate. Let your voice show the same kind of animation that
you radiate when you greet people in person. In your mind try to envision the in-
dividual answering the telephone. A smile can certainly affect the tone of your
voice; therefore, even though the individual can’t see you, smile at that person.

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 Speak with a tone that is enthusiastic, respectful, and attentive. Moreover, be ac-
curate about what you say. Hang on a second; I’ll be right back rarely is true. It’s
better to say, It may take me two or three minutes to get that information. Would
you prefer to hold or have me call you back?
• Be professional and courteous. Remember that you’re representing yourself and
your company when you make phone calls. Use professional vocabulary and
courteous language. Say thank you and please during your conversations. Don’t
eat, drink, or chew gum while talking on the phone, which can often be heard on
the other end. Articulate your words clearly so that the receiver can under- stand
you. Avoid doing other work during the phone call so that you can focus entirely
on the conversation.
• Bring it to a close. The responsibility for ending a call lies with the caller. This is
sometimes difficult to do if the other person rambles on. You may need to use
suggestive closing language, such as the following: (1) I’ve certainly enjoyed
talking with you, (2) I’ve learned what I needed to know, and now I can proceed
with my work, (3) Thanks for your help, (4) I must go now, but may I call you
again in the future if I need . . .? or (5) Should we talk again in a few weeks?
• Avoid telephone tag. If you call someone who’s not in, ask when it would be best
for you to call again. State that you will call at a specific time—and do it. If you
ask a person to call you, give a time when you can be reached—and then be sure
you are in at that time.
• Leave complete voice mail messages. Remember that there’s no rush when you
leave a voice mail message. Always enunciate clearly. And be sure to provide a
complete message, including your name, telephone number, and the time and date
of your call. Explain your purpose so that the receiver can be ready with the
required information when returning your call.
Receiving Telephone Calls Professionally
With a little forethought you can project a professional image and make your tele-
phone a productive, efficient work tool. Developing good telephone manners also
reflects well on you and on your organization.

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• Answer promptly and courteously. Try to answer the phone on the first or
second ring if possible. Smile as you pick up the phone.
• Identify yourself immediately. In answering your telephone or someone else’s,
provide your name, title or affiliation, and a greeting. For example, Juan Salinas,
Digital Imaging Corporation. How may I help you? Force yourself to speak
clearly and slowly. Remember that the caller may be unfamiliar with what you are
saying and fail to recognize slurred syllables.
• Be responsive and helpful. If you are in a support role, be sympathetic to
callers’ needs and show that you understand their situations. Instead of I don’t
know, try that’s a good question; let me investigate. Instead of we can’t do that,
try that’s a tough one; let’s see what we can do. Avoid No at the beginning of a
sentence. It sounds especially abrasive and displeasing because it suggests total
rejection.
• Be cautious when answering calls for others. Be courteous and helpful, but
don’t give out confidential information. It’s better to say, she’s away from her
desk or He’s out of the office than to report a colleague’s exact whereabouts.
Also be tight lipped about sharing company information with strangers. Security
experts insist that employees answering telephones must become guardians of
company information.
• Take messages carefully. Few things are as frustrating as receiving a potentially
important phone message that is illegible. Repeat the spelling of names and verify
telephone numbers. Write messages legibly and record their time and date.
Promise to give the messages to intended recipients, but don’t guarantee return
calls.
• Leave the line respectfully. If you must put a call on hold, let the caller know
and give an estimate of how long you expect the call to be on hold. Give the caller
the option of holding. Say Would you prefer to hold, or would you like me to call
you back? If the caller is on hold for a long period of time, check back
periodically so that the caller doesn’t think that he or she has been forgotten or
that the call has been disconnected.
• Explain what you’re doing when transferring calls. Give a reason for
transferring, and identify the extension to which you are directing the call in case
the caller is disconnected.

