Chapter 06

MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE

Q: What is nucleic acids ?

Ans: DNA and RNA are together known as nucleic acids. These consist of simplest structural units
called nucleotides.

Q: What is nucleotide ? What are the components of nucleotide ?

Ans: The structural units of nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are called nucleotides.

They are organic compounds consisting of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), Oxygen (O), Nitrogen (N) and
Phosphorus (P). A single nucleotide is formed by the combination of 3 simple compounds:

1. A Nitrogenous base

2. A Pentose sugar

3. A Phosphoric acid.

1. Nitrogenous base: These are nitrogen containing organic substances.

On the basis of the structure, nitrogenous bases are classified into two types:

(i) Purines and (ii) Pyrimidines

(i) Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) are the purines. These are two ringed nitrogen
compounds.
(ii) Pyrimidines: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U) are the pyrimidines. They are
formed of one ring only. DNA contains cytosine and thymine only. In RNA, cytosine and
uracil are present.

2. Pentose sugars: These are monosaccharides containing five carbon atoms in their molecules. They
are of two types:

(i) Ribose sugar and (ii) Deoxyribose sugar.

(i) Ribose sugar (C5H10O5): It is found in RNA. Ribose sugar has one oxygen atom more than
Deoxyribose at carbon position 2 (C-2 Position).
(ii) Deoxyribose sugar (C5H10O4): It is found in DNA. Deoxyribose sugar has one oxygen atom
less than ribose.

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3. Phosphoric Acid : It is an orthophosphoric acid (H3PO4) and is often referred to as phosphate.

Q: What is the difference between nucleoside and nucleotide ?

And: Nucleoside: It is composed of Nitrogenous base and pentose sugar only. Phosphoric acid is
absent. e.g- Adenine + Pentose sugar = Adenosine

Nucleotide: It is composed of three components-- Nitrogenous base, pentose sugar and phosphoric
acid. E.g- Adenine + Pentose sugar + Phosphoric acid = Adenylic acid

Q: What is DNA ?

Ans: Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) is a genetic material in most organisms. It is a long polymer of
deoxyribonucleotides.

Q: Who discovered DNA ?

Ans: Friedrich Meischer in 1869 discovered DNA from pus cell, He called it Nuclein.

Q: Describe Watson and Crick's helical model of DNA. [2014]

Ans: The first model of double stranded DNA helical structure was given by J.D. Watson and F.H.C.
Crick in 1953 for which they were given Nobel Prize in 1962.

Salient Features of Watson and Crick's DNA Helical Model---

Watson and Crick's DNA helical model has the following characteristics:

(i) The DNA helix is formed by two polynucleotide strands, i.e DNA is double stranded.
(ii) The two strands are anti-parallel i.e. one strand proceeds in 3'→ 5’ direction and the other
proceeds in 5' → 3' direction.
(iii) The helix has a diameter of about 20Ao throughout its length.

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 (iv) The helix makes one complete turn at every 34 A° along its length and it consists of ten
nucleotides per turn, hence the inter-nucleotide distance is 3.4 A°.
(v) The nearby de-oxyribonucleotides are joined in a chain by Phosphodiester Bridge or
bonds.
(vi) The two strands are held together by the weak hydrogen bonds formed between specific
pairs of purine and pyrimidine bases. Adenine base can bond only to Thymine base by
two hydrogen bonds and Guanine can bond only to Cytosine by three hydrogen
bonds.
(vii) The purine and pyrimidine components occur in equal amounts in DNA molecule i.e.
A+G=C+T or A+G/C+T=1. It is called Chargaff's rule.

Functions of DNA: [2016]

The important functions are as follows-

1. It acts as a carrier of genetic information from one generation to the next generation.

2. The DNA guides, controls and regulates all the biochemical processes of an organism directly or
indirectly.

3. The DNA guides the process of protein synthesis.

4. The DNA is responsible for synthesis of different types of RNAs.

RNA and its types:

Q: What is RNA ?

Ans: The RNA is a type of nucleic acid consisting of mostly one polynucleotide strand. In some cases,
RNA may exist in double stranded form but not a helix form like DNA.

