1.

Artificial Intelligence:
Intelligence: ability to learn, understand and think
Definition of AI:
AI is a study which makes the computers to do things which are, at the moment,
at the hands of human beings.
Applications of AI are typically divided into two categories based on how well they can carry out
tasks.
1. General AI (Strong AI)
2. Narrow AI (Weak AI)
Narrow AI is programmed to perform only a limited range of predefined tasks in order to finish
or solve a certain issue.
General AI will be self-aware and capable of carrying out any task that its "mind" can conjure
up.

2. Turing Test:
In 1950, Alan Turing introduced a test to check whether a machine can think like a human or
not, this test is known as the Turing Test.

3. Agent and its types:

An agent refers to an autonomous entity that perceives its environment through sensors and
acts upon it through effectors in order to achieve certain goals. Types of agents are:
1. Simple Reflex Agent
2. Model-based reflex agent
3. Goal-based agents
4. Utility-based agent
5. Learning agent

4. Sensor:
Sensor is a device which detects the change in the environment and sends the information to
other electronic devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.

5. Actuators:
Actuators are the component of machines that converts energy into motion.

6. Effectors:
Effectors are the devices which affect the environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms,
fingers, wings, fins, and display screen.

7. Rational agent:
Rational agent is an agent which has clear preference, models uncertainty, and acts in a way
to maximize its performance measure with all possible actions.

8. Rationality:
The rationality of an agent is measured by its performance measure. Rationality can be judged
on the basis of following points:
• Performance measure which defines the success criterion.
• Agent prior knowledge of its environment.
• Best possible actions that an agent can perform.
• The sequence of percepts

9. Environment and its types

An environment is everything in the world which surrounds the agent, but it is not a part of an
agent itself. An environment can be described as a situation in which an agent is present. Types
of environment is:
1. Fully observable vs Partially Observable
2. Static vs Dynamic
3. Discrete vs Continuous
4. Deterministic vs Stochastic
5. Single-agent vs Multi-agent
6. Episodic vs sequential
7. Known vs Unknown
8. Accessible vs Inaccessible

10. Uniformed search:

Uninformed search is a class of general-purpose search algorithms which operates in brute
force-way. Uninformed search algorithms do not have additional information about state or
search space other than how to traverse the tree, so it is also called blind search.

11. Informed search:

Informed search algorithm contains an array of knowledge such as how far we are from the
goal, path cost, how to reach to goal node, etc. This knowledge help agents to explore less to
the search space and find more efficiently the goal node.
The informed search algorithm is more useful for large search space. Informed search algorithm
uses the idea of heuristic, so it is also called Heuristic search.

12. Explain about Heuristic

Heuristic is a function which is used in Informed Search, and it finds the most promising path.

***Learn about all the informed and uninformed searches along

with their properties (completeness, optimality, time and space
complexity)

13. Hill Climbing

Hill climbing algorithm is a local search algorithm which continuously moves in the direction of
increasing elevation/value to find the peak of the mountain or best solution to the problem. It
terminates when it reaches a peak value where no neighbor has a higher value.It is also called
greedy local search as it only looks to its good immediate neighbor state and not beyond that.
14. Problems or drawbacks in Hill Climbing Algorithm
Local Maximum: A local maximum is a peak state in the landscape which is better than each
of its neighboring states, but there is another state also present which is higher than the local
maximum.
Plateau: A plateau is the flat area of the search space in which all the neighbor states of the
current state contains the same value, because of this algorithm does not find any best direction
to move. A hill-climbing search might be lost in the plateau area.
Ridges: A ridge is a special form of the local maximum. It has an area which is higher than its
surrounding areas, but itself has a slope, and cannot be reached in a single move.

15. Simulated Annealing

The process is used in simulated annealing in which the algorithm picks a random move,
instead of picking the best move. If the random move improves the state, then it follows the
same path.

16. What are the components of a problem

A problem can be defined by five components: • initial state, actions, transition model, goal test,
path cost.

17. How to measure effectiveness of search strategies?

1. Completeness.
2. Time Complexity.
3. Space Complexity.
4. Optimality.

18. Recoverable Problem

Recoverable: In which solution steps can be undone. (e.g., 8-Puzzle Problem).

19. Successor Function

A successor function is a description of possible actions, a set of operators.

20. Search tree:

A tree representation of search problem is called Search tree. The root of the search tree is the
root node which is corresponding to the initial state.