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Using Cell Phones for Business
Cell phones enable you to conduct business from virtually anywhere at any time.
More than a plaything or a mere convenience, the cell phone has become an
essential part of communication in today’s workplace. The U.S. government
reported that in late 2004, for the first time, the number of U.S. cell phone users
surpassed the number of landline telephone users, and the number of cell phone
users has con- tinued to grow.
Today’s smart cell phones are used for much more than making and receiving
calls. High-end cell phones can be used to store contact information, make to-do
lists, keep track of appointments and important dates, send and receive e-mail,
send and receive text and multimedia messages, get news and stock quotes from
the Internet, take pictures and videos, synchronize with Outlook and other soft-
ware applications, and many other functions. With so many people using cell
phones, it’s important to understand proper use and etiquette. How are they best
used? When is it acceptable to take calls? Where calls should be made? Most of
us have experienced thoughtless and rude cell phone behavior. To avoid
offending, smart business communicators practice cell phone eti- quette. In
projecting a professional image, they are care-ful about location, time, and
volume in relation to their cell phone calls.
a. Location
Use good judgment in placing or accepting cell phone calls. Some places are
dangerous or inappropriate for cell phone use. Turn off your cell phone when
entering a conference room, interview, theater, place of worship, or any other
place where it could be distracting or disruptive to others. Taking a call in a
crowded room or bar makes it difficult to hear and reflects poorly on you as a
professional. Taking a call while driving can be dangerous, leading some states to
ban cell phone use while driving. A bad connection also makes a bad impression.
Static or dropped signals create frustration and miscommunication. Don’t
sacrifice professionalism for the sake of a garbled phone call. It’s smarter to turn
off your phone in an area where the signal is weak and when you are likely to
have in- terference. Use voice mail and return the call when conditions are better.

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Also be careful about using your cell phone to discuss private or confidential
company information.

Business communicators find cell phones to be enormously convenient and real

time-savers. But rude users have generated a backlash against inconsiderate
callers. Here are specific suggestions for using cell phones safely and responsibly:

• Be courteous to those around you. Don’t force those near you to hear your
business. Don’t step up to a service counter, such as at a restaurant, bank, or
post office, while talking on your cell phone. Don’t carry on a cell phone
conversation while someone is waiting on you. Think first of those in close
proximity instead of those on the other end of the phone. Apologize and make
amends gracefully for occasional cell phone blunders.
• Observe wireless-free quiet areas. Don’t allow your cell phone to ring in
theaters, restaurants, museums, class rooms, important meetings, and similar
places. Use the cell phone’s silent/vibrating ring option. A majority of travelers
prefer that cell phone conversations not be held on most forms of public
transportation.
• Speak in low, conversational tones. Microphones on cell phones are quite
sensitive, thus making it unnecessary to talk loudly. Avoid “cell yell.”
• Take only urgent calls. Make full use of your cell phone’s caller ID feature to
screen incoming calls. Let voice mail take those calls that are not pressing.
• Drive now, talk later. Pull over if you must make a call. Talking while driving
increases the chance of accidents four-fold, about the same as driving while
intoxicated. Some companies are implementing cell phone policies that prohibit
employees from using cell phones while driving for company business.
• Choose a professional ringtone. These days you can download a variety of
ringtones, from classical to rap to the Star Wars theme. Choose a ringtone that
will sound professional.

b. TIME
Often what you are doing is more important than whatever may come over the air
waves to you on your phone. For example, when you are having an important dis-
cussion with a business partner, customer, or superior, it is rude to allow yourself
to be interrupted by an incoming call. It’s also poor manners to practice
multitasking while on the phone. What’s more, it’s dangerous. Although you
might be able to read and print out e-mail messages, deal with a customer at the
counter, and talk on your cell phone simultaneously, it’s impolite and risky. Lack

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 of attention results in errors. If a phone call is important enough to accept, then
it’s important enough to stop what you are doing and attend to the conversation.

c. Volume

Many people raise their voices when using their cell phones. “Cell yell” results,
much to the annoyance of anyone nearby. Raising your voice is unnecessary since
most phones have excellent microphones that can pick up even a whisper. If the
connection is bad, louder volume will not improve the sound quality. As in face-
to-face conversations, a low, modulated voice sounds professional and projects
the proper image.
3.9 Meetings

