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Cambridge
I Lower Secondary
Complete
1 Physics fc: *1

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Helen Reynolds
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Anna Harris per
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Elliot Sarkodie-Addo
Second Edition

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Ph.ÿSÿS
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Lower Secondary
Complete
D
ssBsssr
H ir ?
"3 Physics
m
i==s

H
i
i= I 'ir, Helen Reynolds
‘Ear-— ' Anna Harris
Elliot Sarkodie-Addo
Second Edition
For more information, visit:
www.oxfordsecondary.com/cambridge-lowersecondary-science

Need help?
Contact your local educational consultant: www.oxfordsecondary.com/contact-us
Oxford excel lence OXFORD
 r
Contents

Contents E Light Stage 9

7.1
7.2
How do we see things?
The Law of Reflection
130
132
EE Forces
11.1 Floating and sinking 190
Introduction
Thinking and working scientifically
4
E The Earth in space
70
7.3 Reflection and images
Refraction: air and water
134 11.2 Using ideas about density 192
5.1 Our planet: day and night 7.4 136 11.3 Review 194
Asking questions 8 72 7.5 Refraction: air and glass
1 5.2 Our planet: seasons 138
10
12 Energy
2 Planning and carrying out investigations 5.3 The night sky 74 7.6 The speed of light 140
12 12.1 Hot and cold 196
3 Collecting and recording data 5.4 Our Solar System 76 7.7 Dispersion 142
14 12.2 Conservation of energy 198
4 Drawing graphs 5.5 The Moon 78 7.8 Colour 144
16 12.3 Energy transfer: conduction 200
5 Analysis 5.6 Changing ideas 1: ancient astronomy 80 7.9 Looking at coloured objects 146
18 12.4 Energy transfer: convection 202
6 Evaluation 5.7 Changing ideas 2: geocentric model 82 7.10 Changing ideas about light 148
12.5 Energy transfer: radiation 204
5.8 Changing ideas 3: modern astronomy 84 7.11 The eye and the camera 150
Stage 7 12.7 Cooling by evaporation 206
5.9 Using planetary data 86 7.12 Review 152
E Energy
20
5.10 Review 88
8 Magnetisum
12.8 Review 208
1.1 What is energy? 90 13 Sound
Stage 7 review 8.1 The properties of magnets
22 154
1.2 Asking questions about energy 13.1 Loudness and amplitude 210
24 8.2 Magnetic fields 156
1.3 Energy types Stage 8 13.2 Pitch and frequency 212
26 8.3 Electromagnets 158
Energy transfer and dissipation
1.4
1.5 Gravitational potential energy and
E Forces
92
8.4 Using electromagnets 160
13.3
13.4
Hearing, decibels, and risk
Adding up and cancelling out
214
216
6.1 Speed
28 8.5 Risk, va ria bles, a nd ta ble:
kinetic energy Review
6.2 Precision and accuracy: what's the difference? 94 investigating electromagnets
13.5 218
30 162
1.6 Planning: pendulum motion 96
6.3 Distance-time graphs 8.6 Review 14 Electricity
32 164
1.7 Elastic potential energy 98
6.4 Acceleration and speed-time graphs 14.1 Current in series and parallel circuits
1.8 Review 34
6.5 Presenting data from racing 100 E Energy
14.2 Voltage in series and parallel circuits
220
222
9.1 The world's energy needs 166
E Forces
36
6.6 Balanced and unbalanced forces 102
104
9.2 Generating electricity 168
14.3 Resistance 224
2.1 Introduction to forces 6.7 Friction 14.4 Planning investigations: resistance of a wire 226
38 106
9.3 Non-renewable resources: fossil fuels 170
2.2 Gravity 6.8 Changing ideas about motion 14.5 Energy and power 228
40 9.4 Renewable resources: solar and geothermal 172
2.3 How 'old' is gravity? 6.9 Tension and upthrust 108
14.6 Review 230
42 9.5 Renewable resources: water and wind 174
2.4 Air resistance 6.10 Presenting data from springs 110
9.6 Renewable resources: biofuels 15 The Earth in space
2.5 Planning fair tests: streamlining 44 6.11 Levers 112
and bioplastics 176 15.1 The origin of the Universe 232
2.6 Round in circles 46 6.12 Calculating moments 114
9.7 Review 178 15.2 Collisions, asteroids, and mass extinctions 234
2.7 Review 48 6.13 Centre of mass and stability 116
10 The Earth in space 15.3 Collisions and the Moon 236
118
E Sound
50
6.14
6.15
Pressure
Using pressure 120 10.1 Galaxies 180
15.4 The life cycle of stars 238
3.1 Sound waves and how they travel 15.6 Review 240
6.16 Pressure in liquids 122 10.2 Asteroids 182
3.2 Detecting sounds 52
10.3 Stage 9 Review 242
6.17 Pressure in gases 124 Magnetic Earth 184
3.3 Echoes 54
Diffusion of gases and liquids 126 10.4 Review 186
3.4 Review 56 6.18
Stage 8 review Reference 244
6.19 Review 128 188
E Electricity
58
1
2
Choosing apparatus
Working accurately and safely
244
4.1 Charging up 246
4.2 Electric circuits 60 3 Using ammeters and voltmeters 248
4.3 Electric current 62 Glossary 250
4.4 Modelling electric circuits 64 Index 257

4.5 Dangers of electricity 66

4.6 Review 68
 Introduction

Thinking and working scientifically

Introduction Thinking and working scientifically is an important component of the curriculum framework.

How to use your Student Book

IB Planning: Pendulum motion Producing a testable hypothesis
Aditi and Diya discussthe antrjy stores and transfers associated with the
Backwards and forwards pendulum They producethishypothesis;Ho» tong the pendulum Hikes
'ion the length of the
A pendulum isan object that swings backwardsand forwards, like a child string. The longer the stnng, theless
or a swing, or a cai on a theme park ride. t will bebetween the height of the bob at the middle and the
end of Us swing A bob on a short string will therefore have more GPE when
'
1back for the same i sort win have more kinetic energy and go

Welcome to your Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Physics Student Book. This book has
faster
Objectives
This is a testable Hypothesis because you can collect data to see whether a
•Identify whether a giv« prediction based on the hypothesis is correct.

been written to help you study Physics at all three stages of the Cambridge Lower Secondary
hypothesis is testable

• Decide how many

measurements to take
Will’s plan
1 wU change iV* Itwflb of the string I will start -ith lo an And up b| $ m until I getI to 50 cm.
40
The time that it takes a pendulum to swingbackwardsand forwards once is I wU time tov long the pen&Aum itttt. to ewng 10 limes and divide the ttsuh bj 10 to 1 1ht period
•Present results clearly I wAlfcref to IM* of the bob the uiw and
$f1

Science curriculum framework.

called the period it lutt: the utw. amojnt rath hit*.
I vM o»i rntdH m 9 UMr )*t hi fuitpi
i The pendulum is Stationary at points A and B. it is moving fastest inch#
middle of the swing, at point C The period is the time that it takes to move
from A to B andback ogo'm
If you wanted to measure the period of a pendulum, you would measure

Most of the units in this book work like this:

the time with a stopclock or stopwocch (t (s very dHBcult to measure short I ll.lv( 'nrd otrt the oprcinmit

o
lengths of time accurately, so it it Important to make repeat measurements

Asking scientific question

xvxÿjsisa
• A Ao to thrre tinvs
T>

foe avrrAft lime

MVI 100 Oft.

*
Aditi and Dlya have made a pendulum Irom some string with a small
l»J\ pul fTff rtsuht m a »*W* u-yh (wO H»M ) Tinvt {,) Ti»« l»i Av.rSij. jiirt
on the end, called a bob.
a The period 0/0
the time from the centre, out Thcydecideloplanani'nvesb'gation Theyknowthatthofirstthingthay Each student has identified the variable that they are going to change and
iMHta to oneside, bock through need to do is to think what question they want to investigate the variablethat they are gorng to measure. They have explained how they
the centre, ovtte theother will control the other variables
side, ondboch to the centre.
Types of energy transfer iwrMr+WM
©X5ESB1

f
Energy stores and transfers MS? tuppra if tt UTMU

1.3 When we move, cook food, orturna light on, we transfer stored ertergyfrom
food and fuels. There are different ways of calculatingenergy. We describe
In a torch orflashlight, an electric
current transfersenergy from the
(0
vwrtmjrri,

1. Describe the best way to display results in an investigation.

• Ahypothcsisistestable
if you can collect data to
cheek* prediction.
Vou should always
* repeat
battery to the bulb.Electric kettles v"2. Writedown Hie type that Aditi and Oiya are
the situation associated with a calculation as an energy store.
measurements
Objectives use an electric current to heat water. They decide to investigate what factors affect the period of the pendulum
doing. to reduce the effect of
3. Explain why the hypothesis that they produced was testable. errors.
Energy is transferred from power This K the list of variables that they think might affect the period-
Everyday energy stores stations rather than from batteries •the lengthof the pendulum
4. Suggest a prediction that they couldmake based on their
•results
Vou should presentyour

• Describe different ways in When you

* exert
walk upstairs you A A Sl/TJ,pie
• the mass of the bob
hypothesis.
X s. Describewhat Diya did to makeherresults more accurate.
In a table, with a
heading and any units at

1 a force on your body.

whichenergycan be stored pendu n
.4
Food is a chemical store of energy. Energy is transferred when
• the distance that you pull the pendulum bob back 6. 0escribe one way in which Adid's plan is better than Diya’s plan. the top of each column.