21. State Space:

A state space is a way to mathematically represent a problem by defining all the possible states
in which the problem can be.

22. What is Adversarial Search?

Adversarial search is a search, where we examine the problem which arises when we try to plan
ahead of the world and other agents are planning against us.
23. Define Game
Searches in which two or more players with conflicting goals are trying to explore the same
search space for the solution, are called adversarial searches, often known as Games.

24. Advantages of Artificial Intelligence

• High Accuracy with less errors
• High-Speed
• High reliability
• Useful for risky areas
• Digital Assistant
• Useful as a public utility

25. Applications of AI
Astronomy, Healthcare, Gaming, Finance, Data Security, Social media, Travel & Transport,
Automotive Industry, Robotics, Entertainment.

26. Types of Artificial Intelligence:

• Weak AI or Narrow AI
• General AI or Strong AI
• Super AI

27. PEAS Representation

PEAS is a type of model on which an AI agent works upon. When we define an AI agent or
rational agent, then we can group its properties under PEAS representation model. It is made
up of four words:
P: Performance measure
E: Environment
A: Actuators
S: Sensors

28. Zero-Sum Game:

Zero-sum games are adversarial search which involves pure competition. In Zero-sum game
each agent's gain or loss of utility is exactly balanced by the losses or gains of utility of another
agent.

29. Mini-Max Algorithm in Artificial Intelligence

Mini-max algorithm is a recursive or backtracking algorithm which is used in decision-making
and game theory. It provides an optimal move for the player assuming that opponent is also
playing optimally.

30. Alpha-Beta Pruning

Technique by which without checking each node of the game tree we can compute the correct
minimax decision, and this technique is called pruning. This involves two threshold parameter
Alpha and beta for future expansion, so it is called alpha-beta pruning. It is also called as Alpha-
Beta Algorithm. Condition for Alpha-beta pruning: The main condition which required
for alpha-beta pruning is: α>=β.

31. Local search algorithm

The local search algorithm explores and evaluates different solutions (search space) by
applying local changes until an optimal solution is achieved or certain iterations are computed.

32. Knowledge-based agents

Knowledge-based agents are those agents who have the capability of maintaining an internal
state of knowledge, reason over that knowledge, update their knowledge after observations and
take actions.

33. Inference
Inference means deriving new sentences from old

34. Logic:
Logic can be defined as the proof or validation behind any reason provided.

35. Propositional logic in Artificial intelligence

Propositional logic (PL) is the simplest form of logic where all the statements are made by
propositions. A proposition is a declarative statement which is either true or false. It is a
technique of knowledge representation in logical and mathematical form.

36. Atomic Proposition:

Atomic propositions are the simple propositions. It consists of a single proposition symbol.
These are the sentences which must be either true or false.

37. Compound proposition:

Compound propositions are constructed by combining simpler or atomic propositions, using
parenthesis and logical connectives.

38. Logical equivalence:

Logical equivalence is one of the features of propositional logic. Two propositions are said to be
logically equivalent if and only if the columns in the truth table are identical to each other.

39. Inference rules:

Inference rules are the templates for generating valid arguments. Inference rules are applied to
derive proofs in artificial intelligence, and the proof is a sequence of the conclusion that leads to
the desired goal.

40. Atomic sentences:

Atomic sentences are the most basic sentences of first-order logic. These sentences are formed
from a predicate symbol followed by a parenthesis with a sequence of terms. We can represent
atomic sentences as Predicate(term1, term2, ......, term n).
41. Quantifiers in First-order logic:
A quantifier is a language element which generates quantification, and quantification specifies
the quantity of specimen in the universe of discourse.
• Universal Quantifier, (for all, everyone, everything)
• Existential quantifier, (for some, at least one).

42. Universal Quantifier:

Universal quantifier is a symbol of logical representation, which specifies that the statement
within its range is true for everything or every instance of a particular thing. The Universal
quantifier is represented by a symbol ∀.

43. Existential Quantifier:

Existential quantifiers are the type of quantifiers, which express that the statement within its
scope is true for at least one instance of something. It is denoted by the logical operator ∃.

44. FOL:
FOL is also called predicate logic. It is a powerful language used to develop information
about an object and express the relationship between objects.

45. Knowledge Base:

Knowledge Base refers to set of statements.