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Meetings are the most popular method of interactive communication. It facilitates
direct, face-to-face communication and essential at various levels in all
organization. They serve as channels of oral communication among the members
of the meeting. However, they are supported by written communication like
notices to bring people together, agenda to structure the meeting, minutes to
record the proceedings and report to pass information to the higher authorities.
3.9.1Meaning, Objectives and Types of Meeting
What Is A Meeting?
A meeting is get-together of a group of persons to discuss ways and means to deal
with a specific time bound task assigned. The members of the group share
common experience, common concern and common interest. According to W.H.
Newman, ‘A committee of a group of people specially designated to perform
some administrative acts. It functions only as a group and requires the free
interchange of ideas among its members.’
Hicks and Gullet defines the term, ‘A committee is a group of people who meet
by plan to discuss or make a decision for a particular subject. Because committee
meets by plan, we do not include group that occur spontaneously or informally in
the definition of a committee.’
A meeting is formally arranged gathering for the purpose of discussing an issue
concerning a large number of persons.
Objectives of Meeting
A meeting may have any of the following objectives:
• To inform and explain the information to the members.
• To understand the situation.
• To get feedback from the members.
• To exchange ideas and experience among the members.
• To persuade members to accept changes.
• To resolve conflicts and confusions.
• To take decisions of matters affecting the group or the organization.
• To generate a positive attitude among the participants.

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 Types of Meeting
 On the basis of function:
1. For giving information: This type of meetings is conducted for sharing
information and gathering views and opinions of the participants or members on
that information.
2. For consultation: The consultative meetings are held to consult the members for
their views and opinions to reach an effective decision.
3. For execution of ideas: This type of meetings is held to gather new ideas or
suggestions for the execution of a task. When the cooperation of the members is
required for the effective dealing with a task such meetings are held.

 On the basis of their formality:

1. Structured meeting: Like parliament, state assemblies, company shareholder’s
meetings, management-union negotiations, university senate, councils and
executives bodies.
2. Semi-structured meeting: Like committees, managing councils and general
bodies of voluntary organizations, briefing sessions, advisory bodies and
management meetings.
3. Unstructured meeting: Like group discussions, ad hoc meetings of task groups
and brainstorming sessions.
3.9.2 Procedure of Convening A Meeting
Notice
The word ‘notice’ is derived from the Latin word meaning knowledge. The term
in relation to a meeting signifies the bringing of knowledge of the meeting to the
person concerned. A meeting is to be properly held only when notice of meeting
is served to the concerned persons. The notice informs the members as to the date,
time and place of the meeting, the issue to be discussed in the meeting and if
possible, respective contribution expected from different participants of the
meeting.

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 Agenda
An agenda is a list of topics covered in a meeting. A well prepared agenda will
assist Chairperson in directing the business of the meeting and ensuring that
decisions are reached in an efficient manner.
A copy of the agenda must be sent to the members along with the agenda of the
meeting. All the items included in the agenda must be serially arranged. If any
change is to be done in the order, the approval of the members is needed.
Preparing agenda is very useful practice:
1. If it is circulated in advance, it helps the members to come prepared for the
meeting.
2. Since agenda has a set order, it helps the chairperson to conduct the meeting
smoothly.
3. It ensures that only matters relevant to that particular meeting are discussed.
4. It ensures that every point is properly taken up for discussion.
5. It facilitates the preparation of the minutes.
The following points should be kept in the mind while drafting the agenda:
1. It should be clear and explicit.
2. It should be in a summary form.
3. The routine items should be put first and the other matters later.
4. All the matters of similar or allied character should be placed near each other on
the agenda.
5. All the items included in the agenda must be within the scope of the meeting.
6. All the items included in agenda must be written the scope of the notice calling
the meeting.
AKIYA Motors Ltd.
ADAMA

Notice is hereby given to all the members that the next quarterly meeting of
the Board of Directors will be held on Tuesday, 12th August, 2008 at
11:30a.m. in the Board room.
Agenda
1. Conformation of Minutes of the last meeting.
2. Matters arising from the minutes.
3. Financial irregularities in Mekele Branch.
4. To appoint a committee for employees’ welfare.
5. Any other matter with the permission of the chair.
6. Date of next meeting.
Secretary
Minutes of Meeting
During the course of meeting, the items or topics listed in the agenda are
discussed serially one by one. All the participants express their views/opinions
and discuss amongst themselves the pros and cons of each item of agenda.
Finally, they arrive at some conclusions or decisions, which are always kept on
official records. We call them as minutes of a meeting.