It is found as genetic material in some plant viruses, animal viruses and bacteriophages, while in
others it plays a great role in the process of protein synthesis.

Types of RNAs
The RNAs are broadly divided into two category: (a) Genetic and (b) Non-genetic RNA

(a) The RNA that acts as genetic material in some viruses consisting of only one polynucleotide
strand is called genetic RNA and (b) the RNAs which are responsible for protein synthesis are
called non-genetic RNA.

Depending upon the different functions, the non-genetic RNAs are classified into 3 types:

1. Messenger RNA or mRNA.

2. Ribosomal RNA or rRNA and
3. Transfer RNA or tRNA.

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1. Messenger RNA or mRNA: It is found in the nucleus. It is synthesised by the DNA in the nucleus
from where it migrates to the cytoplasm where protein synthesis takes place. Its main function is to
carry genetic information from DNA in the form of triplet codon during protein synthesis.

2. Ribosomal RNA or rRNA : It is found in ribosomes as structural component. Ribosomal RNA is

synthesised by DNA in the nucleus, it diffuses out from the nucleus during protein synthesis.
Ribosomal RNA and messenger RNA together constitute polyribosomes, the active site of protein
synthesis.

3. Transfer RNA or tRNA: The tRNA plays a key role in protein synthesis. It picks up specific amino
acids from the amino acid pool in the cytoplasm and transfers them to the site of protein synthesis, i.e-
the ribosome.

Differences between DNA and RNA:-- [2017]

DNA RNA

It is double-stranded It is generally single-stranded.

It is the genetic material in all living organisms. It is the genetic material in some viruses only.

The sugar is deoxyribose. The sugar is ribose.

Nitrogenous bases present are adenine, guanine, Nitrogenous bases present are adenine, guanine,
thymine and cytosine. cytosine and uracil,

It is less reactive, chemically and structurally It is more reactive chemically and structurally
more stable. less stable.

It is generally one type RNA is of three types, rRNA, mRNA and tRNA.

Q: What is genetic materials ? Write four features of genetic materials. [2016]

Ans: Genetic material is that substance which controls the inheritance of traits or characters from one
generation to next generation.

Features of genetic materials

i) It should be able to do replication.

ii) It should be stable both chemically and structurally.
iii) It should provide the scope for slow changes (mutation), not frequently, which are required
for evolution.
iv) It should follow the ‘Mendelian rule'.

Q: The DNA is more stable than RNA, why ?

Ans: DNA is more stable than RNA because of the following reasons:--

(a) DNA is double standard.

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 (b) DNA is less reactive than RNA, because 2'-OH group is absent in pentose sugar of every
nucleotide of DNA, but RNA has 2-OH group, so RNA is very reactive.
(c) Presence of thymine in place of uracil provides additional stability to DNA.

PACKAGING OF DNA HELIX:

Q: What is Histone protein ?

Ans: In eukaryotes, DNA binds to an alkaline positively charged protein to form a DNA coil. This type
of protein is called a histone protein.

Histones are the basic group of globular proteins that have a high content of basic amino acids, i.e.,
arginine and lysine.

Q: What is Nucleosome ? Describe the structure of nucleosome. [2012,17]

Ans: The negatively charged DNA is wrapped around the positively charged histone octamer and
forms a structure known as nucleosome.

Structure of Nucleosome: The core body of

nucleosome is made up of four types of histone
proteins-- H2A, H2B. H3 and H4. Each of them
contributes two molecules, hence it forms an
octomeric structure. The DNA strand makes two
turns around the core of histone protein. The two ends
of the DNA strand around the core of the histone
protein remain joined by another histone protein
called H1.

The two adjacent nucleosomes are joined by a piece of

DNA strand called linker DNA.

One nucleosome contains approximately 200 base pairs of DNA helix.

Q: Differences between chromosomal DNA and plasmid DNA. [2018]

Ans: The genomic DNA found in prokaryotic and eukaryotic species is referred to as chromosomal
DNA. It is present in nucleoid or nucleus of the cell.