• Give exa mples of situations

that involve different
We say that energy is stored
chemically in food and fuels We use
forces act on objects.
Energy can be transferred from
energy stores the energy stored chemically from the Sun ora candle in the fbim of light
food and in fuels to keep warm. Energy is also transferred by heating

Where are the types of

Food and fuels are not the only stores of energy. A change of position or
shape can store energy.
The Thinking and working scientifically units and features will help you learn:
energy?
A mother lifts her baby up from rw Musical instruments transfer

• how to understand and apply models and representations

You may be used to Where are the
saying ‘heat energy1, ‘light
the floor. Energy is transferred to a
7
,I energy to your ear as sound. Your transformations of
gravitational potential store, so this IJ vocal chords produce sound when
energy’, or ‘electrical
energy’. 4 7. energy is stored gravitationally . The * 6 you talk
energy?
Energy is not ‘transformed '
position of the baby or gravity store
Energy does not exist in
different forms or types. 4
has changed.
An electric current, light, sound, and forces cannot be stored. These are the
from one type to another.
Energy is a quantity, so is • the importance of asking scientific questions and planning how to answer them

n
It is a quantity that we transferred from one store
If you sit on a bed or a sofa the springs inside ways in which energy is transferred.
calculate. It can be stored
or transferred.
When we say ‘kinetic
energy' we mean
it are compressed Energy is transferred to
an elastic store, so this energy Is stored
elastically. Elastic bands and otherstretchy
Energy from the Sun
The Sun produces light and other types of radiation.
Why does the Sun shine? Inside the Sun a process
to another.

• how to carry out enquiries such as fair test investigations and field work
materials can also store energy elastically
• energy stored
called nuclear fusionis happeningall the time. The
Sun is a nuclear store of energy. Hydrogen atoms
how to analyse data, draw conclusions, and evaluate your enquiry.
kineticallyor
combine to form helium, and energy is released.
• energy
store.
in a kinetic
All moving objects store energy
kinetically A fast-moving car has
more energy in its kinetic store than (j • energy
There are different Questions which test your Thinking and working scientifically skills and knowledge are
a slow-moving car.
1. Write down two sources of chemical energy.
stores including
chemical, gravitational TWS . . . , ,, .
2. A child picks up a toy from the floor. Name the store that has gained
energy.
potential, elastic,kinetic,
thermal, and nuclear.
marked with this icon.
When fuels burn they heat up the air around 3. Describe the way energy is stored in a stretched elastic band.
them Energy is transferred to the thermal 4. A pendulum swings backwards and forwards. Writedown two of the • Energy is transferred

store of the air, so this energy is stored

thermally This is what is sometimes call
energy stores involved.
5. A student thinks that the Sun is a huge ball of fire that provides the
by heating, an electric
current, forces, and On pages 8-19 you will find a dedicated Thinking and working scientifically chapter which
energy for the Earth. Would you say that they are correct? Explain radiation including light
'heat1 There is more energy in the thermal
store of a hot object than of a cold object your answer. and sound.
introduces essential skills which will be useful throughout every stage of the curriculum
framework.

learning objectives for the unit. The learning objectives are

• Every page starts with theLower Science in context
linked to the Cambridge Secondary Science curriculum framework. 1

Science in context units will also

HOW •
Newton published his idea, colled the Lew of Gravitation, w book A few

Key words are marked in bold. You can check the meaning of these words in the glossary
years later Newlon's law was used to predict the existence of Neptune In

• Manypeople thought
obout the force holding
1846 the planet was discovered as predicted This was enough evidence
for many people to believe Newton s explanation help you learn:
the Moon in orbit Changing ideas about gravity
Objectives

at the back of the book.

When there is lots of evidence to support an idea it is usually accepted by

M*
before tsooc Newton
• Describe how scientific
‘‘"©wlcdge about gravity
has developed over time
other scientists, but <t may not be » complete explanation
Over the last >00 years, much more evidence about gravity his been
collected by By making predict ons and seeing if they match • how scientists throughout history and
At the end of each unit there are questions to test that you understand what you have
•Describe some reasons o6sarv*t*ns. scientist* such as Albeit Einstein andEdwinHubble bu«H
-
c co,«ery 'Neptune
why
change
scientific explanations on Newton s work We row know that the force of gravity is muc h more
completed than both Bhaskamchaiya and Newton predicted
confirmed1Newton* model
from around the globe developed
learned. The first question is straightforward and later questions are more challenging.
Scientists never stop asking questions Tht more we learn about gravity, the
more we can use it For example, scientists have sent satellites into space
using the gravitational forces of the Sun and planets to get there
theories, carried out research, and drew
The questions are written in the style of the Cambridge Checkpoint test, to help you prepare.
rrtintKtitfMfiii* aiw.

•I, Nearly 1000 years a go the Indian mathematician and astronomer

-3k
\ conclusions about the world around them
Answers are available in the Teacher Handbook which is available in print and digitally
via *»
Bhaskaracharya was hea d of an observatory inUjisin He studiedthe

•"*»'

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Kerboodle. * Thrsbvdfoncdsfwoforv was
-F? « JI face ot Vir *1« rc3'i*?C that aU '>l*ir.t tr;.n;e-t F
other objects •the force that we now call gravity. He also realised that if
the Earth attracted small objects towards it, then it would also attract big
The Voyager spec- Tt * - beer
•J9T7. •«* . « wi A In 1969, the luxperson loadedon thtMoon ondsow
how science is applied in everyday life
burttneoetyioOyeorsogo objects like the Moon Thisn the force,he thought, that keeps the Earth collecting daioabout the outer ptooets owow of theZorth thathodneverbeen seen before
planets, and Moon m oibit

• The key points to remember from the unit are also summarised here. Evidence from obiervatlon
Bhaskaracharyi couldn't do any experiments to test his idea He made
observations 0/ the world around him,and used theevidence from hd
observations to come up with an explanation 1
I
Qxnstiona
1- What did Bhaskaracfiarya think held the Moon the same distance
from the Earth as it goes a rou nd the Eart h?
• Newevidencefrom
observations can
support ideas or models.
• Newevidenca
how issues involving physics are
These units cover the Physics topics in the Cambridge Lower Secondary Science curriculum evaluated
In Europe 500 years late'. Sir Isaac Newton thought about the same 2. Describe how Newton knew that there has to be a force acting on can also
questions He knew that a movingobject would only change
direction rf scientists
prompt to
a force acted on it. and the Moonhad to keep 3. Oescribe one e between Bhaskaracharya’s ideas about dcwilop new models
changing direction to stay
mort* around the Earth Newton reofoed that a force must be actingon the gravity and Newton's ideas about gravity.
4. Give one reason why Newton's law of gravitation was accepted.
• The new models are
Moontomake it dotfas. LAeBhaskarachalya. hesaw that Objects talltowards then testedbymaking
the Earth and wondered if the same force that made them fall kept the Moon from 5. Giveone reason why peoplemightnothave believed predictions.

framework. drifting off into space He developed a mathematic*|model to describe

gravity.
the force of
Bhaskaracharya or Newton when they said that there is a force
on the Earth due to the Sun.
Wt. Suggest why understanding of gravity is notyel complete.
• People may find some
ideas in science difficult
to believe. the global impact of the use of physics.
In addition, many of the units help you think and work scientifically, put science in context,
prepare for the next level, and test your knowledge.

'i
 r
introduction

Reference
Extension
At the back of this book, on pages 244-249, there are reference pages providing further
Throughout this book there are lots of opportunities to learn even more about physics, beyond information that will help you while you study.
the curriculum framework. These units are called Extension because they extend and develop
your science skills further. Reference Referent#

Using ammeters and voltmeters Using an analogue voltmeter

You can tell when a question or part of a unit is Extension because it is marked with a 3 Measuring current and voltage
A voltmeter measures the voltage. You might want to find the voltage across
a component such as a lamp. To do this you place the voltmeter in parallel 'i
\

dashed line, like the one on the left. In your experiments with electrical circuits you will measure current and with the lamp.