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 Thus minutes are the official records of the proceedings of the meeting. In other
words, these are the brief of discussions held and decisions taken at the meeting.
It is the duty of an authorized person to retain all such discussions, deliberations
and decisions in writing specifically.
The purpose of writing minutes is:
1. To serve as the formal record of discussion.
2. To serve as a background for future discussions.
The minutes of a meeting must contain:
1. Date and the number of meeting.
2. A list of name of those who attended the meeting.
3. A list of those who did not attend and from whom apologies were received.
4. The record of conformation of the previous minutes and any amendments agreed
to by the committee.
5. The essential, relevant background to the topic under discussions.
6. A clear and unambiguous record of the decision reached/resolution, and if
appropriate, of those individuals/bodies responsible for taking subsequent action.
7. Where discussion of a specific case leads to a policy issue, it is important that a
separate minute be written on the policy issue.
Types of Minutes
1. Minutes of resolutions. In this type of minutes, only the resolutions passed at a
meeting are recorded and no reference is made to any discussion preceding the
resolutions.
• Decisions, which are within the power of the committee, are introduced by the
words...............‘it was resolved that............’
• Sometimes the members of the meeting are not empowered to take decision on
the given subject. They can only recommend their opinion to the higher authority
who can take decision. Such recommendations, which needs to be referred to an
officer or others for approval, are introduced by the words...............It was
resolved to recommend...............’

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 Examples
• It was resolved that ATO Asfaw be and hereby appointed as the Deputy
Manager of the company with effect from 01/08/2008, at a consolidated salary of
Birr 30,000 per month and other benefits as per rules of the company.
• Since the changes are required to be approved by the Managing Director, it was
resolved to recommend omitting clause 7 of the employment contract of the
Managing Director.
2. Minutes of narration. Minutes of narration are somewhat similar to a report. Here,
in addition to the resolutions passed, a brief account of the discussion and the
voting pattern is also included.

Muger Cement Industries Limited

Head Office: 13, Addis Ababa,
Gotera -220987 2 August, 2008

NOTICE
Notice is hereby given that the Fourth Meeting of the Board of Directors will be held at the
head office of the company, Gotera at 3:15 p.m. on Wednesday, 20th August 2008.
The agenda is attached.
Mamo
Secretary
To Members of the
Board of Directors

Muger Cement Industries Limited

Head Office: 13, Addis Ababa,
Gotera -220987 2 August, 2008
NOTICE
Agenda of the Fourth Meeting of the Board of
Directors held at the Head office of the company
(13, Gotera, Addis Ababa) at
3:15 p.m. on Wednesday, 20 August, 2008
th

4.01 Conformation of the minutes of the last meeting.

4.02 Conformation of the appointment of Directors.
4.03 Appointment of the Managing Director of the company.
4.04 Accommodation for the branch office at Adama
4.05 Date for the next meeting.
4.06 Any other matter with the permission of the Chairman.

Mamo
Secretary

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4.01 Conformation of the Minutes of the last Meeting

The minutes of the meeting held on April 10 , 2008 were approved by the Board and signed by
the Chairman.

4.02 Conformation of the Appointment of Directors

The Secretary reported that all the Directors present had accepted the office and signed the
agreement to take the required number of qualified shares. He also stated that these documents
had been filled with the Registrar of Companies, Uttar Pradesh State.

4.03 Appointment of the Managing Director of the Company

It was resolved that Ato Mamo be appointed Managing Director of the company.
4.04 Accommodation for the Branch Office at Adama

The Secretary reported that five rooms in Awash Building, Lucknow were available at rent of
Rs.10, 000 per month. The Branch Manager had examined and found them suitable for our
purposes. He had proposed that these be rented. The proposal of the Branch manager was
approved.

4.05 Date for the Next Meeting

The secretary was directed to call the next meeting of the Board on 10th December, 2008.

W/ro Alemitu Bogale Ato Birhanu

Chairman Secretary
23rd August, 2008.

