KADUNA STATE UNIVERSITY

Faculty of Science
Department of Biochemistry

All matric numbers ending with 0 – Group

1 CHM 301 Assignment

Question: Discuss in details giving

examples the concept of Collision and
Transition Theory.
S/N NAME MATRIC NUMBER
1 Jimmy Ogenebrumeh Godday KASU/20/BCH/1210
2 Asma’u Abubakar Dasuma KASU/20/BCH/1160
3 Adam Isma'eel Abdullahi KASU/19/BCH/1150
4 Nathaniel Zugwai Blessing KASU/20/BCH/1090
5 Hafsat Abdullahi KASU/20/BCH/1060
6 Comfort John Pyop KASU/18/BCH/1090
7 Martha Omowumi Enechukwu KASU/20/BCH/1080
8 Dickson Janet KASU/20/BCH/1020
9 Amina Jibril KASU/20/BCH/1130
10 Kasim Khadijah Abdullahi KASU/20/BCH/2010
11 Abubakar Habiba Usman KASU/20/BCH/1140
12 Awaje Alheri Amos KASU/20/BCH/1030
13 Anita Emah Okon KASU/20/BCH/1100
14 Adetoro Khairat Sharafadeen KASU/20/BCH/1010
15 Pius Favour Hyohtsai KASU/20/BCH/1150
16 Joshua Gladys Barde KASU/19/BCH/1230
17 Bilkisu Ishaq Lawal KASU/20/BCH/1110
18 Mustapha Maryam Musa KASU/19/BCH/1220
19 Marshal Ibrahim KASU/20/BCH/1120
20 Judith Jeisi Jonathan KASU/17/BCH/1160
TABLE OF CONTENT
1. Collision Theory
i Assumptions.
ii. Factors Affecting Reaction Rate.
iii. Collision Frequency.
iv. Effective Collisions.
2. Transition State Theory (TST)
i. Assumptions.
ii. Key Concepts.
iii. Rate-Determining Step.
iv. Factors Affecting Reaction Rate.
 COLLISION THEORY.
Collision theory is a fundamental concept in chemistry it’s describes how chemical
reactions happen when particles of reactants collide with enough energy and in the
right way. It helps to understand the molecular-level mechanisms of reactions and
why reaction rates change under different circumstances. By grasping the factors
affecting collision frequency, energy, and orientation, scientists can anticipate and
manage reaction rates, adjusting reaction conditions for different chemical
processes.
Assumptions of Collision Theory
It suggests that chemical reactions occur when reactant particles collide, but not all
collisions lead to reactions. For a reaction to happen, specific conditions need to be
fulfilled:
1. Collision: This condition emphasizes that for a chemical reaction to occur, the
reactant particles must physically collide with each other. Without collision, there
is no opportunity for the reactants to interact and form new bonds. For instance, a
simple reaction like hydrogen gas (H2) reacting with oxygen gas (O2) to form
water (H2O). For this reaction to occur, hydrogen and oxygen molecules must
collide with each other in the reaction vessel.
2. Orientation: In addition to collision, the orientation of the colliding particles is
crucial. The particles must approach each other in a way that allows the necessary
bonds to form or break. This means they must align properly in relation to each
other’s molecular structures. For example, Consider the reaction between hydrogen
gas (H2) and chlorine gas (Cl2) to form hydrogen chloride gas (HCl). The
hydrogen and chlorine molecules must collide in such a way that the hydrogen
atoms (H) and chlorine atoms (Cl) come together to form the H-Cl bonds in the
product.
3. Energy: Even if reactant particles collide with the correct orientation, they still
need to possess sufficient kinetic energy to overcome the activation energy barrier.
The activation energy is the minimum energy required for the reaction to proceed.
Without enough energy, the collision won’t lead to a successful reaction. An
example is the combustion of methane gas (CH4) with oxygen gas (O2) to produce
carbon dioxide gas (CO2) and water vapor (H2O). The methane and oxygen
molecules need to collide with sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy
barrier required to break the bonds in methane and oxygen and form new bonds in
carbon dioxide and water.
When all three conditions—collision, correct orientation, and sufficient energy—
are met, the colliding particles can undergo chemical transformation, resulting in
the formation of products. Collision theory provides insights into how these
conditions influence reaction rates. For instance, increasing temperature provides
reactant particles with more kinetic energy, enhancing the likelihood of successful
collisions. Similarly, altering the concentration of reactants or using catalysts can
affect collision frequency and energy, thereby influencing reaction rates.