—
voltage using meters. There are two types of meter: analogue and digital.
• Analogue meters have a needle that moves and shows the current on
a scale.
Like an ammeter, a voltmeter needs to be connected the right way round.
This is how you connect the voltmeter into a circuit with a cell or battery, a
lamp, and a switch.
gassj,
.
1

\
Extension • Digital meters have a display of numbers. A digital meter is usually 1. Disconnect the cell or open the switch.

BH
r the centre of tire
Round in circles .alright angles to the a multimeter, which means that you can use it to measure current
2. Follow the wire from the negative terminal of the cell until you get to
idthe object or voltage. A An analogue voltmeter.
A force that changes direction the lamp. Do not disconnect the lamp but plug another lead into the
of an object
i
:the Sun The Moonorbits Using an analogue ammeter terminal on that side of the lamp.
Objectives Ammon is pushing a trolley Thedia The Earth alsohas artificial
to the trolley i and for studying the
An ammeter measures the current, You might want to find the current 3. Connect the other end of this lead to the black terminal on your voltmeter.
Desc ri be what i s m eant by » A satelliteneeds the forceiofgrovityto
* The trolley will movem a straight line Butwhatwill happen ifEbom ‘of the Earth stay in orbit around (fie Boirth flowing through a component such as a lamp. To do this you place the
a centripetal force pushes Irom the side? The force will change the direction of the motion
ammeter in series with the lamp. 4. Use another lead to connect the other side of the lamp to the red
• Explain why some objects The trolley will start to move in a circle

\
around the Earth s provided by the force of gravity. It is gravity that also
move in circles
keeps the planets and asteroids in ortnt around the Sun, and keeps moons
* %•>
terminal of the voltmeter.

kifo
Explain why some objects in orbit around other planets, such as Jupiter. Communication and
* move in or lx Is other satellite systems.
like GPS. havechanged h Connecting meters
\ peoples' Hves, usually for

A the better.
However, there are lots A I
A An ammeter connected to a
circuit with a cell or battery,
You connect an ammeter in series, and a voltmeter in parallel. It is
important not to connect an ammeter in parallel with a component, or

«3. :
of old satellitesand other
♦ space 'junk' now orbiting a lamp, anda switch. directly across a battery or cell. The resistance of the ammeter is very small
/ (he Earth. They pose a
so a very large current would flow that could damage the ammeter and A voltmeter connected to a
4ÿ/
/ risk to other satellites or
when they eventually fall drain the cell.
A
circuit with a cell or battery,
to the Earth?
( a lamp, and a switch.

»
Centripetal force
One of the throwing events in athletics is the hammer throw The hammer
The resistance of a voltmeter is very, very high. If you connect it in series
thrower swings the hammer, a bigmetal ball, around her head ona wire, For most components in a circuit it does not matter which way round you rather than in parallel no current will flow in the circuit.
and then lets it go A An analogue ammeter. connect them. This is not true for an ammeter. It needs to be connected
t as the hammer thrower ts swinging
so that, if you follow the wires back to the battery or cell, the wire in the Using a multimeter
moving In direction x In your second St mW •***'
.« Faction between the tyres black terminal on the ammeter is connected to the negative terminal of the You can use a multimeter to measure current or voltage.
androadmens alam to
moke a car go around a is a force on the ball from the tension battery. The wire in the redterminal should be connected to the positive
corner m the wire, which has changed tlw
direction of motion
•» The force that keeps
* something movlngino terminal of the battery. The multimeter has a dial that you turn to select current (A or mA) or voltage
1. Write down what is mea nt by centripetaI force.
to keep a cyclist moving on an arc ol a circletsthe centripetal (V). You select whether you want to measure a large current (10 A) or a small

“Sc
If she lets go olthe ball then it willmove 2. A centripetal force Is
in a direction that is a tangent to (he
This is how you connect the ammeter into a circuit with a cell or battery, a
• Thecentrlpetalforcecan current. Some examples of how to connect a multimeter are shown below.
circle
; the Moon in orbit around the Earth, provided by
be forces lamp, and a switch.
a. Name the force that I
Aforce that keeps an object moving.n a circle is called a centripetal force such as gravity, friction,
(rpm.
a.acfl]
:
1. Disconnect the cell or open the switch.
• For the boll on the wire 1 force is provided by the tension in
4.
would happen to the Moon.
Astudent says that there cannot be any force acting on a satellite • Planets,smoons,in orbit
and If
a
I
- IImores mo circle
'Cause the wire putts on
aball
•For carsbetween
on a curve on the road, the centripetal force
friction the tyres and the road
is provided by
answer. _
if it is moving at a steady speed in orbit Is she right? E*plaln your
?
stay
of gravity,
2. Follow the wire from the negative terminal of the celluntil you get to the
lamp. Disconnect the lead from the lamp.
3. Plugthat lead into the black terminal on yourammeter. turn the dial
to 20 V
4. Use another lead to connect the lamp to the red terminal of the turn the dial to 10 A
ammeter. red terminal for
,11* I readlng
' - -'WJ1!
Extension units will not be part of your assessment, but they will help you prepare for moving
.

M
big current
An analogue meter may have two different scales. Start by connecting it i red terminal for red terminal for
up using the red terminal labelled with the higher value of current. If the IfisL F small current G'— <S>— H— black
voltage
I

onto the next stage of the curriculum and eventually for Cambridge IGCSE Physics.
ilv
black terminal i black terminal terminal
ammeter does not show a current in your circuit using that scale, then move /
the lead to the terminal with the lower value of current. A Using a multimeter to measure A Using a multimeter to measure Using a multimeter to measure
a big current a small current
A
voltage. _
248
249

Review
At the end of every chapter and every stage there are review questions. They include information on:
• how to choose suitable apparatus
________
n* forth rtifp*.*

Review d. A needle shows north by 9. An astronomer usesa telescope to look at some

4. a. Give the name of the force that pulled together

• how to work accurately and safely

lining up w.th the Earth s magnetic astronomical objects
stellar dust and gas to produce asteroids 11]
10.4 b. Match each oibject in thetable below with
the correct diefinition by giving the letters
field Whatwould happen .(you were
tiying to use a compass near a large
piece of lodestone1 HI
a. Space probes have been sentto investigate
the planets of the Solar System They have
gathered information about the surface, the
and the numbers.

• how to use ammeters and voltmeters.

1 Copy a nd com piste !h ese sentences using the 7. An; ■
uses a telescope to look atsome
and the magnetic held strength.
" ' ' . You ni ay n eed to u se the wo rds A Asteroid 1 A smaller piece of rock
once, more then once or not at all thachasenteredthe „i of Ihe i
I a Suggestwhichoftheobjectsisan
Earth's atmosphere ID gravitational fields and magnetic fields
gas rock planetary asteroid compared with those of theEarth
galactic B Meteoroid 2 A large piece of rock
■
_
t IMIHUW 4l
a. A galaxy contains stellar dust lc 3 A piece of rock that
.ii'.'.:
systems

«. The Universecontains
stars, and

b. A galaxy contains-ofstais

-
T21
111

[1]
D
■
I reaches the ground
(is not burnt upinthe
l latme.r: - —
Meteorite 4 A smaller piece ol rock
thathas broken off from
I mm:-
■
Earth
Mars
(Rock
'Rock
•

■
0.09

J.00
0.37 0
|

1.0

ol galaxies 19519
I1) [o
2. Give the letters ofthe true statements 5. The Earth has a magnetic field Give an

.
explanation for the origin of this magnetic j£E--l 0 VO

0.87
578
48

4
U)
B 5ters<
I:
| I Neptune Gas 27
«. The Earth has a magnetic field shaped asilit had
c Our galaxy is called Andromeda a bar magnet through its centre i. Suggest a fink between what the planet
is made of andthe magnetic field
D Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy. strength [i]

3. Here is a diagram of ihe solersystem ID ii. Suggests possible reason forlhe link In
b, Explain your answer to part a
part i using what you knowabout the
c. Give the names ofthe two plane ets that probable cause of the Earth's magnetic
are likely to be either side of the field and about particle theory
[2]
(Him: remember what you learned
8. Hereisallstofastrc M
2

a. Give the number ofthe asteroid belt

MR' / i
A an asteroid in ourSolarSystem
B the Andromeda galaxy
a planet around a star calledPronina Centaun
b. At
rgs betweenj
*.
Iheld strength and