Muger Cement Industries Limited

Minutes of the Fourth Meeting of the Board of
Directors held at the Head office of the company
(13, Gotera, Addis Ababa) at
3:15 p.m. on Wednesday, 20 August, 2008
th

Present: W/ro Alemitu Bogale Chairman

Ato Geremew W/Michael
Ato Behailu Chala
Ato Aregawi T/Birhan
Ato mamo Nigusie

Absent: Wt. Chaltu Ayele

Ato Ayalew Gobeze

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INTERVIEW
The word ‘interview’ means ‘view between’ or ‘sight between’. It suggests a
meeting between two persons for the purpose of getting a view of each other, or
for knowing each other or we can say that it is the interaction between interviewer
and interviewee. An interview is a means of two-way communication.
Types of Interview
1. Promotion interview: Persons due for promotion are interviewed even if
there is no competition. This type of interview is more informal and serves as
induction for new responsibilities and duties. And if there, is competition for
promotion, the interview helps in the selection process and may also serve as an
opportunity for a discussion of career opportunities for candidate.
2. Appraisal or Assessment interview: An appraisal interview is one of the
methods of periodical assessment of employees. Annual appraisal interview is the
best method for judging employees performance. A face-to-face confidential talk
is an opportunity for both they discuss on several issues which are related to job.
This interview is more a discussion rather than question-answer. The focus is on
the career development, shortcomings, areas which need improvement, training,
opportunities for promotion etc.
3. Exit interview: An exit interview is given to an employee who has resigned
or leaving the organization. The organization can:-
• Find out the precise reason for the employee decision to leave.
• Give information about PF, group insurance and how and when’s the dues will
be paid.
• Get feedback on employee’s opinion about the organization’s policies.
• Give the final pay cheque or information about when it will be ready and how it
will be handed over.
• Check that all books, manuals, tools, equipments which were issued to the
employee have been returned as same.
4. Problem interview: Problem interview basically meant for those employees
who create problem. An employee whose performance or behaviour is
unsatisfactory in spite of warning represents a problem. An interview is more

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likely to suggest a solution than warnings and notices. The reason for the
employee’s poor performance can be found out in a face-to-face talk, it may be
domestic problems, health problem, lack of training or dissatisfaction with job,
environment problem, hierarchy problem etc. Many organizations have facilities
for counseling staff, the employee may be offered a session with the counselor.
5. Stress interview: A stress interview puts the candidates into difficult
situations in order to test her/his reaction to stress. This method is used for
selection for positions in which the person must be able to face difficult situations
without getting upset. A stress interview tests such qualities as courage, tact, cool
temper, and self-command, on candidates which is needed when confronted by
other individual or groups.
6. Selection interview: The most important objective of the selection interviews
is to measure the suitability of the candidates for specific jobs. Employment
interviews are usually taken by a panel of interviewer. An interview may take
time from 10 minutes to 45 minutes or even longer. Interviewers spend more time
on good candidates. They have to gather enough information about the candidates
to be able to assess their suitability to join the organization. The candidates too
must find out about the organization, its employee policies and culture, what it
expects the recruits to do and what opportunities for career development it offers.
Candidate’s Preparation
In interview not only information and knowledge of the candidate assessed but the
whole personality is assessed. The candidate must be physically, mentally and
psychologically prepared for the interview.
Physical Preparation
1. The candidate is likely to be properly groomed and formally dressed. Clean
and well-cut nails, properly combed hair, well-fitting clothes, neat footwear and a
suitable handbag or brief case are the normal requirements of formal appearance.
2. Posture. The way a candidate carries him while standing, walking, sitting
reveals a good deal about him. Self-confidence, nervousness or over-confidence,
are all reflected in the posture and bearing of the candidate. Note your body
movements, and take care to stop any bad habitual movements.