Example:
1. For this Reaction:
A+B→C
- Collisions: A and B molecules collide to form C
- Effective Collisions: Only collisions with sufficient energy and proper orientation
lead to C
- Activation Energy: The minimum energy required for A and B to form C

2. For this Reaction:

2NO + O2 → 2NO2
- Collision Frequency: Increases with increasing NO and O2 concentrations
- Effective Collisions: Only collisions with sufficient energy and proper orientation
lead to NO2 formation
- Activation Energy: 50 kJ/mol (minimum energy required for successful
collisions)
Factors Affecting Reaction Rate (Collision Theory)
The collision theory of chemical kinetics states that for a reaction to occur, the
reacting species must collide with each other with sufficient energy and proper
orientation. The frequency of these collisions, known as the collision rate, is a
crucial factor in determining the overall rate of the reaction.
There are several key factors that can influence the collision rate between reactant
molecules:
1. Concentration of Reactants: The concentration of the reactants is a primary
factor affecting the collision rate. As the concentrations of the reactants
increase, the number of molecules per unit volume also increases, leading to
a higher probability of collisions occurring. This relationship is typically
expressed in the rate law equation, where the rate of the reaction is
proportional to the concentrations of the reactants raised to their respective
reaction orders.
2. Temperature: The temperature of the system can significantly impact the
collision rate. As the temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the reactant
molecules also increases, leading to a higher proportion of collisions with
sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy barrier and result in a
successful reaction. This relationship is described by the Arrhenius equation,
which relates the rate constant to the activation energy and the absolute
temperature.
3. Surface Area: The available surface area of the reactants can also influence
the collision rate. Increasing the surface area of the reactants, such as by
using smaller particle sizes or increasing the exposed surface area, can lead
to more frequent collisions and, consequently, a higher reaction rate. This
effect is particularly important in heterogeneous reactions, where at least one
of the reactants is in a different phase than the others.
4. Presence of Catalysts: Catalysts play a crucial role in influencing the
collision rate by providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower
activation energy. By reducing the activation energy barrier, catalysts can
significantly increase the proportion of collisions that result in a successful
reaction, leading to a higher overall reaction rate.
  Concentration Of Reactants
According to the kinetic theory of gases, the number of collisions per unit time is
directly proportional to the concentrations of the reactants. If the concentration of a
reactant is doubled, the number of collisions involving that reactant will also
double, assuming all other factors remain constant.
This relationship can be expressed mathematically using the rate law equation. The
rate law relates the rate of a reaction to the concentrations of the reactants raised to
their respective reaction orders. For a reaction of the form:
aA + bB → Products
The rate law would be expressed as:
Rate = k[A]^x[B]^y
Where k is the rate constant, [A] and [B] are the molar concentrations of the
reactants, and x and y are the partial reaction orders with respect to A and B,
respectively.
As the concentrations of the reactants increase, the frequency of collisions between
the molecules also increases, leading to a higher overall reaction rate. Conversely,
if the concentrations of the reactants decrease, the collision rate and the overall
reaction rate will decrease as well.
It is important to note that the relationship between concentration and reaction rate
is not always linear. The reaction order with respect to each reactant determines the
precise mathematical relationship between concentration and rate. In some cases,
the reaction order may be fractional or even negative, leading to more complex
dependencies.
 Temperature
The kinetic theory of gases provides a fundamental framework for understanding
the relationship between temperature and the rate of collisions. According to this
theory, the average kinetic energy of gas molecules is directly proportional to the
absolute temperature of the system. As the temperature increases, the average
kinetic energy of the molecules also increases, leading to a higher velocity and,
consequently, a greater frequency of collisions.