Plasmid DNA is extrachromosomal DNA that is circular in structure and usually occurs in cytoplasm
of bacterial cells.

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Differences between chromosomal DNA and plasmid DNA:

Chromosomal DNA Plasmid DNA

Type of genomic DNA A form of extrachromosomal DNA

Found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells Found only in prokaryotes

Replicate with the genome Can duplicate independent of the genome

The chromosomal DNA is generally associated Plasmid DNA is naked without the presence
with histone protein. of histone protein

Q: Differences between Euchromatin and heterochromatin.

Euchromatin Heterochromatin

Parts of chromatin, which are loosely packed Parts of chromatin, which are densely packed
during interphase are called euchromatin. during cell division are called heterochromatin.

Euchromatin contains active genes Heterochromatin contains inactive genes

It is transcriptionally active. It is transcriptionally inactive.

THE SEARCH FOR GENETIC MATERIAL:

(A) Transforming principle (Griffith’s experiment): [2018]

Frederick Griffith in 1928, carried out a series of experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae (a
bacterium that causes pneumonia).

This bacterial strain was found in two forms, some of them produce smooth, shiny colonies known as
S-type (S-III or virulent), whereas the others produce rough colonies known as R-type (R-II or
avirulent).

The Virulent strain causes Pneumonia and Avirulent strain do not.

The experiments are as follows:---

i) S-strain (virulent strain) → Injected into mice→ Mice died.

ii) R-strain (non-virulent strain) → Injected into mice→ Mice lived.
iii) S-strain (heat killed) → Injected into mice → Mice lived.
iv) S-strain (heat killed) + R-strain (live) → Injected into mice → Mice died.

From these results Griffith concluded that there was some factor in heat killed virulent S-type that
transformed living R-type into living S- type. This was called "Griffith effect".

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Q: What is Griffith effect or transformation ?

Ans: In Griffith's experiment, it was found that the living R-II bacterium transformed into living S-III
by some factor found in heat killed S-III, this is called Griffith’s effect or transformation.

(B) Biochemical Characterization of Transforming Principle:

Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty (1933-44) worked to determine the
biochemical nature of 'transforming principle' in Griffith's experiment in an in vitro system.

During this experiment, they purified biochemicals (i.e. proteins, DNA, RNA, etc.) from the heat-killed
S-III cells were taken to observe which biochemical could transform live R-II cells into S-III cells.

They discovered that DNA alone from heat-killed S-type bacteria caused the transformation of non-
virulent R-type bacteria into S-type virulent bacteria.

They also discovered that protein-digesting enzymes (proteases) and RNA digesting enzymes (RNase)
did not inhibit this transformation. Digesting with DNase inhibit transformation, which indicates that
the DNA caused the transformation. Thus, they concluded that DNA is the hereditary material.

(C) Harshey and Chase’s experiment or Blender’s experiment. [2009,14,19]

Hershey and Chase (1952) conducted experiments on T2 bacteriophage to prove that DNA is the
genetic material.

Procedure:

i) Some T2 bacteriophage virus were grown on a medium that contained radioactive phosphorus
(P32) and some in another medium with radioactive sulphur (S35).
ii) Viruses grown in the presence of radioactive phosphorus (P32) contained radioactive DNA.

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 iii) Similar viruses grown in presence of radioactive sulphur (S35) contained radioactive protein
coat.
iv) Both the radioactive virus were allowed to infect E. coli separately.
v) After infection, the bacterial cells were gently agitated in blender to remove viral coats from the
bacteria.
vi) The culture was also centrifuged to separate the viral particle from the bacterial cell.

Observations and Conclusions:

i) Only radioactive P32 was found to be associated with the bacterial cell, whereas radioactive S35
was only found in surrounding medium or supernatant, not in the bacterial cell.
ii) This indicates that only DNA entered the bacterial cell not protein. This proves that DNA is the
genetic material which is passed from virus to bacteria.