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 3. Good etiquette is necessary for interview. The candidate must know what the
suitable greetings are for the day on a particular time.
• Do not offer to shake hands unless it is offered by an interviewer.
• Do not sit until you are asked to sit down. If you are not asked to sit then take
permission from interviewer to sit.
• Take care, while handling the chair. It should not be dragged noisily. Sit
comfortably and with good posture.
• If you have large briefcase, put it down on the floor near the chair. If you have
small one
• Then keep it on your lap. Be comfortable and well practiced in handling your bag.
• Do not put elbows or hand on the table. Practice keeping hands comfortably when
youb are not using them.
• Maintain comfortable posture throughout the interview.
• At the end of the interview, remember to thank the interviewers and wish them
Good day.
Mental Preparation
• It is advisable to new job-seekers, that they revise concern subjects. Knowledge in
the field of specialization must be up-to-date, take a look at your bio-data and be
prepared to give more information about your interest.
• Important current issues in the country and in the world will be asked at the time
of interview. Regular reading of newspapers, listening to TV news and discussion
on current issues are suggested.
• Information about the company where you go for interview, its owners/boards of
directors, its product or services, its turnover, share capitals, market value etc. are
available in the company’s annual report or it is also available at the internet. The
candidate must find out such information as possible about the company whose
employment he seeks.
Psychological Preparation
1. Honesty and openness in answering questions is the best policy. Dishonesty
generally makes a bad impression in the mind of the interviewers. It is better to
admit inability to answer a question than to pretend and guess answer.

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 2. Inability to discuss a topic makes a bad impression. If there is any topic that
seems too embarrassing to talk about, it is useful to read up information on it and
talk about it objectively to a few friends for practice.
3. Salary is a topic that must be discussed at the time of interview. It is
important to talk about the compensation package without appearing to be
bargaining, or being driven or defeated.
4. A candidate must have the clarity of purpose and determination to want to
know her/his prospects in the organization. Information about the nature of duties,
working time, deduction, future prospects, other benefits and any of the desired
information must be received before leaving.

Self Evaluation
 Anyone who wants to be successful in life must make a good self-evaluation.
Knowledge of one’s strengths and weaknesses is very useful in gaining self
confidence.
 It takes time and should be done carefully and patiently by candidates.
 Parents and close friends can help in pointing out faults or limitation and in
correcting them and also in finding out strong points and strengthening them.
 Coming to terms with oneself, knowing how to deal with one’s faults, and how to
make good use of one’s talents and skills is excellent preparation for an interview.
It adds a great deal of self confidence and poise to the personality.
1. Interviewer Preparation
• Preparation for the interview has to be made well in advance. The received
application are sorted and scrutinized and qualified candidates are selected for
interviewing.
• A panel of interviewers is selected on the basis of requirements of the job and the
assessment which has to be made at interview.
• A date for the interview is fixed, and the interviewers as well as his selected
candidates are sent letters informing them of the date, time and place of the
interview.
• On the day of the interview, the room in which the interview is to be conducted is
suitably arranged. Another room near the interview room is also arranged for the
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 candidates to be seating while waiting to be interviewed.
• A senior office staff and a peon attend to the needs of the waiting candidates.
Each panel member has to examine the bio-data of candidates and prepare
questions based on the bio-data for each candidate.
• Develop rapport to encourage the candidate to be involved. A candidate is more
willing to speak openly if the interview show respect and understanding of his/her
needs.
At the time of interview the interviewer must consider the following points:
• A relaxed atmosphere can be created by interviewer having a brief conversation
unrelated to the interview and by using the candidate’s name.
• Friendly responses to what the candidate says make the candidate comfortable
and encourage him to speak.
• A candidate must never be humiliated even if it is obvious that he is unsuitable.
• If the interviewer conducted a stress interview than after the interview candidate
should be told that it was stress interviewing and that he need not feel anxious
about it.
• Leave taking must be pleasant and sociable, with response to the candidate’s
wishing.
2. Interview Do’s and Don’ts
With the requirements of the position in mind, the interviewer will search for your
strong and weak points and evaluate your intellect and the abilities that you have
developed as a result of your education and past experience. They will also be
interested in personal characteristics such as your motivation and the way you
present yourself.

THE “DO’S”