Mathematically, the relationship between temperature and the rate of collisions can
be expressed using the Arrhenius equation, which is a cornerstone of chemical
kinetics:
K = A * e^(-Ea/RT)
Where:
- k is the rate constant of the reaction
- A is the pre-exponential factor, which represents the frequency of collisions
- Ea is the activation energy of the reaction
- R is the universal gas constant
- T is the absolute temperature
The exponential term in the Arrhenius equation, e^(-Ea/RT), represents the fraction
of molecules that possess sufficient energy to overcome the activation energy
barrier and successfully react upon collision. As the temperature increases, this
exponential term grows larger, leading to a higher rate constant and, consequently,
a faster overall reaction rate.
For example, I an experiment to study the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
which can be represented by the following reaction:
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
By measuring the rate of oxygen gas evolution at different temperatures, the
activation energy and the pre-exponential factor for this reaction can be
determined. It is observed that as the temperature increased, the rate of the reaction
increased dramatically, consistent with the predictions of the Arrhenius equation.
 Surface area
The collision theory of chemical kinetics states that for a reaction to occur, the
reacting species must collide with each other with sufficient energy and proper
orientation. The rate of a chemical reaction is fundamentally determined by the
frequency of these collisions. One of the key factors that can significantly impact
the collision rate is the available surface area of the reactants.
The surface area of a reactant refers to the total area of the exposed surface that is
available for collisions to occur. Intuitively, the greater the surface area, the more
opportunities there are for the reactant molecules to come into contact with each
other, leading to an increased number of collisions per unit time and, consequently,
a higher reaction rate.
This relationship can be expressed mathematically using the rate law equation,
which relates the rate of a reaction to the concentrations of the reactants raised to
their respective reaction orders. In the case where the surface area of a reactant is a
limiting factor, the rate law can be modified to include a term that accounts for the
surface collision.
Rate = k[A]^x[B]^y * S
Where:
- k is the rate constant
- [A] and [B] are the molar concentrations of the reactants
- x and y are the partial reaction orders with respect to A and B, respectively
- S represents the available surface area of the reactants
As the surface area (S) increases, the overall reaction rate will also increase,
assuming all other factors remain constant.
For example, an experiment to study the rate of the reaction between solid calcium
carbonate (CaCO3) and hydrochloric acid (HCl). It is observed that as the surface
area of the calcium carbonate was increased by using smaller particle sizes, the rate
of the reaction increased significantly. This is because the smaller particles
provided a greater surface area for the acid to come into contact with the solid
reactant, leading to more frequent collisions and a higher overall reaction rate.
 Catalyst
By providing an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation energy,
catalysts can significantly increase the proportion of collisions that result in a
successful reaction.
Mathematically, the impact of a catalyst on the reaction rate can be expressed
using the Arrhenius equation:
K = A * e^(-Ea/RT)
Where:
- k is the rate constant of the reaction
- A is the pre-exponential factor, which represents the frequency of collisions
- Ea is the activation energy of the reaction
- R is the universal gas constant
- T is the absolute temperature
In the presence of a catalyst, the activation energy (Ea) of the reaction is reduced,
causing the exponential term in the Arrhenius equation to increase. This, in turn,
leads to a higher rate constant (k) and, consequently, a faster overall reaction rate.
For example, an experiment to study the decomposition of hydrogen peroxide,
which can be represented by the following reaction:
2H2O2 → 2H2O + O2
Adding a small amount of the enzyme catalase, which is a naturally occurring
catalyst for this reaction. It was observed that the presence of catalase significantly
increased the rate of the reaction, consistent with the predictions of the Arrhenius
equation. By analyzing the data, to determine that the activation energy of the
reaction was reduced by the catalase, leading to a higher collision rate and a faster
overall reaction.