C i. Suggest and explain which type of graph

b Give one similarity between an O a star in our galaxy called Pegasi theyshould plot 12]
asteroid and a planet ID
a. Copy the diagram ofthe Earth unth a E Jupiter. ii. Explain why it wouldbe difficult to plot
c. Give one difference between an bar magnet at the centre and label the points for magnetic field strength fl]
a. Give the letters of two things that were
asteroid and a planet. ID the poles of the imaginary magnet ID madefromthesamegasanddust [1] Hi. Do you expect to see a link between
d. Give one reason to expect that other b. Explain yourchoice of labels ID b. Give the letters ofobjectsthat are the magnetic and gravitational field
solar systems in our galaxy have strength1Explain your answer 12]
c. Add arrows to the magnetic field lines. [II roughly spherical ID
asteroids. ID c. Space probes have observed auroras on other
c. Give the letters of objects that were
Suggestand explain whichones [21
ID

These questions are written in the style ofthe Cambridge Checkpoint test. They are there to
help you review what you have learned in that chapter or stage. Answers to these questions are
available in the Teacher Handbook. The Teacher Handbook is available in print or digitally via
Kerboodle.
 f
Thinking and working scientifically
! Thinking
and working Asking questions In some situations, scientists design an experiment to try to answer their
question. To be sure of the answer, they must make it a fair test. In a fair In a fair test, you change
the independent variable,
scientifically How do scientists answer questions?
test, the scientists change one variable to find out what effect it has, and
measure the dependent
they are careful to keep all the other variables the same.
We can ask lots of different questions about the world. Why does the battery variable, and keep all the

1 last longer in some mobile phones than others? What might mobile phones
be like in the future? Which mobile phone is best?
The quantity that you change is the independent variable. A quantity that
changes as a result is called a dependent variable.
other variables the same.
The other variables are
called control variables.
•There are questions that science can answer Making a model
Objectives •There are questions that science answer.
cannot
Sometimes it is not possible to do a practical investigation to answer a
f What t'lp&s of food >L
question - maybe what you are looking at is too big or small or dangerous l do chimpanzees
• Recognise that there are What makes a question ‘scientific’? to experiment on. Scientists can also make models. As well as helping to
many ways to find answers Scientists make observations and ask questions such as, ‘How do fossil answer the question, a model can also be used to predict or to explain. Two
to questions in science fuels form?’ or ‘Why are there are so many different animals on Earth?’ types of model are a physical model and a computer model.
These are scientific questions.
• Understand how to decide
on a question to investigate A scientific question is a question that you can answer by collecting and
•mayphysical
A model is useful for very large-scale or small-scale
have used a physical model of the Earth and the Sun to
You
systems.
explain why
thinking about data. Data can be numbers from measurements, or words we have day and night.
• Understand that there
are some questions that
science cannot answer
from observations.
• A computer model uses a computer program to find answers. ▲ Thulani’s question can
be answered by making
Hypotheses and predictions Field study lots of observations of
chimpanzees in their natural
When they have a question, scientists may produce a hypothesis. A A field study is an investigation into plants or animals in their natural habitat. She would collect
Part of making a prediction hypothesis is a scientific theory or proposed explanation made on the basis habitat. When doing fieldwork, it is important that you make observations data and then choose the
is to think about what of evidence that can be further tested. A prediction is what you think will without affecting what you are looking at. best way to display it.
might happen if your happen in the future. Scientists base their predictions on a hypothesis. Then
hypothesis is wrong. Your they do an investigation or make further observations to collect data to see A survey or regular observations or measurements
investigation should be if their prediction is correct. Which country uses the
To answer some questions, a scientist might make lots of observations or
able to show the difference most fuel?
between a correct and •Awrite
hypothesis is testable if you can: measurements, or do a survey. They might do this over a long time, or all
a

an incorrect hypothesis. •collect data

prediction based on the hypothesis
a at the same time but in different locations. Sometimes a scientist uses data

Your conclusion will say • see whether your prediction is

to correct. that other scientists have collected before.
whether the evidence
supports, or does not Types of investigation Questions that science can’t answer
support, your hypothesis. Scientists do investigations to collect data. There are lots of different types Scientists cannot answer every question. They cannot answer questions ▲ Mosi’s question couldbe
of investigation, for example: about opinions, or questions for which the answer does not depend on data. answered by collecting
data from lots of different
"'How does the- tjpe of •amaking
fair test •observations
a survey or of
set Science cannot answer Sanaa’s question.
countries and comparing
games I affect the
•a field study
a model over time. It could tell you:
them.
battery life of mÿ mobile
v phone? • •which phone battery lasts longest

C' J
Fair testing •which phone access web pages fastest.
can
In science, anything that might change during an experiment is called a But an investigation, a field study, observations, or a model will not tell you
variable. The thing that you deliberately change to see whether it affects which phone is best. This is because different people will have different
the outcome of the experiment is a variable. Anything that is affected as a opinions about what is important: some people want a big screen, some
result of your change is also a variable. people want a good camera, some people want a tough case.

A Subira’s question can be

answered by doing a fair A Science cannot answer
test. Sanaa’s question.

8
 r Thinking and working scientifically

Thinking Risk assessments

and working Planning and carrying out A plan should also include a risk assessment. This explains how you will

scientifically investigations reduce the chances of:

•injury
damage equipment
to
How do scientists get the data they need to find the answer to a scientific
• people.
2 question? They need to make a plan to collect accurate and precise data.

Planning fair tests

to

Risk depends on the probability of the damage or injury happening, and the
consequence if it did. You can reduce risk by:

Objectives Before carrying out a fair test, you should make a plan. This helps to make
sure that you have all the equipment you need to get useful results, and that
•wrong
reducing the probability of something going
(e.g. keeping glass objects away from the
•reducing the consequence if something goes
wrong (e.g. wearing safety goggles).
you do not forget to do something, or do anything dangerous. edge of the desk)
• Describe how to plan a Sometimes risks appear very small. You should still note them and say that
fair test
Selecting equipment they are not significant when you write your plan.
• Describe how to plan other You need to select equipment that enables you to make measurements of You should know the meaning of any hazard symbols, and considerthem
types of investigation
your independent and dependent variables. You may also need equipment when you are planning your investigation.
that will help you to control the other variables.
▲ Hazard symbols for
You should think about which equipment is most appropriate and how What should a plan include? flammable (left) and
to use it appropriately. For example, you may need to decide whether a Your plan should include:
corrosive substances (right).
measuring cylinder or a beaker is better for measuring volume, or how to
AA
; ; measure length accurately. •the scientific question that are trying
you to answer
•the
your prediction: what you think will happen
•the
why you have chosen do fair
to a test
•how will the equipment, by
list of the equipment you will need
i
• listindependent and dependent variables
•collect
you use step step, to

1/
Accurate and precise data
The measurements you make in an investigation are called data.
•and theof variables
a control, how you will do that,
to accurate and precise data
A/ / f ? y v, \ \ \\1 values each variable will have
control
•how you will record
your results
i r — It is important to collect data that is accurate and precise. •your hypothesis: the scientific
base your conclusion
which
reason on to
• a risk assessment, even if the risk very low.
is
A You should look straight at
a scale to make an accurate Accurate data are close to the true value of what you are trying to measure.
measurement.
Planning other investigations
Precise data give similar results if you repeat the measurements. The repeat
Not all investigations are fair tests. Some questions are better answered
measurements in each set are grouped closely together. Precision is also
using a field study, making observations, or using secondary data.
determined by the smallest division of the measuring instrument you are using.

(D ®
Secondary data have been collected by other people. If you are planning to
Reliability use secondary data you need to be confident that:
You need to be confident that your data is reliable when you make a
•the
the information is reliable
not accurate
not precise
accurate
not precise
conclusion. Data is reliable if you have taken enough measurements. How
many are enough?
• observations are accurate.

<§) <§) •variable.

need have
You to a big enough range of values of the independent What should a plan for other investigations include?
The range is the difference between the biggest and smallest There are some similarities in the plans for fair tests and other
values. If your range is not large enough you may realise after the investigations. You should include:
investigation that you cannot be confident in your conclusion.
not accurate accurate

• •the scientific question that you are trying answer

to
•your hypothesis: the scientific reason on which to
precise precise
Readings can be precise but
You need to repeat your measurements. We usually make three repeat
measurements for every value of the independent variable. You can do
•why you are
•observations
using this type of investigation base your conclusion
A
still not accurate. fewer, or more.
how you are collecting precise and reliable data or
•the listprediction:
your what you think your data will show

• You need to deal with anomalous results. An anomalous result is a

•using it of secondary information, if you are
the sources
• of the equipment you will need, if you are
doing it yourself
measurement that is very different from the others in a set of repeat
measurements and might be a mistake. •a risk assessment, even if the risk is very low.
0
 r Thinking and working scientifically

Thinking When you have finished the repeated measurements, you should:
and working Collecting and recording data
scientifically •Checkcanfor any anomalous results. erase them.Do not
How do scientists collect and record the data that they need to answer
scientific questions?
•the other thea line through it and
You repeat
two put
measurement, if one is very different from
and ignore it. Use your new

3 Using tables
Measurements are easier to understand if they are in a clear table.
•
measurements.
When you are confident that you do not have any anomalous results,
calculate the average (mean) of the measurements.