DNA REPLICATION:
Q: What do you mean by replication? Define semiconservative DNA replication. [2022]

Ans. DNA replication can be defined as "formation of new DNA molecules from the parent DNA which
are exactly similar to it.

DNA Replication occurs in semiconservative mode. It means in the newly synthesized DNA molecule,
one old strand is present which is called Template strand and a new strand is synthesized. This
mode of replication is called semi- Conservative mode of replication.

Q: Diagrammatically express the Watson and Crick's semiconservative models of DNA

replication. [2019]

Ans: Watson and Crick suggested Semi Conservative mode of DNA replication. According to the semi
conservative mode of replication, the two strands of DNA separate from each other with the breakage
of H-bonds between the complementary nitrogenous base pairs in presence of helicase enzyme and
then each strand act as a template for the formation of a new DNA strand. The new DNA strand is
synthesized by the progressive polymerisation of deoxyribonucleotides available in the nucleoplasm.
The new DNA strand is antiparallel and complementary in base sequence to its template DNA
strand and winds with the template to form a new DNA double helix.

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Q: Why DNA replication is said to be semiconservative? How Meselson and Stahl provided
evidence in favour of semiconservative nature of DNA replication? [2013]
Ans: DNA replication is said to be semi-conservative because in each newly synthesized DNA
molecule, an old strand is present (template) and a new complementary strand is synthesized, this
why DNA replication is said to be semi-conservative.

Meselson and Stahl experiment:

Messelson and Stahl experimentally proved the semi-conservative replication of DNA in 1958. They
carried out a series of experiments as given below-

i) They multiplied the bacterium Escherichia coli in a medium containing 15NH4Cl salts for many
generations. The DNA of bacterial cells was labelled with 15N.

ii) The DNA was extracted from the bacteria and centrifuged in caesium chloride (CsCl) density
gradient. The DNA settled down at the bottom of the tube.

iii) Now the bacteria containing 15N were transferred to a medium containing nitrogen salt 14NH4Cl
which is incorporated with normal 14N.

iv) After first generation (after 20 mint), when the bacterial cells multiplied, they isolated the DNA
by high speed centrifuge and evaluated its density. Its density was intermediate between that of
the heavier 15N -- 15N DNA and the lighter 14N-- 14N DNA (i.e- 15N -- 14N )

v) After second generation (after 40 mint), they found that the density of 50% DNA was 15N -- 14N

and the remaining 50% was 14N-- 14N.

This experiment confirmed the semi conservative mode of DNA replication.

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 MECHANISM OF DNA REPLICATION:
DNA replication involves series of enzymes and other protein factors. The whole process can be
explained by the following steps-
1. Activation of deoxyribonucleotides: The nucleotides for DNA synthesis remain in
nucleoplasm in inactive state, viz. AMP, GMP, CMP and TMP. These are activated by ATP to
form deoxyribonucleotide triphosphates called ATP, GTP, CTP and TTP.

2. Recognition of initiation point: Replication of DNA begins at a particular point on DNA called
initiation point or Ori. Specific initiator protein is required to recognise the initiation point in
DNA. In prokaryotes there is only one Ori, but in eukaryotes there may be several Ori.

3. Unwinding of DNA molecule: The two strands of DNA separate in presence of enzymes
helicase by breaking weak hydrogen bonds present between the nitrogenous bases of the two
strands of DNA.
The enzyme topoisomerase cuts and reseals one strand of DNA, thus helping in separation of
intertwined DNA strands. A bubble is created at the initiation point called replication bubble.

4. Formation of RNA primer: Primer is a short RNA segment that is formed on the DNA template
before replication begins. The enzyme which polymerises RNA primer is known as primase.
Without a primer, new DNA strand formation is not possible.

5. Synthesis of New DNA Strand: In this step, the nucleotides are added to the primer in a
definite sequence. The enzyme DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strand.

When the double stranded DNA unwinds up to a point, it will give rise to a Y-shaped structure
known as replication fork. The replication proceeds from 5'→ 3' direction only in the new
DNA strand.

