Statistical and Mathematical

Methods for Data Analysis

Dr. Faisal Bukhari
Associate Professor
Department of Data Science
Faculty of Computing and Information Technology
University of the Punjab
Textbooks
Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists,
Ninth Edition, Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myer

Elementary Statistics: Picturing the World, 6th

Edition, Ron Larson and Betsy Farber

Elementary Statistics, 13th Edition, Mario F. Triola

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 2

Reference books
 Probability and Statistical Inference, Ninth Edition,
Robert V. Hogg, Elliot A. Tanis, Dale L. Zimmerman

 Probability Demystified, Allan G. Bluman

Schaum's Outline of Probability, Second Edition,

Seymour Lipschutz, Marc Lipson

Python for Probability, Statistics, and Machine Learning, José

Unpingco

Practical Statistics for Data Scientists: 50 Essential Concepts,

Peter Bruce and Andrew Bruce

Think Stats: Probability and Statistics for Programmers, Allen

Downey
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 3
References
Readings for these lecture notes:

Probability & Statistics for Engineers & Scientists, Ninth

Edition, Ronald E. Walpole, Raymond H. Myer

 Probability Demystified, Allan G. Bluman

http://www.thefreedictionary.com/statistics

 Discrete Mathematics and Its Application, 7th Edition by

Kenneth H. Rosen

These notes contain material from the above resources.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 4

 Distribution of points
Midterm = 30 points
Final term = 40 points
Sessional points = 30 points
I. Assignments = 2 × 4 = 8 points
II. Hands-on Python in class = 0.5 × 6 =3 points
III. Quizzes = 2 × 6 = 12 points
IV. Journal/conference paper presentation = 5 points
V. Mini project (its report should be in an IEEE journal
paper format) = 2 points
Or
The weightage of the project will be increased up to
10 points
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 5
What is Data Science?

Data Science is a fusion of multiples disciplines,

including statistics, computer science, information
technology, and domain-specific fields.
OR
Data Science is an umbrella that contain many other
fields like machine learning, data mining, big data,
statistics, data visualization, data analytics,…

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 6

Data Science

Figure 1-1. Drew Conway’s Venn diagram of

data science Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 7
Set Theory
Set: Any well defined list or collection of objects is
called a set.
OR
A set is an unordered collection of objects.

Element: The objects comprising the set are called

its elements or members. We write p ∈ A if p is an
element in the set A
OR
The objects in a set are called the elements, or
members, of the set. A set is said to contain
elements.
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 8
Example The set V of all vowels in the English
alphabet can be written as V = {a , e, i, o, u} .

Example The set O of odd positive integers less than

10 can be expressed by O = {1 , 3 , 5 , 7, 9}.

Example {a , 2, Fred, New Jersey}

Note: Although sets are usually used to group

together elements with common properties, there is
nothing that prevents a set from having seemingly
unrelated elements.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Set builder notation

Another way to describe a set is to use set builder

notation.

Example: The set 0 of all odd positive integers less

than 10 can be written as
O = {x | x is an odd positive integer less than 10}
or
O = {x ∈ Z+ | x is odd and x < 10 } .

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Note: The concept of a datatype, or type, in
computer science is built upon the concept of a set.

Example: boolean is the name of the set {0, 1}

together with operators on one or more elements of
this set, such as AND, OR, and NOT

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Set Theory
Subset: If every element of A also belongs to a set
B, i.e. if p ∈ A implies p ∈ B, then A is called a subset
of B or is said to be contained in B; this is denoted by
A ⊂ 𝑩 𝑜𝑟 𝑩 ⊃ 𝑨
OR
The set A is said to be a subset of B if and only if
every element of A is also an element of B.

Note: Uppercase letters are usually used to

denote sets

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 12

Examples:

The set of all odd positive integers less than 10 is a

subset of the set of all positive integers less than 10.

The set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of

real numbers.

The set of all computer science majors at your

school is a subset of the set of all students at your
school.

 The set of all people in China is a subset of the set

of all people in China (that is, it is a subset of itself).

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Theorem: For every set S,

(i) ∅ ⊆ S and
(ii) S ⊆ S

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Proper subset

When we wish to emphasize that a set A is a subset of

the set B but that A ≠ B, we write A ⊂ B and say that A
is a proper subset of B. For A ⊂ B to be true, it must be
the case that A ⊆ B and there must exist an element x
of B that is not an element of A.

Note: Sets may have other sets as members.