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• DO follow the interviewer’s leads and prompts, reading whether your answer is
going to be too long or if further information is required to explain on a point
made.
• DO make sure that you highlight your strengths to the interviewer in a factual,
sincere manner. Provide specific examples of your abilities that demonstrate
positive outcomes or achievements.
• DO realise that the interviewer will ask you questions about your skills that relate
to the selection criteria or the requirements of the position. If the position requires
technical orM special knowledge, you can expect to be asked a question that
involves applying theory to solve a problem.
• DO make sure you leave the impression that you are more interested in the
activities involved in the job than the promotional opportunities or benefits that
the organization may offer.
• DO always indicate your interest in the job for which you’re being interviewed.
Never close the door on an opportunity. It is better to be offered the position so
you can consider it in relation to other jobs for which you are applying than to not
have a choice.
• DO ask questions when given the opportunity.
• DO take advantage of the opportunity to add anything else in your favour if
asked.
THE “DON’TS”
• DON’T answer questions with a simple “yes” or “no”. Give good responses and
explain yourse lf whenever possible by referring to relevant examples from your
experiences.
• DON’T respond in a general, vague, or hesitant manner. Keep in mind that you
alone can sell yourself to an interviewer. Project a sense of purpose and direction.
• DON’T ‘over answer’ questions. The interviewer may steer the conversation into
politics or economics. It is best to answer the questions honestly, and say no more
than is necessary.
• DON’T ever make derogatory remarks about your present or former employers.

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• DON’T enquire about salary, holidays, bonuses or retirement at the initial
interview. However, you should know your market value and be prepared to
specify your required salary range if asked.
• DON’T lie. Answer questions truthfully, frankly and as close ‘to the point’ as
possible.
• DON’T focus on negatives: emphasis positive outcomes and learning
experiences.
Negative factors frequently assessed during an interview that most often lead to
rejection include:
• Lack of responsibility taken for actions.
• Lack of interest and enthusiasm.
• Lack of preparation, failure to obtain information about the job and organization.
• Inability to express thoughts clearly, poor diction or grammar, and lack of poise.
• Lack of career planning, purpose or goals.
• Lack of tact, maturity, courtesy or professionalism.
• Evasive – making excuses for poor academic record or other unfavourable factors.
• Overbearing, aggressive, arrogant or conceited.
• Over-emphasis on money – interested only in remuneration.
• Persistent attitude of “What can you do for me?”
• Failure to ask pertinent questions about the job or the organization.
Make sure these negative factors do not apply to you on your interview. And try
to overcome these factors so you should better present yourself in the interview.
3.10 Effective Listening
Listening is the receiver’s activity in oral communication. As the speaker has the
responsibility to make effort to be understood, so the listener has the
responsibility to be attentive and to make effort to understand the meaning of the
speaker. Of all skills of communication, listening is the most important of all. The
higher your position in an organization, the greater is your listening responsibility.
Johnson: The ability to understand and respond effectively to oral
communication.

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M.V. Rodriques: Listening is a process of receiving, interpreting and reacting to
the message received from the sender.
Leland Brown: Listening is an activity that can be turned on and off consciously
and unconsciously. It starts with the receiver’s becoming aware that they should
listen and become attentive to what is being said.
Listening Process
Stage I: At this stage, the listener simply paid attention to the speaker to hear the
message. If you can repeat the speaker’s words, you have heard the message.
Stage II: This depends on the listener’s vocabulary, knowledge, experience and
so on. If the listener fails to interpret the words correctly the message is
misunderstood.
Stage III. At this stage the listener decides what to do with the received
information. When you are listening to a marketing talk, you may choose to
believe or not to believe what you hear. The judgements you make at this stage of
evaluation are crucial to the listening process.
Stage IV. The listener’s response to the message may be in words or in body
language. The response lets the speaker know whether the listener has got the
message and what his/her reaction is.

HEARING

INTERPRETATION

EVALUATION

RESPONSE

Fig. 3.1: Listening Process

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 Advantages
1. Listening helps to know the organization.
2. Listening helps to make better policies.
3. Listening mollify the complaining employees.
4. Listening is important for the success of the open-door policy.
5. Listening helps to spot sensitive areas before they become explosive.
Guidelines for Effective Listening
1. Eye contact: When one of the audience does not look at the speaker, it means, he
is not interested in listening. A listener must exhibit a behaviour of making eye
contact. It encourages the speaker.
2. Bodily exhibitions: A listener must show himself that he is interested in listening.
Nonverbal signs can be used to exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate
facial expressions, eye contact etc., convey certain things to the speaker.
3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures: Looking at one’s own watch, shuffle
papers, playing with pencil, reading newspaper or letters and other distracting
activities should not be practised.
4. Ask question: An effective listener always asks questions, clarifies doubts, seeks
explanation and ensure clear understanding. This makes the speaker realise that he
is really listening.
5. Put the speaker at ease: By your attitude, help the speaker become relaxed and
aware of willing listener. Be not only seen to listen, but felt to listen.
6. Avoid premature arguments: Don’t interrupt to question or argue about facts,
‘That is not so…….’, ‘prove it…..’ Good listener interprets the speaker after
completing his speech.
7. Listen patiently: The speaker is entitled to be heard, even if you feel his
approach is wrong.
8. No personal bias: It is always desirable to drop personal biases and attitudes
about a speaker and his views. This one is the wrong habit and sometime for this
reason speaker feel uneasy.
9. Observe non-verbal cues: Search out the main points. Observe the non-verbal
cues like tone pitch, physical gesture etc., which too convey meaning to the