DNA polymerase produces continuous new DNA strand in one template. The newly formed
DNA strand is called leading strand.
In another template DNA strand, DNA-polymerase produces short segments of polynucleotide
dis-continuously. These short segments are called Okazaki fragments and the new strand
formed by them is called as lagging strand. The short strands are joined by an enzyme called
DNA ligase.
6. Proof reading and DNA repair: If any mistake occurs in the newly synthesized DNA strand
then DNA polymerase enzyme removes the wrong nucleotide and placed a correct nucleotide
in it, this is called proof reading activity of DNA polymerase.

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 FIG: REPLICATION FORK

Q: What is template strand ? [2022]

Ans: The old strand of DNA which is used to synthesis a new complementary strand in
replication and transcription is referred to as template strand.

Q: What is the function of DNA ligase ? [2019]

Ans: DNA ligase enzyme joins short DNA strands together to form a continuous strand.

Q: What are Okazaki fragments? [2018]

Ans: These are short sequence of DNA nucleotides which are synthesised discontinuously and
later linked together by the enzyme DNA ligase to create lagging strand during DNA replication.

Q: What are the two basic amino acids which are found in high amount in histone
protein? [2018]

Ans: Lysine and arginine.

Q: Which of the following enzyme is primarily involved in DNA replication ? [2012]

(a) Isomerase (b) DNA polymerase (c) Restriction endonuclease (d) Transaminase

Ans: (b) DNA polymerase

Q: What is origin of replication ? Why the replication is called bidirectional ?

Ans: origin of replication (Ori) is a point or site on DNA from where DNA replication starts.

At each origin of replication, a replication bubble is created. In each replication bubble,

replication proceeds in both the direction (opposite direction), this is why replication is called
bi-directional.

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 Q. Why the DNA replication is called semi-discontinuous ?
Ans: During DNA replication, in one template strand new DNA strand is synthesized
continuously and in another template, DNA synthesis occurs dis-continuously. Thus DNA
Replication is called semi-discontinuous.

Q: Write the name of enzymes required in DNA Replication.

Ans: The enzymes required in DNA Replication are:

a) Helicase: An enzyme that helps in breaking the weak hydrogen bonds between two strands
of DNA.
b) Topoisomerase: An enzyme that can break and reseal one strand of DNA.
c) Primase: An enzyme that helps in the formation of a primer.
d) DNA Polymerase: An enzyme that can link up free DNA nucleotides to from the
complementary strand of DNA.
e) DNA ligase: An enzyme that can join the short segments of newly synthesised
polynucleotide chain.

CENTRAL DOGMA:

Q: Write briefly about ‘Central-dogma’ of molecular biology. [2020]

Ans: Central dogma is a statement in molecular biology; it states that DNA is transcribed into
mRNA and mRNA is translated into protein. It is a one way or unidirectional flow.
Central dogma was proposed by Francis Crick in 1958.

Transcription Translation
DNA mRNA Protein or Polypeptide

Q: What is reverse transcription ?

Ans: In certain plant and animal viruses (retroviruses) the genetic material RNA is converted
into DNA in host’s body by an enzyme reverse transcriptase. It is called Reverse transcription.

TRANSCRIPTION:
It is the process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA in the form of mRNA.

Transcription unit:
A transcription unit of DNA is defined primarily by three regions in the DNA:

(i) A promoter (ii) The structural gene (iii) A terminator

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 (i) A promoter: It is a DNA sequence that provides binding site for RNA polymerase. It is
located at upstream of the structural gene.

(ii) The structural gene: The part of transcription unit between promoter and terminator is
called a structural gene.

(iii) A terminator: It is a DNA sequence located at downstream of the structural gene. It

usually defines the end of transcription process.

The two strands of DNA have opposite polarity and the enzyme DNA-dependent RNA
polymerase catalyses the polymerisation in only one direction (i.e. 5' → 3'direction).

The DNA strand with 3' → 5' polarity acts as a template strand. The other strand with 5' → 3'
polarity is known as coding strand or sense strand.