Write the name of the Write the name of the

• To calculate the mean you add up the all the repeats and divide by the
number of repeats.
Objectives
variable you change X y variable you observe
or compare in box X. If (units) (units) or measure in boxY. For example, three students find the time it takes to draw a table. Jamil
• Describe how to record it is something you can
measure, add its units.
I | If you are measuring
it, add the right units.
takes 75 seconds, Abiola takes 35 seconds, and Karis takes 73 seconds.
data from a range of
investigations Abiola’s result is anomalous because it is very different from the others.
AS Use one line for each Jamil and Karis find out why. Abiola’s table is very messy. She did not use a
• Describe howto deal with NR
test you plan to do. ruler. They decide to leave it out of the mean. The mean is (75 s +73s)/2 = 74s.
anomalous results I kept these variables the
same to make it a fair test: Your average should be rounded up to the same number of decimal places
• Describe how to calculate Write the names of any
variables you control
as in the data.
the mean (average) e.g. volume of water = 50 cm3
under the table, and
add their values. y
(units)
Draw boxes for three
(units)
Using the correct units i 2 3 Average /U results for each test,
and an average value.
If you use the wrong units for your measurements, your calculations will be \n If a result looks
anomalous, repeat it.
wrong.

ra Recording measurements and calculated quantities

There are some experiments where you will need to calculate quantities
degrees grams
centimetres using the measurements you have made.
Celsius cubic
rr i r
*
uuli:
minutes
and seconds
centimetres
K 1 2 3 5 In this situation, you should make another column in yourtable.

x Result 1 Result 2 'ÿ Average

Draw boxes for three
r-i-i = millimetres (units) (units) (units) (units) (units)
sets of measurements,
three calculated values,
The units of The units of The units of The units of The units of and an average. If a
temperature include time include volume include mass include length include vn result looks anomalous,
degrees Celsius (°C). seconds (s), cubic centimetres (cm3) grams (g), millimetres (mm), repeat it.
minutes (min), and kilograms (kg), centimetres (cm),
and hours (h). cubic decimetres (dm3) and tonnes (t). metres (m),
and kilometres (km).
Recording observations
Recording repeat measurements and calculating the mean In investigations where you are recording your observations, you need
In most fair tests you should find the value of the dependent variable more to adapt your table. In some cases, you may want to include images or
than once, and usually three times. This is a repeat measurement. You diagrams, so the boxes in your table should be large enough to include them.
should record all your repeat measurements in your results table, always to
the same number of decimal places.
 Thinking and working scientifically
Thinking
and working Drawing graphs Line graphs and scatter graphs
If you collect continuous
scientifically How do you know which type of graph to plot? What is the best way to plot
Drawing a line graph data in a fair test
A line graph makes it easier to see the link between two continuous investigation, you are trying
graphs? The way that you display the results of your investigation depends

4 on the type of data that you have collected.

Types of data
variables - the independent variable and the dependent variable.
The number of points
above and below the line of
best fit should be equal.
to find out how one variable
affects the other. You will
usually plot a line graph.
lfthevalu,es of the variable you change (x) are words, then x is a categoric In other investigations, you
variable. There is no logical order, like size, for the categories. Names are 100
Objectives
one example. Write the name of 1 80 Draw a smooth line of best fit.
may be trying to see if there
is a relationship between
the dependent variable 1 It could be straight or curved.
• Describe howto decide
which graph to plot
Variables like shoe size are discrete variables. They are numbers, but there
(the variable you observe
or measure) on the y-axis,
60 two variables. You will
are no in-between sizes. The number of paper clips in a pot or people in a and add the correct units. f, 40 Use a neat pencil
usually plot a scatter graph.
OJ
cross for each point.
• Describe howto draw a bar
graph and a
room are discrete variables.
Make sure the
"
J
20
chart, a line You can only draw a bar chart or a pie chart for data that include categoric numbers on each axis o A line graph shows the link
scatter graph are evenly spaced. 0 2 4 6 10 Write the name of
or discrete variables. the independent variable
between two variables. You
time (weeks)
(the variable you change should draw a line of best
• Describe howto draw a line Other variables are continuous variables. Their values can be any number. Write the x values or compare) on the x-axis, fit. This is a line that goes
of best fit and add the correct units.
Height, temperature, and time are continuous variables. on the lines.
through as many points
If the variables you change and measure are both continuous variables, ▲ Use a line graph for continuous variables when you think there is a link as possible with roughly
display the results on a line graph or scatter graph. between them. equal numbers of points
either side of the line.
Pie charts and bar charts Drawing a scatter graph
Time spent on poster Time spent on A scatter graph shows whether there is a correlation between two A correlation does not
Student
(minutes) homework (hours) continuous variables. In the graph below, all the points lie close to a mean that one variable
Deepak 24 2.5 straight line. That means there is a correlation between them. If there is no affects the other one.
Jamila 54 4.5 correlation between the variables, then the points would be scattered all Something else could
Kasim 12 2.0 over the graph. make them both increase
60 X or decrease at the same
Deepak, Jamila, and Kasim research and design a poster together.
58 Add a straight cx time. For example, if you
Deepak The table shows the time that each of them
spends. The pie chart drawn line of best fit. X X X plotted the number of
Jamila from the results helps you to see who did the most work on their project. I56- ice creams sold in a town

<
Kasim each day against the
Pie charts are useful for showing fractions of a whole. When you want to o> 54- X
Use a neat pencil
CD
x XXX number of people going to
show data that do not add together, a bar chart is better. cross for each point.
▲ Time spent on homework. I 52 :x the town swimming pool
50 XX X
that day, you would see
Write the name of 6 Make sure the numbers
the variable you observe are evenly spaced. x a correlation. This does

p si
Put the bars in
or measure on the y-axis, order of height 48 not mean that getting
and add the correct units. 140 150 160 170
wet makes people eat ice
II
I2
Leave gaps
between the bars,
height (cm)
cream, or that eating ice
Write they values on !! cream makes people go
the lines, evenly spaced. Start just below Choose intervals that make
0
Only start at zero if your Kasim Deepak Jamila
your lowest value. the graph easy to plot. swimming. It probably
values are close to zero.
/\ students /U Write the name of the means that on hot days
variable you change A A scatter graph will show you if there is a correlation between two
more people want to go
\J j compare on the x-axis
or continuous variables.
► Time spent producing a Write the x values swimming and to eat ice
in the spaces.
poster together. cream.
 r Thinking and working scientifically
Thinking
and working Analysis Line or scatter graphs will be different if there is no relationship or
correlation between the variables.
scientifically You may get a horizontal line in a fair test investigation if changing the
Analysing the evidence independent variable has no effect on the dependent variable. B ”5”

5 When you analyse the evidence that you have collected (yourself or from
secondary sources) you should:

•display
describe the trends or patterns that you have worked out from the
Identifying anomalous results
When you recorded your data, you may have identified points that did not fit A
of your data (a graph, chart, or other display) the pattern. You may have ignored them, or repeated the measurement.
In this graph, if A increases B
Objectives •identify any anomalous results, and suggest reasons for them
i

• whether there limitations conclusion

make a conclusion by interpreting the results • should
You these points
identify now. does not change.

• Describe howto do an • whether prediction

say are any to your •are anomalous
might
You points
see
results.
close
that are not line of best fit. They
to your too
analysis of an investigation
• say your was correct
• should think of possible reasons why they might have
You occurred.
• Describe the relationship
shown by different lines of
•conclusion.hypothesis
use your scientific knowledge explain your
or other to

Writing your conclusion B

best fit on graphs
Finding trends or patterns in graphs and charts A conclusion states what you have found out. You should also think about
the limitations to your conclusion. Your conclusion may be limited if:
The bar chart shows how much sugar dissolves in water at different
temperatures in a certain time. We only have descriptions of the
•the
you had lots of anomalous results A

@35 temperature, not numbers, so the results are categoric.

•yourlinedataof bestlimited
fit
is not clear A In this graph, there is no
Jj &
H
30
g 25 You can describe the trend by saying: •investigated in
is terms of the range of variables that you correlation between A and B.