A = {∅, {a } , {b } , {a , b }}

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Set Theory
Equal Set: Two sets are equal if each is contained
in the other; that is,
A = B if and only if A ⊂ B and B ⊂ A

Negation of Element, Subset and Equal Set: The

negations of p ∈ A, A ⊂ B and A = B are written as
p ∉ A, A ⊄ B and A ≠ B

Note: Lowercase letters are usually used to denote

elements of sets.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 16

Set Theory
We specify a particular set by either listing its
elements or by stating properties which
characterize the elements of the set. For example,
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

means A is the set consisting of the numbers 1, 3, 5,

7 and 9; and

B = {x : x is a prime number, x < 15}

means that B is the set of prime numbers less than
15.
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 17
Set Theory
Example: The sets A and B in the previous slide can
also be written as

A = {x : x is an odd number, z < 10}

and
B = {2, 3, 6, 7, 11, 13}

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 18

Example: We use the following special symbols:
N = the set of positive integers: 1, 2, 3, …
Z = the set of integers: … -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …
R = the set of real numbers
Thus we have N ⊂ 𝒁 ⊂ R

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 19

Example: Intervals on the real line, defined below,
appear very often in mathematics. Here a and b are real
numbers with a < b.

Open interval from a to b = (a,b) = {x : a < x < b}

Closed interval from a to b = [a,b] = {x : a ≤ x ≤ b}

Open-closed interval from a to b = (a,b] = {x : a < x ≤ b}

Closed-open interval from a to b = [a,b) = {x : a ≤ x < b}

The open-closed and closed-open intervals are also

called half-open

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 20

Set Operations
Union: Let A and B be arbitrary sets. The union of
A and B, denoted by A U B, is the set of elements
which belong to A or to B.
A U B = {x : x ∈ A or x ∈ B}. Here “or” is used in the
sense of and/or.
OR
Let A and B be sets. The union of the sets A and B ,
denoted by A U B, is the set that contains those
elements that are either in A or in B , or in both. An
element x belongs to the union of the sets A and B
if and only if x belongs to A or x belongs to B.
A U B = {x I x ∈ A v x ∈ B }.
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 21
Set Operations
EXAMPLE The union of the sets {1 , 3 , 5 } and {1 , 2,
3} is the set {1 , 2 , 3 , 5}

{1, 3, 5} U {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3, 5}.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 22

Set Operations
Intersection: The intersection of A and B, denoted
by A ∩ 𝑩, is the set of elements belong which
belong to both A and B
A ∩ B = {x : x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
OR
Let A and B be sets. The intersection of the sets A
and B , denoted by A∩B, is the set containing those
elements in both A and B.
A ∩ B = {x I x ∈ A ∧ x ∈ B }.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 23

Set Operations

Example: The intersection of the sets {1, 3 , 5} and

{1, 2 , 3} is the set {1, 3}
{1, 3 , 5 } ∩ {1, 2, 3 } = {1, 3}.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 24

Set Operations
Disjoint: If A ∩ B = ∅, that is, if A and B do not
have any elements in common, then A and B are
said to be disjoint.
OR
Two sets are called disjoint if their intersection is
the empty set.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 25

Set Operations
EXAMPLE Let A = {1, 3 , 5 , 7, 9} and B = {2, 4, 6, 8 ,
10}.
A∩B = ∅, A and B are disjoint.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 26

Set Operations
Difference: The difference of A and B or the
relative complement of B with respect to A,
denoted by A ∖ B, is the set of elements which
belong to A but not to B.
A ∖ B = {x : x ∈ A, x∉ B)
OR
Let A and B be sets. The difference of A and B ,
denoted by A - B, is the set containing those
elements that are in A but not in B . The difference
of A and B is also called the complement of B with
respect to A.
A - B = {x | x ∈ A ∧ x ∉ B }

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 27

Set Operations
EXAMPLE The difference of {1, 3 , 5} and {1, 2 , 3} is
the set {5}
{1, 3 , 5} - {1, 2 , 3} = {5} .
{1, 2 , 3} - {1, 3 , 5} = {2}.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 28

Set Operations

Complement: The absolute complement or,

simply, complement of A, denoted by 𝑨𝒄 is the set of
elements which do not belong to A:
𝑨𝒄 = {x : x ∈ U, x ∉ A)
That is, 𝑨𝒄 is the difference of the universal set
U and A.
OR
Let U be the universal set. The complement of
the set A, denoted by 𝑨 ഥ , is the complement of A
with respect to U. In other words, the
complement of the set A is U - A . 𝑨ഥ = {x | x ∉ A}
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 29
Set Operations
EXAMPLE Let A = {a , e, i , 0, u } (where the universal
set is the set of letters of the English alphabet).

ഥ = {b, c, d, j, g, h , j, k, I , m , n , p , q , r, S , t , v , w , x
𝐀
, y , z} .