MECHANISM OF TRANSCRIPTION:
A) TRANSCRIPTION IN PROKARYOTES : [2020]

In prokaryotes, transcription occurs in cytoplasm with the help of DNA-dependent RNA

polymerase. Transcription completes in three stages:

(i) Initiation: RNA polymerase reaches the promoter region and binds to it. RNA
polymerase recognizes the promoter by its sigma ( ) factor. RNA polymerase initiates
transcription by breaking the hydrogen bond of DNA helix and added 2-3
complementary nucleotide to the template. Thus transcription starts. After initiation
RNA polymerase loses the sigma factor.

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 (ii) Elongation: As the transcription bubble moves with the RNA polymerase along the
gene, the length of mRNA increases by RNA polymerase in 5' → 3' direction.

(iii) Termination: When the RNA polymerase reaches the terminator region, a specific rho
(p) factor stops the synthesis of RNA chain. It separates RNA polymerase as well as the
newly formed RNA strand. Thus transcription completed.

In prokaryotes (bacteria), mRNA does not require any processing to become mature and both
transcription and translation take place in cytoplasm. Therefore, transcription and translation can
continue simultaneously. The mRNA in prokaryotes is Polycistronic.

B) TRANSCRIPTION IN EUKARYOTES :

The process of transcription in eukaryotes is more complex than prokaryotic transcription. The
steps of eukaryotic transcription are similar to that in prokaryotes. Structural genes are
monocistronic in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic transcription occurs inside the nucleus.

There are 3 different types of RNA Polymerase enzyme involved in eukaryotic transcription: --

(a) RNA polymerase-I -- Transcribes rRNAs.

(b) RNA polymerase-II -- Transcribes precursor of mRNA, which is called heterogeneous

nuclear RNA (hnRNA).

(c) RNA polymerase-III --- Transcribes tRNA,

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 In eukaryotes, transcription factors initiates transcription. A sigma factor is absent. No primer
is needed to start transcription.

The newly formed RNA is synthesized by RNA polymerase - II and is called hnRNA or primary
transcript or nascent RNA. The hnRNA contains both coding and non-coding parts. The
coding parts are called exons and the non-coding parts are called introns.

T
h
i
s
The hnRNA is converted into functional mRNA through certain modifications called post-
transcriptional modification, which involves 3 steps:

(i) Capping at 5' end: Addition of a cap of methyl guanosine triphosphate (mGppp) to 5' end
of hnRNA is called capping. The methylated cap protects the mRNA from degradation by
nucleases.

(ii) Tailing at 3' end (Polyadenylation): Tailing or polydenylation is addition of about

200-300 adenylate residues at 3' end of hnRNA with the help of poly-A polymerase. It
protect the 3′ end from degradation by exonucleases.

(iii) Splicing: Splicing is the process of removal of introns through cutting and joining of
exons in hnRNA in a defined order. Introns are removed with the help of snRNPs. The
exons are joined by Ligase.

Q: What is Monocistronic and Polycistronic mRNA ?

Ans: The mRNA that codes for only one polypeptide chain is called monocistronic. Eukaryotic
mRNA is monocistronic.

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 The mRNA that codes for more than one polypeptide chain is called polycistronic. Prokaryotic
mRNA is polycistronic.

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Transcription :

Prokaryotic Transcription Eukaryotic Transcription

Transcription and translation occur Transcription and translation don’t occur

simultaneously simultaneously.

Prokaryotic transcription occurs in the Eukaryotic transcription occurs in the

cytoplasm nucleus and translation occurs in the
cytoplasm.

RNAs are released and processed in the RNAs are released and processed in the
cytoplasm nucleus

RNA polymerase recognises promoter by RNA polymerase recognises promoter by

sigma factor transcription factor

Q: Which enzyme transcribes hnRNA? [2015]

Ans. hnRNA is transcribed by the RNA polymerase-II enzyme.

Q: If the base sequence in DNA strand is ATTCGATG, which of the following will be its
transcripts base sequence ? [2010]

(a) UAAGCUAC (b) GUAGCUUA (c) CAUCGAAU (d) UAAGCUAC

Ans. (a) UAAGCUAC

Q: what is hnRNA or Nascent RNA?