I1 1520 ‘As the temperature of the water increases, the mass of sugar that dissolves
•your data limited
was in terms of the number of results that you collected. If points are scattered
•s-l
IS £ 10
increases.’ everywhere on a graph
Checking your prediction of two variables, it shows
Ejjj 5 This is sometimes called the relationship between the variables.
o that they do not affect
cold warm hot
When you have found the pattern, you need to check the prediction you
Line or scatter graphs show relationships between continuous variables. When each other.
water temperature made and say whether it was correct. You should look carefully at the
you have plotted the points on a line or scatter graph, draw a line of best fit.
A Massofsugarwhich extent to which the evidence (data and observations) supports or refutes
dissolves in water at In the graphs below the line of best fit is shown, but not the points. (disproves) your prediction.
different temperatures.
Explaining your conclusion I think that the powdered
Finally, suggest scientific reasons for any relationship or correlation sugar dissolved faster than
B B differences that you have found. You could refer back to your hypothesis, or the normal sugar because
other scientific knowledge. the pieces were much
< smaller

A A
A In these graphs, if A A In these graphs, if A t think that the shoe on the carpet
increases then B increases increases then B decreases needed a bigger force to move it than
the shoe on the wooden floor because I think that the plant near the
there was more friction between the shoe window grew more quickly than
N. and the carpet. the plant awa>( from the window
because there was more sunlight
X. there.
 r
Thinking and working scientifically

Thinking •Random errors - these can affect the spread, or cause anomalous
and working Evaluation results. An example is the temperature of the room suddenly changing
because someone opens a door.
scientifically After you have collected your data, plotted a graph, written a conclusion,
and explained what happened using scientific knowledge, you need to
•Systematic errors - these can make your measurements less accurate.
An example is a newtonmeter reading 1N even when there is nothing

6 evaluate your investigation.

An evaluation is done in three stages:
attached to it.

Evaluating the methods

• evaluate the quality of the data
When you planned your investigation, you chose the measuring instruments I don't think I took theÿN.
Objectives
- • evaluate the methods you used
and the methods of using them to collect your data. You should look back at
/ measurements of the volume \

• suggest improvements to the method.

those choices and describe:
l
\
vepf accurateÿ because I did
not look
J
directly at the scaleÿ/
• Describe how to evaluate If you were to do the investigation again, the improvements should make
data that you have
collected
you more confident in your conclusion. •the extent to which the equipment enabled you to collect data that was
accurate and precise

• Describe how to evaluate Evaluating the data •the extent to which the methods enabled you to collect data that was
accurate and precise
methodsthat you have Are there anomalous results?
used When you look at your data tables and graphs, you can see how many Suggesting improvements
• Describe improvements anomalous results you had. This is why you do not erase the anomalous Suggesting improvements is not about making the experiment easier or
that you can make to results in your results tables. quicker.
improve the quality of the Anomalous results can limit your conclusions. They can also reduce the Any improvements that you suggest should be designed to improve the
data confidence that you have in your conclusion.

w
quality ofyour data, because that would mean:

What is the spread? •there are fewer limitations to your conclusion f l think we could have videoed \
The spread is between the smallest and the biggest values of repeated • you would be more confident in your conclusion. [ the falling object so we could ]
V have played the video to see J

SB
measurements. When you repeated the experiment, were the results close \. where it was.
How do I get better data with the same equipment?
together (small spread) or far apart (large spread)? A smaller spread means
that you can have more confidence in any conclusion based on your data. You may improve the quality of the data by:

•eliminating systematic errors

What is the range and number of values?
•including
reducing the effect of any random errors
A Evaluating means working jp,e range of the variables that you have investigated is the difference
•doing morebigger range
a
out what is good and what is between the smallest and the largest values. If the range is large, then you •repeating any readings that
repeat
not so good.
can be more confident of your conclusion. • measurements gave anomalous results.

You should collect enough data points to feel confident that you have
What other equipment would help?
correctly identified the trend or pattern. Two would not be enough.
Some types of equipment produce more precise and accurate data than
others. You may need to do some research to find out.
Were there systematic or random errors?
There is uncertainty in any measurement that you make. This is one of the
reasons why there is usually a spread in experimental data.
•Using light measure speed produces more
gates to
measurements than clicking stopwatch by hand.
a
accurate

You should think about possible errors, as well as any anomalous •measurements
Using a
measuring cylinder measure volume produces more
to
than using beaker.
a
accurate

results and the spread, to help you to decide how confident you are in
your conclusion. There are two types of error that can affect scientific
• balance that measures
Using a
precise measurement.
decimal places produces
to more a more

measurements.

pj
 w Energy

What is energy? Activity Energy (kJ) for each minute of activity

You need energy

sitting
standing
6
7
Q
washing, dressing 15
You need energy from food to walk, run, or
walking slowly 13
ride your bike. Energy from fuels is needed for
Objectives transport and to produce electricity. The idea
cycling 25
of energy helps us explain what can happen, \ playing football 59
• Describe where we get our but not why things happen. For example, fuel f swimming 73
energy from allows a car to move, but that doesn’t tell you
where it will go. But the concept of energy tells
• Know the unit of energy you that without fuel the car cannot move.
A It takes a lot of fuel to t
launch a rocket into space. Your brain uses energy to
The more active you are, the more energy you need. Athletes need lots of A

energy. People who take on the challenge of walking to the North or South learn.
What is the unit of energy?
Pole need even more energy, because as well as walking and carrying their
Energy is not an actual substance that moves from one object to another. It is a
food they need lots of energy to keep warm.
way of keeping track of a very important quantity, a bit like money.

The unit of energy is the joule (J). One joule is a very small amount of Energy balance
energy, so we often use kilojoules (kJ). 1kJ = 1000 J.
An adult should take in only as much energy as they need for the activities
Different foods store different amounts of energy. that they do. If they take in more energy than they need, their body stores “ /

\,
>ÿÿ<ÿ••• ",
t&S J Food | Energy (kJ) per 100 g of food
it as fat for future use. If they eat less than they need, then the body will use
energy from its store of fat and they will lose weight.
w** „ banana 340
1
H
beans 400 V
i '£**>*"-•* Energy in fuels c
rice 500
Food is not the only energy store - fuels such as coal, oil, or wood also
cooked chicken 800 provide us with stored energy that we can use. One kilogram of wood stores
The energy stored in chocolate 1500 a similar amount ofenergy
packaged food is usually We can burn wood or coal to heat a room or to cook food. Ifweusean to 1kg of chocolate.
shown on the nutrition label. For a [ong tjme a unjt called a kilocalorie (kcal)was used for the energy electric kettle, then the energy needed to boil the water is transferred by
stored in food (1kcal = 4.2 kJ). People called it a ‘calorie’ for short and you electricity. The energy used to generate this electricity may have been
still often see the kilocalorie content of foods on labels. stored in a fuel such as coal or oil.

How does your body use energy?

Flow much energy do you need each day? It • We use the energy
depends on what activities you do. stored in food for all
our activities and to
All activities have an energy cost. Keeping 1. Name three fuels. stay alive.
your body warm, breathing, moving, and
talking all need energy. Children need
2.
3.
Give two reasons why your body needs energy when you are asleep.
Calculate the number of joules in 200 kJ.
• Energy is measured in
joules or kilojoules.
energy to grow bigger bones, muscles, and
brains.
4. Explain why it is important for young children to take in more energy
than they need for the activities they do each day.
• The energy in the food
someone eats should
About three-quarters of the energy that 5. Calculate the number of minutes that you would need to cycle to use equal the energy they
you need every day is for processes in your up the energy in 100 g of chocolate. need.
body like breathing. You then need more
energy for all the other activities that you
Running or playing can use A Your body needs 300 kJper
A do such as walking, running, or lifting
3500 kJ per hour. hour to sleep.
things.