46. Predicate:
A predicate is an expression of one or more variables determined on some specific domain.

47. What are FOL inference rules for quantifier:

Universal Generalization, Universal Instantiation, Existential Instantiation, Existential
introduction.

48. Skolem constant and Skolem function

A constant that replaces an existentially quantified variable is called a Skolem constant and a
function that is used in replacing a variable is called a Skolem function. This process is called
Lifting or Skolemization which is used to eliminate existential quantifiers(∃).

49. Clause:
Disjunction of literals (an atomic sentence) is called a clause. It is also known as a unit clause.

50. Conjunctive Normal Form:

A sentence represented as a conjunction of clauses is said to be conjunctive normal form or
CNF.

51. Definite clause and Horn clause:

Definite clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals with exactly one positive literal is
known as a definite clause or strict horn clause.
Horn clause: A clause which is a disjunction of literals with at most one positive literal is known
as horn clause. Hence all the definite clauses are horn clauses.

52. Which is the most straight forward approach for planning algorithm
STRIPS (Stanford Research Institute Problem Solver) algorithm was the planner used in
Shakey, one of the first robots built using AI technology.

53. Which process makes different logical expression looks identical

Unification is the process of making different logical expressions looks identical. The inference
rule that encapsulates this process called Generalized Modus Ponens.

54.Ontology:
In AI, an ontology refers to a formal and explicit representation of knowledge that describes
concepts, entities, relationships, and properties within a specific domain.

55. Ontological Engineering

Ontological Engineering in AI refers to process of designing and creating ontologies to support
knowledge representation and reasoning.

56. Resolution
Resolution is a theorem proving technique that converts given predicate
login into clause form or CNF.

57. Lifitng
Lifting, also known as Skolemization, is a process used to eliminate existential quantifiers (∃)
from formulas in first-order logic.

58. How do you construct complex sentences in propositional logic?

Larger and more complex sentences are constructed from the basic propositions by combining
them with connectives. Thus propositions and connectives are the basic elements of
propositional logic.

59. Semantic Network Representation

Semantic networks are alternative of predicate logic for knowledge representation. In Semantic
networks, we can represent our knowledge in the form of graphical networks. This network
consists of nodes representing objects and arcs which describe the relationship between those
objects.

60. Forward Chaining and Backward Chaining:

Forward chaining as the name suggests, start from the known facts and move forward by
applying inference rules to extract more data, and it continues until it reaches to the goal,
whereas backward chaining starts from the goal, move backward by using inference rules to
determine the facts that satisfy the goal.
61. Reasoning:
The reasoning is the mental process of deriving logical conclusion and making predictions from
available knowledge, facts, and beliefs. Or we can say, "Reasoning is a way to infer facts
from existing data."
Types:
• Deductive reasoning
• Inductive reasoning
• Abductive reasoning
• Common Sense Reasoning
• Monotonic Reasoning
• Non-monotonic Reasoning

62. Genetic Algorithm

A genetic algorithm (GA) is a heuristic search algorithm used to solve search and optimization
problems. This algorithm is a subset of evolutionary algorithms, which are used in computation.
Genetic algorithms employ the concept of genetics and natural selection to provide solutions to
problems.

63. Constraint Satisfaction Problem

A Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) is a type of problem commonly encountered in the field
of Artificial Intelligence (AI) and computational problem-solving. It involves finding solutions to a
set of variables, subject to certain constraints or limitations. CSPs are widely used in various
domains, including planning, scheduling, optimization, and pattern recognition. The primary goal
of CSP is to find assignments to the variables that satisfy all the given constraints
simultaneously.

64. State Demorgan’s Law:

De Morgan's Law says that
• ~(P v Q) ≡ (~P ∧ ~Q)
• ~(P ∧ Q) ≡ (~P v ~Q)

65. Tautology(Valid), Contradiction(Unsatisfiable) and Contingency(Satisfiable)

A tautology is a statement that is true in every row of the table. It's a contradiction if it's false in
every row. The statement is a contingency if it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction—that is,
if there is at least one row where it is true and at least one row where it is untrue.
A sentence is valid if and only if it is satisfied by every truth assignment. A sentence is
unsatisfiable if and only if it is not satisfied by any truth assignment. A sentence is contingent if
and only if it is both satisfiable and falsifiable, i.e. it is neither valid nor unsatisfiable.

***Learn How to convert given statements into propositional logic

and predicate logic