Ams: The RNA which is produced by eukaryotic transcription is called Nascent RNA or hnRNA.
The hnRNA must be modified before translation.

Q: Why the post transcriptional modifications are important in eukaryotic cells ?

Ans: The post transcriptional modifications protect the mRNA from the degrading enzymes
present in nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. Moreover the eukaryotic mRNA contains both Coding
and non -coding parts. Non -coding parts (introns) must be removed before translation.

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 Q: What is splicing ? Why hnRNA is required to undergo splicing ? [2014]

Ans. Splicing is the process of removal of introns through cutting and joining of exons in
hnRNA in a defined order.
hnRNA is required to undergo splicing because of the introns. The introns need to be removed
and the exons have to be joined in a specific sequence before translation.

GENETIC CODE:

The genetic code is the set or sequence of 3-nitrogenous bases in mRNA molecule which
contain the information for specific amino acid for the synthesis of protein molecules.
Mershal Nirenberg discovered the genetic code.

Each 3-nitrogenous bases in mRNA molecule called a codons.

Q: Write the properties or basic features of genetic code. [2014, 2018]

Ans: Properties of Genetic Code:

1. Genetic codes are triplet in nature: A single codon consist of 3 nitrogenous bases.

2. Universality: The genetic code is universal i.e. the same codon codes for the same amino
acid in every form of life that exists today.

3. Non overlapping: It means, from the starting of mRNA the sequence of bases reads in 3
corresponding bases without any overlapping. A single base of a codon is used only one
time.

4. Degeneracy: The code is degenerate, it means each amino acid is coded by more than one
codon. These codons are known as synonymous codons.

For example GGU, GGC, GGA and GGG, these all code for amino acid Glycine.

5. Comma less: The codons are comma less, it means there is no gap between two codons.

6. Ambiguity: The genetic code is ambiguous, that is, same codon may specify more than one
amino acid under certain circumstances.

For example, UUU codon usually codes for phenylalanine but in the presence of
streptomycin it may code for isoleucine and serine.

7. Nonsense codon: Certain codons like UAA, UAG and UGA do not code for any amino acid
and give a signal of "stop" during translation. Hence, they are called nonsense codons or
stop codons.

8. Initiation codon or start codon: AUG is a codon with dual functions. It codes for the amino
acid methionine (met) and also acts as an initiator codon.
There are total 64 codons, out of which 61 codons are functional, the remaining 3 codons are called non-
sense codon.viz- UAA, UAG and UGA.

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 tRNA : THE ADAPTER MOLECULE –
Q: What is tRNA ? Mention the function of tRNA.

Ans: The tRNA or transfer RNA is a soluble adaptive molecule containing 73-93 nucleotides
present in the Cytoplasm. It is clover leaf shaped molecule.

The tRNA Carries Specific amino acid and transfers them to the site of protein synthesis.

It has an anticodon region which is complementary to a particular codon of mRNA.

Q: Briefly describe the structure of tRNA with diagram.

Ans: The tRNA is clover leaf shaped molecule. tRNA has five arms or loops, as follows--

1. Anticodon loop -- It has bases complementary to a codon of mRNA.

2. Amino acid acceptor end -- At this end, amino acids binds.
3. T-loop -- It helps in binding to ribosome.
4. D-loop -- It helps in binding aminoacyl synthetase.
5. Variable loop -- It is variable in both nucleotide composition and in length.

5’

U AC
Q: Write the differences between mRNA and tRNA. [2015]

Ans: Difference between mRNA and tRNA ---

mRNA tRNA

Linear structure Clover leaf shape

In mammals, mRNAs are 300 to 12000 nucleotides long 73 to 93 nucleotides

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 They carry genetic information present in DNA for They carry specific amino acids to
protein synthesis the site (i.e-Ribosome) for protein
synthesis

mRNA carries codons for the translation process They carry anticodons, specific to
particular amino acid

TRANSLATION:
Q: What is translation ?