[ij
 p
Energy

Asking questions: Energy "Which fuelÿ

CD
* heats up water Ask a question:
vthe fastest? . Which fuel heats up water the fastest?
Asking questions
Chima is interested in the energy stored in fuels and food. He asks his
friends what they would like to know. Make a prediction:
Solid fuels store more energy so will heat up water
▲ Lumusi faster than fuels that are gases or liquids.
Which citj uses There must be a
Objectives the most coal? Lumusi can answer her question by doing a fair different explanation.
test investigation. She can use different fuels to
Test the prediction:
heat some water, and time how long it takes the
• Recognise that there are
water to reach a certain temperature. Then she can
Do an experiment to measure the time that it takes
candle wax, ethanol, and gas to heat 50 cm3
many ways to find answers of water from 20 °C to 50 °C.
to questions in science ▲ Sanaa use the data to find out which fuel heats water the
' Should we use- ' A Mosi
fossil fuels fo cook fastest.
• Understand how toanswered
decide if v our food? >
She will need to control:
a question can be Check the evidence:
Are the times for the solid fuels shorter than the
with a fair test investigation • how much water is used times for fuels that are liquids or gases? NO
Which fuel is What tÿpes of food
• the start and end temperatures of the water.
the best? do chimpanzees
eat? This flow chart shows how she can do her
| YES

©
The scientific exDlanation is accented.
investigation.
Scientists may do other types of practical work, for example to find out if
something happens, or how it has changed overtime.
1
▲ Kojo
A Thulani

j'fo 1. Can you answer the question ‘Which fuel is best?’ with a practical
Chima looks at all the questions. He wonders how the w
investigation? Explain your answer.
Ask a question. questions can be answered. 2. Here are some data that Lumusi collected in her investigation.

Answering different types of question Fuel Volume Start End Time to

of water temperature | temperature reach end
Make a prediction and use a scientific There are lots of different ways of finding answers to questions
explanation to justify it. (cm3) (°C) (°C) temperature
using science. But not every question can be answered using
There must be a (S)
science. This flow chart shows how some scientists think about
different explanation.
answering a question. ethanol 25 20 30 85 • Scientists ask a question
Test the prediction by collecting data (liquid) and think creatively
and presenting it on a chart or graph. To answer some questions you need to collect data. There are about how to collect
natural 25 20 30 45
data.
I lots of different ways of collecting data. gas
candle 25
• Scientists do
Check the evidence. Does it support the 20 30 108 investigations to
explanation? NO What is a fair test investigation? wax collect data to answer
You can collect data by doing a fair test investigation. This is (solid)
|YES an experiment in which you change one variable (something
a question.
The explanation is accepted.
that can be changed) and keep all the other variables the same. a. Write which fuel stores the most energy. Explain how you • In a fair test
know. investigation they
You set up equipment to take measurements to answer the
b. Does the evidence support Lumusi’s hypothesis from the flow change one variable
question. If you make sure everything stays the same except the
chart above? Explain your answer. at a time and take
variable you are interested in, then nothing else can affect your
measurements and it is a fair test. ws 3. Explain why scientists repeat their investigations. measurements.
 Energy

Types of energy transfer

Energy stores and transfers
1.3 When we move, cook food, or turn a light on, we transfer stored energy from
food and fuels. There are different ways of calculating energy. We describe
In a torch or flashlight, an electric
current transfers energy from the
battery to the bulb. Electric kettles ~Sa
the situation associated with a calculation as an energy store. 9i
Objectives use an electric current to heat water. *
Energy is transferred from power
Everyday energy stores stations rather than from batteries.
• Describe different ways in
can be stored
▲ When you walk upstairs you
which energy exert a force on your body.
Food is a chemical store of energy.
Energy is transferred when
• Give examples of situations We say that energy is stored
.
O
forces act on objects.
that involve different chemically in food and fuels. We use Energy can be transferred from
energy stores the energy stored chemically from the Sun or a candle in the form of light.
food and in fuels to keep warm.
* Energy is also transferred by heating.

Food and fuels are not the only stores of energy. A change of position or
Where are the types of shape can store energy.
energy?
You may be used to
saying ‘heat energy’, ‘light
v
I
r
A mother lifts her baby up from
the floor. Energy is transferred to a
m Musical instruments transfer
energy to your ear as sound. Your
Where are the

*
\ gravitational potential store, so this vocal chords produce sound when transformations of
energy’, or ‘electrical
energy is stored gravitationally. The you talk. energy?
energy’.
position of the baby or gravity store. Energy is not ‘transformed’
Energy does not exist in has changed. from one type to another.
different forms or types.
An electric current, light, sound, and forces cannot be stored. These are the Energy is a quantity, so is
It is a quantity that we
If you sit on a bed or a sofa the springs inside ways in which energy is transferred. transferred from one store
calculate. It can be stored
it are compressed. Energy is transferred to to another.
or transferred. Energy from the Sun
an elastic store, so this energy is stored
When we say ‘kinetic elastically. Elastic bands and other stretchy The Sun produces light and other types of radiation.
energy’ we mean Why does the Sun shine? Inside the Sun a process

L J
materials can also store energy elastically.
called nuclear fusion is happening all the time. The
• energy stored Sun is a nuclear store of energy. Flydrogen atoms
kinetically or
• energy in a kinetic AM All moving objects store energy
combine to form helium, and energy is released.
store.
JM kinetically. A fast-moving car has
more energy in its kinetic store than
a slow-moving car.
• There are different
1. Write down two sources of chemical energy. energy stores including
2. A child picks up a toy from the floor. Name the store that has gained chemical, gravitational
energy. potential, elastic, kinetic,
3. Describe the way energy is stored in a stretched elastic band. thermal, and nuclear.
When fuels burn they heat up the air around
them. Energy is transferred to the thermal
A pendulum swings backwards and forwards. Write down two of the
energy stores involved.
• Energy is transferred
store of the air, so this energy is stored by heating, an electric
5. A student thinks that the Sun is a huge ball of fire that provides the current, forces, and
thermally. This is what is sometimes call t,.
'heat'. There is more energy in the thermal energy for the Earth. Would you say that they are correct? Explain radiation including light
your answer. and sound.
store of a hot object than of a cold object.
 w Energy

Energy transfer diagrams Energy transfers involving gravity As he Q°es UP the hil1 GL, when he 9°es down the

1.4 and dissipation Ikenna is cycling towards a small hill.

• He stops pedalling when he gets to the hill,

gravity pulls Ikenna down.
Energy is transferred from
a kinetic store to a gravity
store.
.
hill the force of gravity
transfers energy from
the gravity store to a
kinetic store.
Darsh is listening to a battery-powered radio. The radio produces sound. The • He freewheels up the hill, slowing down. S. scy /y/%*
Objectives sound transfers energy stored chemically to the surroundings, which heat up. • He gets to the top of the hill. •

• Then he freewheels down the other side,

• Understand how energy Energy transfer diagrams speeding up as he goes. 0-6
are shown in
transfers Energy transfer diagrams are a useful way of showing energy transfers. When Ikenna pedals, energy stored
diagrams Here is a diagram for a battery-powered radio. The circles show the transfer chemically is transferred to energy stored kinetically. The diagram shows
of energy, and the squares show places where energy can be stored. what happens next.
• Be able to construct energy
transfer diagrams The diagram shows that the energy is transferred: There are many examples of this type of energy transfer, for example a child
on a playground swing.
• Describe what is meant by • from a chemical to a thermal store
dissipation • by an electric current and by sound.

e
Energy dissipation
energy energy
( electrical \ S0Und stored Energy is transferred in processes that change something, such as heating
stored
chemically \ current ) elastically food, or moving us from one place to another.

More usable Fewer usable In all processes, some energy is transferred to the surroundings, and heats
chemicals in the chemicals in the them up a little bit. This usually happens because:
battery. battery.
The surroundings are The surroundings are • things are heated by friction
cooler. warmer.
• sound is produced.
Eventually all energy ends up in the surroundings. In a light bulb, we want
Transferring energy with forces
energy to be transferred as light, but light bulbs get hot. This heating is not
▲ Sound transfers energy. There are lots of different devices that transfer energy, such as televisions or useful and energy is wasted or dissipated.
catapults.
energy
Dewi is playing with a stored
energy energy
catapult. She puts a ball thermally
stored force I stored
▲ Electrical devices transfer
in the sling, pulls it back, chemically thermally
and lets it go. The ball flies energy using sound and
heating light.
through the air. The food More usable Fewer usable
chemicals in

\
chemicals in
Dewi ate gave her the energy muscles. muscles. A Energy transfer diagram for a light bulb in a torch.
she needs to pull back on the The elastic is The elastic is
shorter. longer.
catapult. The energy stored
chemically in the food is
transferred to energy stored energy 1. Draw an energy transfer diagram for:
• An energy transfer
energy diagram shows the
elastically in the catapult. stored force stored a. Dewi walking to school
kinetically
energy changes in a
elastically
When she lets go this is b. Dewi climbing the steps of a slide, sliding down, and stopping. process or device.
transferred to the energy of The elastic is The elastic is 2. Describe what is meant by ‘energy is dissipated’.
• Energy that is dissipated
1 the sling and the ball. The longer.
The ball is not
shorter. The ball
is moving.
3. Suggest how energy is dissipated from: is no longer useful.
energy transfer diagram is in
two stages because you can
moving.
a. an electric kettle
b. a car travelling on a road.
• Energy that is dissipated
is usually transferred to
do calculations of energy 4- Suggest why it is hard to describe dissipation when you talk about the surroundings, which
A The elastic in the catapult
stores energy. stored elastically and kinetically. heating a home. get hotter.
 Energy