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 message. A listener may note them down as these will help in revealing if the
speaker appears to be sincere in his views.
10. Avoid fake attention: Many listeners develop the habit of faking attention. They
steadfastly fix their eyes on the speaker and try to project themselves as good
listeners. They usually miss out many important points made by the speaker.

&Check list
Dear students tick “yes” or “no” to the following self-check items. If your answer
to any one of the items is “no”, please go back and read the specific section again.

Number Can you Yes No

1 Elaborate Purpose of writing
2 List down Principles of effective writing
3 Discuss types of letters
4 Explain structure of business letter
5 Basic Principles of effective communication
6 Describe advantages of Oral communication
7 List down some of limitations of Oral communications
8 Explain significance of Non-verbal communication
9 Explain Meeting, Interview & Telephone Conversations
Chapter III: Summary Questions
1. The main purpose of writing the messages.
a. Future reference c.Wide Access
b. Legal Requirements d. All
2. Which Principle of Effective Writing deals with “writing should be shorter
by using few words for many”
a. Unity c.Brevity
b. Coherence d. Accuracy
3. Written communication is important ,except :
a. Time consuming c.Permanent record
b. Precise d. Legal document

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 4. A sentence containing one idea at a time with all its parts contributing to
strengthen the main idea is called ________________________.
a. Unity c.Variety
b. Coherence d. Economy
5. _________________is like greeting a person when you meet him. It is
placed two spaces below the attention line or if there is no such line, two spaces
below the inside address.
a. Salutation c.Inside Address
b. Attention Line d. Reference
6. _________________ is a courteous leave taking polite way of ending a
letter.
a. Complementary c. Subject
Close d. Signature
b. Body of a letter
7. ____________________ is the oldest style form of Letter.
a.Indent Form c. Modified Blocked form
b.Full Blocked form d. Semi-Blocked form
8. Which one of the following could be the use of Memorandums :
a. For conveying schedule message.
b. For submitting periodical reports.
c.For communicating changes in organization.
d. All
9. All can be Characteristics of a good report, except.
a. Precise and brief c.Relevant
b. Reader-oriented d. None
10. Which one can be limitation of Oral communication :
a. Speed d. Supplemented by non-Verbal
b. It saves money clues
c.No evidence
11. Which one could be part of body language :
a. Appearance c.Eye Contact
b. Facial Expression d. All
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12. “Proxemics” is also called :
a. Space distance
b. Energy
c.Chronemics
d. All
13. Which type of Interview is conducted when an employee resigned or leaving
the organization :
a. Promotion Interview c.Exit interview
b. Appraisal Interview d. Problem Interview
14. “parliament Meeting ” can be :
a. Semi-structured meeting c.Unstructured Meeting
b. Structured Meeting d. None
15. Which type of interview is conducted for judging employees performance?
a. Promotion Interview c.Stress Interview
b. Appraisal Interview d. Selection Interview
16. The First Stage in Listening Process is :
a. Interpretation c.Evaluation
b. Hearing d. Response
17. One of the advantage of effective Listening is :
a. To know the Organization
b. Make better Policies
c.To mollify the complaining employees
d. All
18. Which Principle of effective listening deals with “a listener must show
himself that he is interested in listening”
a. Eye Contact
b. Body exhibition
c.Ask question
d. Avoid gestures

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 ÑAnswer Key
Multiple choice Questions

1. D 10. C
2. C 11. D
3. A 12. A
4. A 13. C
5. A 14. B
6. A 15. B
7. A 16. B
8. D 17. D
9. D 18. B

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