Collision Frequency
Collision frequency refers to the number of collisions that occur between particles
or molecules in a given volume of gas or plasma per unit time. It is an important
parameter in understanding the behavior of gases and plasmas, and is used in
various fields such as chemistry, physics, and engineering.
The collision frequency (Z) is defined as the average number of collisions that a
particle or molecule undergoes per unit time, and is typically expressed in units of
collisions per second (s-1). It is related to the mean free path (λ) and the average
velocity (v) of the particles or molecules by the following equation:
Z=v/λ
The collision frequency is an important parameter in understanding various
phenomena such as:
1. Gas dynamics and transport properties
2. Chemical reactions and kinetics
3. Plasma behavior and electrical conductivity
4. Scattering and absorption of radiation
Some common examples of collision frequencies include:
1. In air at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, the collision frequency is
approximately 10^9 s-1.
2. In a typical plasma discharge, the collision frequency can range from 10^6 to
10^12 s-1.
3. In a gas laser, the collision frequency can be as high as 10^14 s-1.

Note: The collision frequency is also known as the collision rate or collision
number.

Effective Collision
An effective collision is a collision between reactant molecules that results in a
chemical reaction. The following conditions must be met for a collision to be
effective:
- The molecules must collide with each other.
- The collision must have enough energy (activation energy).
- The molecules must have the proper orientation.
Effective collisions are a fundamental concept in collision theory, which explains
how chemical reactions occur and how reaction rates are influenced by factors
such as concentration, temperature, and pressure.
 TRANSITION THEORY
Transition State Theory (TST) is a fundamental concept in chemical kinetics that
provides a framework for understanding reaction rates. It is based on the idea that
for a chemical reaction to occur, the reactant molecules must pass through a high-
energy state called the transition state. This theory is particularly useful for
understanding the factors that influence reaction rates and provides insights into
the mechanisms of chemical reactions.

Assumptions of Transition State Theory

1. Reactants form a transition state (TS) complex: The reactants collide and
form a transient intermediate complex, known as the transition state, which
is the highest energy state along the reaction coordinate.
2. TS is in equilibrium with reactants: The transition state is assumed to be in
equilibrium with the reactants, meaning that the forward and reverse
reactions are rapid compared to the formation of the transition state.
3. Reactants and TS have similar energies: The energy of the reactants and
the transition state are assumed to be similar, allowing for a quasi-
equilibrium between the two.
TST provides a powerful framework for understanding the kinetics of chemical
reactions and has been widely applied in various fields, including catalysis,
enzyme kinetics, and molecular dynamics simulations.
Examples:
Transition State Theory (TST) is a widely used framework for understanding
chemical reactions and calculating reaction rates. Here are some examples:
 1. Hydrogen iodide formation:
H2 + I2 → 2HI
- Transition state: [H2I2]* (a temporary complex)
- Activation energy (Ea): 50 kJ/mol
II. Nitrogen oxide formation:
2NO + O2 → 2NO2
- Transition state: [NO2O2]* (a temporary complex)
- Activation energy (Ea): 55 kJ/mol
III. Methane combustion:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
- Transition state: [CH4O2]* (a temporary complex)
- Activation energy (Ea): 80 kJ/mol
IV. Enzyme-catalyzed reactions:
- Enzymes bind substrates to form an enzyme-substrate complex (the transition
state)
- The enzyme-substrate complex then decomposes to form products
Example: Lactase enzyme catalyzing lactose hydrolysis
V. Organic reactions:
- SN2 reaction: CH3Br + OH- → CH3OH + Br-
- Transition state: [CH3BrOH]* (a temporary complex)
- Activation energy (Ea): 60 kJ/mol
These examples illustrate how Transition State Theory is applied to various
chemical reactions, including gas-phase reactions, enzyme-catalyzed reactions, and
organic reactions.
Key Concepts of Transition State Theory.
1. Transition State: The transition state is a high-energy, short-lived state that
occurs at the peak of the energy barrier between reactants and products. It
represents the highest energy point along the reaction pathway and is where
old bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming.
2. Activation Energy: The activation energy is the minimum amount of energy
that reactant molecules must possess to reach the transition state and initiate
a chemical reaction. It is a measure of the difficulty of the reaction.
3. Reaction Coordinate: The reaction coordinate is a conceptual pathway that
describes the progress of a chemical reaction from the reactants to the
products. It is often depicted graphically as a curve showing the energy
changes that occur as the reaction proceeds.
4. Rate Constant: The rate constant (k) is a proportionality constant that relates
the rate of a chemical reaction to the concentrations of the reactants. It is
influenced by the height of the energy barrier (activation energy) and the
temperature of the reaction.
5. Catalysis: TST helps to explain how catalysts work by providing an
understanding of how they lower the activation energy of a reaction.
Catalysts provide an alternative reaction pathway with a lower activation
energy, thereby increasing the reaction rate.
6. Temperature Dependence: According to the Arrhenius equation, the rate
constant of a reaction is exponentially dependent on temperature. This
temperature dependence arises from the Boltzmann distribution of molecular
energies and the need for molecules to possess sufficient energy to overcome
the activation barrier.