Ans: The process by which the specific sequence of amino acids present on mRNA polymerises to
form a polypeptide is known as translation.

Q: Discuss the process of translation of genetic code. [2016]

Ans: Translation takes place in cytoplasm. It is completed by the following 5 stages : --

i. Activation of amino acids

ii. Attachment of amino acid to the tRNA (tRNA charging)
iii. Initiation of polypeptide synthesis
iv. Elongation of polypeptide chain
v. Termination of polypeptide synthesis

i. Activation of amino acids --

The amino acids are activated in the presence of ATP, Mg2+ and by binding with an enzyme
aminoacyl-tRNA-synthetase.

Amino acid + ATP + Enzyme AA ~ AMP ~ E + PPi

(Aminoacyle – Enzyme – complex)

ii. Attachment of amino acid to the tRNA (tRNA charging) --

Now the activated amino acid attached with the respective tRNA and forms aminoacyl- tRNA Complex
and the enzyme set free.

AA ~AMP ~ E + tRNA AA ~ tRNA + E + AMP

(Aminoacyle – tRNA – complex)

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 iii. Initiation of polypeptide synthesis –

a) The ribosome attaches with the mRNA. The larger subunit of ribosome has three sites--
A-Site, P-site and E-site.
b) tRNA molecule with specific amino acid methionine enters into the site of protein
synthesis through A site and attaches with the start codon AUG present at P-site of
ribosome, the p-site holds the tRNA molecule. Thus protein synthesis starts.

iv. Elongation of polypeptide chain –

a) Another charged aminoacyl-tRNA complex binds to the A-site of the ribosome. A

peptide bond forms between two amino acid by the enzyme peptidyl transferase.
b) Now ribosome moves from one codon to another codon along the mRNA in the 5'→ 3'
direction. Amino acids are then added one-by-one in the sequence of codons and translated
into a polypeptide sequences, thus elongation proceeds.

v. Termination of polypeptide synthesis :

a) When the A-site of ribosome reaches a stop codon, then there is no amino acid-tRNA -
complex is available. A release factor (RF) binds to the stop codon and releases the
polypeptide from ribosome and thus translation is terminated.

Q: How is translation of mRNA terminated ? [2015]

Ans: When the A-site of ribosome reaches a termination codon or stop codon, then there is no amino
acid-tRNA complex is available for stop codon. A release factor binds to the stop codon and translation
is terminated. Thereby release the complete polypeptide from the ribosome.

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Q: What is UTR ? State their function. Where UTR are present ? [2017]

Ans: There are some additional sequences in an mRNA that are not translated called as Untranslated
Regions (UTRs). They are present at both the ends, i.e., at 5 end and at 3' end.

Function: The UTR increases efficiency of translation process.

REGULATION OF GENE EXPRESSION:

Q: What is gene regulation ?

Ans: Gene regulation is the mechanism of switching 'off’ and switching 'on' of the genes depending
upon the requirement of the cells and the stage of development. Gene regulation may be either
positive or negative.

Gene expression results in the formation of a polypeptide.

Q: What is gene expression ?

Ans: Gene expression is the process by which the informations present in DNA are converted into a
functional product, such as a protein.

Q: How does DNA express its biological information ?

Ans: DNA expresses its biological information by gene expression. Gene expression results in the
formation of a polypeptide or protein.

Q: What are the different levels of regulation of gene expression ? [2017]

Ans: The regulation of gene expression may occur at various levels.

In prokaryotes, gene expression is regulated by the rate of initiation of transcription.

In eukaryotes, it takes place at the following levels:

a. Transcriptional level – Formation of primary transcript or hnRNA.

b. Processing level -- Regulation of capping, tailing and splicing
c. Transport of mRNA from nucleus to the cytoplasm.
d. Translational level

OPERON CONCEPT:
Jacob and Monod in 1961 proposed a model of gene regulation, known as operon model.

Operon:

Operon is a co-ordinated group of genes such as structural gene, operator gene, promoter gene,
regulator gene which function together and regulate a metabolic pathway as a unit, e.g., lac operon,
trp operon, ara operon etc.

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