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 30

Set Operations
Example: The diagrams on next slide, called Venn
diagrams, illustrate the set operations discussed in
the previous slides. Here sets are represented by
simple plane areas and U, the universal set, by the
area in the entire rectangle.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 31

Example cont.

A ∪ 𝑩 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒅 A ∩ 𝑩 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒅

A ∖ B 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒅 𝑨𝒄 𝒊𝒔 𝒔𝒉𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒅
Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 32
De Morgan’s law
I. (A U B)𝐂 = 𝐀𝐜 ∩ 𝐁 𝐜
II. (A ∩ B)𝐂 = 𝐀𝐜 U 𝐁𝐜

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 33

Example: Let U = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 6, 4, 8, 10}, A = {3,
2, 7, 5 ,8, 9}, and B = {2, 5, 4, 8, 10}. Prove De
Morgan’s law of intersection.
(A ∩ B)𝐂 = 𝐀𝐜 U 𝐁𝐜
Solution:
LHS = (A ∩ B)𝐂
A ∩ B = {3, 2, 7, 5, 8, 9} ∩ {2, 5, 4, 8, 10}
= {2, 5, 8}
(A ∩ B)𝐂 = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 6, 4, 8, 10} - {2, 5, 8}
= {1, 3, 7, 9, 6, 4, 10}
LHS = {1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10}

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 34

RHS = 𝐀𝐜 U 𝐁 𝐜
𝐀𝐜 = U – A
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 6, 4, 8, 10} - {3, 2, 7, 5 ,8, 9}
= {1, 4, 6, 10}

𝐁𝐜 = U – B
= {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 2, 6, 4, 8, 10} - {2, 5, 4, 8, 10}
= {1, 3, 6, 7, 9}

RHS = {1, 4, 6, 10} U {1, 3, 6, 7, 9}

= {1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10}

RHS = LHS

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 35

Cardinality of a set
Let S be a set. If there are exactly n distinct
elements in S where n is a nonnegative integer, we
say that S is a finite set and that n is the cardinality
of S. The cardinality of S is denoted by 𝑺 .

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 36

Cardinality of a set
Example Let A be the set of odd positive integers
less than 10. Then 𝑨 = 5.

Example Let S be the set of integers in the English

alphabet. Then 𝑨 = 26.

Example Because the null set has no elements, it

follows that ∅ = 0.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Infinite, not finite, and power set
Definition A set is said to be infinite if it is not finite.

Example: The set of positive integers is infinite.

Definition Given a set S, the power set of S is the set

of all subsets of the set S. The power set of S is
denoted by P(S).

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Example: What is the power set of the set to {0, 1 ,
2} ?

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Solution:
The power set P({ 0, 1 , 2 }) is the set of all subsets of
to {0, 1 , 2 } .

Hence,
P ({0, 1 , 2 }) = {{∅}, {0}, {1}, {2 }, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, { 1 , 2},
{0, 1 , 2}} .

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT, PU, Lahore 40

Example What is the power set of the empty set? What
is the power set of the set {∅}?

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Solution: The empty set has exactly one subset,
namely, itself.
P(∅) = {∅} .

The set {∅} has exactly two subsets, namely, ∅ and the
set {∅} itself. Therefore,
P ({∅}) = {∅, {∅}}

Note:
No of elements in a power set: If a set has n elements,
then its power set has 2n elements.

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Cartesian Products [1]
The ordered n-tuple (a1 , a2 , . . . , an) is the ordered
collection that has a1 as its first element, a2 as its
second element, . . . , and an as its nth element.
2-tuples are called ordered pairs. The ordered pairs (a ,
b) and (c, d) are equal if and only if a = c and b = d.
Note: (a , b) and (b, a) are not equal unless a = b.

Definition Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian product

of A and B, denoted by A × B, is the set of all ordered
pairs (a , b), where a ∈ A and b ∈ B .
A × B = {(a , b) | a ∈ A ∧ b ∈ B } .

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Cartesian Products [2]
EXAMPLE: What is the Cartesian product of
A = { 1, 2} and B = {a , b, c}?

Solution:
The Cartesian product A × B is
A x B = {( 1 , a), ( 1 , b) , ( 1 , c), (2, a), (2, b) , (2, c)} .

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT

Relation
A subset R of the Cartesian product A × B is called
a relation from the set A to the set B. The elements
of R are ordered pairs, where the first element
belongs to A and the second to B.

R = {(a , 0), (a , 1 ), (a , 3), (b, 1 ), (b, 2), (c, 0), (c, 3)} is
a relation from the set {a , b , c} to the set to
{ 1 , 2, 3 }

The Cartesian products A × B and B × A are not

equal, unless A = ∅ or B = ∅ (so that A x B = ∅) or A =
B

Dr. Faisal Bukhari, PUCIT