Rate Determining Step (RDS)

The RDS is the slowest step in a reaction mechanism that determines the overall
rate of the reaction. In Transition state theory , the rate determining step is
typically the step involving the highest energy transition state
1. Energy Barrier: The rate of a reaction depends on the height of the energy
barrier (activation energy,Ea) that must be overcome for the reaction to
proceed. The higher the barrier, the slower the reaction.
2. Transition State Concentration: According to TST, the concentration of the
transition state (activated complex) is in equilibrium with the reactants. The
formation of this complex is crucial as it represents the highest energy state that
needs to be overcome.
3. Rate Expression: The reaction rate can be expressed using the Eyring equation
derived.
Κ = K(kT/h)exp(–ΔG‡/kT)
Where:
Κ = rate constant
K = transmission coefficient (typically ~1)
K = Boltzmann constant
T = temperature in Kelvin
H = Planck constant
ΔG‡ = free energy of activation (the energy barrier
This equation shows that the rate constant (κ) is proportional to the exponential of
the negative free energy barrier (ΔG‡) divided by kT. This means that the higher
the energy barrier, the slower the reaction rate.
Role of Rate determining step in a Multi-Step Reaction
In complex reactions with multiple steps, the overall reaction rate is often
dominated by the step with the highest energy transition state, which is the rate
determining step.
1. Energy Profile: Consider a reaction with multiple intermediate steps, each with
its own transition state and energy barrier. The step with the highest energy barrier
is the slowest and thus the rate determining step.
2.Bottleneck Effect: Since the rate determining step is the slowest step, it acts as a
bottleneck for the entire reaction process. Even if subsequent steps are faster, the
overall rate cannot exceed the rate at which the rate determining step proceeds.
3.Kinetic Control: The kinetics of the reaction are controlled by the rate
determining step. Changes in conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure) that affect the
rate determining step will have the most significant impact on the overall reaction
rate.
Example: A Two-Step Reaction
Consider a reaction mechanism with two steps:
1. A → B‡→ B
2. B → C‡→ C
If the activation energy for the first step (ΔG1‡)is higher than that of the second
step (ΔG2‡) , the first step is the rate determining step. The overall rate of the
reaction is thus governed by the rate at which A is converted to B through the
transition state B‡.

Factors Affecting Reaction Rate (TST)

Here are some factors that affect the reaction rate of transition state theory:
1. Temperature: Temperature is a critical factor in determining the reaction
rate in transition state theory. A higher temperature generally leads to a
higher reaction rate, as it provides more energy for the reactants to
overcome the energy barrier.
2. Concentration of reactant: The concentration of reactants is another
essential factor in determining the reaction rate. A higher concentration
of reactants generally leads to a higher reaction rate, as there are more
molecules available to react.
3. Activation energy: Activation energy is the minimum energy required for
a reaction to occur. A lower activation energy generally leads to a higher
reaction rate, as it is easier for the reactants to overcome the energy
barrier.
4. Frequency factor: The frequency factor is a constant that represents the
frequency of collisions between reactant molecules. A higher frequency
factor generally leads to a higher reaction rate, as there are more
collisions between reactant molecules.
5. Transmission coefficient: The transmission coefficient is a constant that
represents the probability of a collision between reactant molecules
resulting in a successful reaction. A higher transmission coefficient
 generally leads to a higher reaction rate, as there is a higher probability of
successful reactions.
6. Entropy of activation: The entropy of activation is a measure of the
disorder or randomness of the transition state. A higher entropy of
activation generally leads to a higher reaction rate, as it is easier for the
reactants to form the transition state.
7. Enthalpy of activation: The enthalpy of activation is a measure of the
energy required to form the transition state. A lower enthalpy of
activation generally leads to a higher reaction rate, as it is easier for the
reactants to form the transition state.

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