Up and down ball stationary

Gravitational potential energy and
1.5 kinetic energy
Sudarto is playing with a ball. He throws the ball upwards. He watches as the
ball slows down, stops for an instant, then speeds up as it falls back down.
slow speed t slow speed
• The ball’s energy is moving from a kinetic store to a gravitational store on slowing down | \ speeding9 up
the way up.
Objectives • The increase in GPE is equal to the decrease in kinetic energy. fast speed T
slowing down | 'w
fastsp
|speeding

i
7
• On the way down, energy is transferred from a gravitational store to a
• Describe factors that affect kinetic store.
gravitational potential highest point no kinetic energy
A very small amount of energy will be transferred to the surrounding of swing y \maximum GPE
energy and kinetic energy J because of air resistance. Energy is dissipated.
• Describe situations that Back and forth 6
involve energy changes
between kinetic energy and
• 7 A pendulum is a ball on a string that swings backwards and forwards. To maximum kinetic energy
minimum GPE
start the pendulum swinging you pull it back and let it go.
gravitational potential energy
and energy dissipation • When you pull the pendulum back you also pull it up, so its GPE increases.
• When you let it go it falls, and energy is transferred to a kinetic store. M
A The panda has more energy in a gravity store at the top of the slide than it
did on the ground.
• As the ball swings up again energy is transferred to a gravity store.
A child’s father pushes her on a swing, which behaves like a pendulum. If
When this panda plays on a slide, energy is transferred between stores. he stops pushing she will not swing so high each time. Friction is making
parts of the swing warm up, and air resistance is making the air heat up.
Gravitational potential energy Some kinetic energy is being transferred into the thermal store of the J
surroundings. In other words, energy is dissipated.
Imagine going up to the top of a very tall building. As you climb higher, your
gravitational potential energy increases. Gravitational potential energy or A rollercoaster
GPE is the energy that something has because of its position. It is another Engineers who design rollercoasters think very carefully about kinetic ▲ A rollercoaster lifts people
term for ‘energy in a gravity store’, or ‘energy stored gravitationally’. Your GPE energy and GPE. They need to know how much energy is needed for up high so they can move
depends on your distance from the centre of the Earth. You will gain twice as passengers to reach the top of the hills. fast on the way down.
much GPE if you move up two floors than if you move up one floor.
The GPE an object has also depends on its mass. A small boy going up one
floor would gain less GPE than his mother going with him. If his mother had 1. Describe the difference between kinetic energy and GPE.
twice the mass of the boy, then she would gain twice as much GPE. 2. A man and his son run to the top of a hill and stop. The mass of the
▲ People on the top floor of man is bigger than the mass of the boy.
this building have more GPE
than those lower down. Kinetic energy
a. Write down who has more kinetic energy while they are both
running at the same speed. Explain your answer.
• GPE is the energy that
something has because
Kinetic energy is the energy that something has when it is moving. It is b. Would it be possible for them to have the same amount of kinetic of its position.
another term for ‘energy in a kinetic store’, or ‘energy stored kinetically’. energy? Explain your answer.
A running lion has lots of kinetic energy. c. When they are at the top of the hill, who has more GPE? Explain • Kinetic energy is the
energy something has
your answer.
• If a lion and an antelope are moving at the same speed, then the lion will 3. Suggest how energy is dissipated on a rollercoaster ride. because of motion.

* V
have more kinetic energy because it has more mass. 4. A girl drops a stone down a well and listens for the splash. When the • When things move up
• If two lions have the same mass but are running at different speeds, then stone is at the top of the well it has 20 J more gravitational potential and down, energy is
kinetic energy.
the faster lion will have more energy than it has at the bottom. transferred between
~ • .. a. Calculate how much GPE the stone has halfway down the well. gravitational and kinetic
b. Write down how much KE it has halfway down the well. Explain stores. Energy is
▲ Moving objects have kinetic your answer. dissipated by friction
energy. c. Write down one assumption you have made. and air resistance.

0
 Energy

Producing a testable hypothesis

Planning: Pendulum motion Aditi and Diya discuss the energy stores and transfers associated with the
pendulum. They produce this hypothesis: How long the pendulum takes
Backwards and forwards to swing depends on the length of the string. The longer the string, the less
A pendulum is an object that swings backwards and forwards, like a child difference there will be between the height of the bob at the middle and the
on a swing, or a car on a theme park ride. end of its swing. A bob on a short string will therefore have more GPE when
pulled back for the same distance, so it will have more kinetic energy and go
faster.

Objectives Mi This is a testable hypothesis because you can collect data to see whether a

• Identify whether a given

in '
'X
v
prediction based on the hypothesis is correct.

hypothesis is testable y>. **ÿ

l\
gtL .?
* 'X
■

ft- < 3r Miti's plan

• Decide how many t «
I will change the length of the string. I will start with 10 om and go up bf 5 cm until l get to 5o cm.
measurements to take I will time how long the pendulum takes to swing 10 times and divide the result b-f 10 to get the period.
The time that it takes a pendulum to swing backwards and forwards once is I will Keep the mass of the bob the same and pull it back the same amount each time.
• Present results clearly called the period. I will put m'f results in a table like this: Length Time
The pendulum is stationary at points A and B. It is moving fastest in the
middle of the swing, at point C. The period is the time that it takes to move
from A to B andback again.
If you wanted to measure the period of a pendulum, you would measure Diva's plan
I am going to change the length of the pendulum. I have tried out the experiment.
the time with a stopclock or stopwatch. It is very difficult to measure short I am going to use a pendulum with lengths between 30 cm and 100 cm.
lengths of time accurately, so it is important to make repeat measurements. 6ach time l will time how long it takes to swing once.
I will do this three times for each length and find the average time.
I will put m-j results in a table like this: Length (cm)
A O O*-
B
Asking a scientific question Time (s) Time (s) Time (s) Average time (s)
Aditi and Diya have made a pendulum from some string with a small mass
on the end, called a bob.
▲ The period of a pendulum is Each student has identified the variable that they are going to change and
the time from the centre, out They decide to plan an investigation. They know that the first thing they the variable that they are going to measure. They have explained how they
to one side, back through need to do is to think what question they want to investigate. will control the other variables.
the centre, out to the other
side, andback to the centre.
I wonder whaf would
I wonder what would
happen if the string
0
j>
happen if the bob's
mass was bigger?
. was longer? .
r
x
• A hypothesis is testable
if you can collect data to
check a prediction.
TWS Describe the best way to display results in an investigation. • You should always
2. Write down the type of investigation that Aditi and Diya are repeat measurements
doing. to reduce the effect of
4
bob
They decide to investigate what factors affect the period of the pendulum.
This is the list of variables that they think might affect the period:
3. Explain why the hypothesis that they produced was testable.
4. Suggest a prediction that they could make based on their •
errors.
You should present your
m • the length of the pendulum
hypothesis.
5. Describe what Diya did to make her results more accurate.
results in a table, with a
heading and any units at
▲ A simple
pendulum. • the mass of the bob Tws 6. Describe one way in which Aditi’s plan is better than Diya’s plan. the top of each column.
• the distance that you pull the pendulum bob back.

w
P
r~ Energy

Elastic potential energy A ball will not bounce back up to original height.

1.7 What is elastic

This is because not all the kinetic energy that the
ball had before the bounce is returned to the ball
after the bounce.
potential energy? IJ
hi Some energy is transferred by sound when the
Objectives Bows and arrows have been
used for thousands of years. ball lands. When the material deforms its particles

€*MM
• Explain how energy can be
stored elastically

• Describe what is meant by

‘elastic’

• Describe a situation in
The archer pulls back on the
bowstring and points the
arrow at the target. The elastic
potential energy (EPE) increases
because the shape of the bow has
changed. ‘EPE’ is another term
▲ A bow used in ancient Assyria more
change position. This heats the ball a bit. The
energy in the thermal store of the surroundings also
increases slightly. If some energy is transferred to the
surroundings, then the ball will have less kinetic energy
after it bounces than before. Energy is dissipated.
The ball will bounce to a lower height each time
GPE
— —
to kinetic
energy.
2. Kinetic energy
to EPE.
i— —
3. EPE
to kinetic
energy.
4. Kinetic energy
to GPE.

which elastic potential for ‘energy in an elastic store’, or until it stops. All of the GPE from the start has now been transferred to the
than 2000 years ago.
energy is dissipated ‘energy stored elastically’. thermal store of the surroundings.
• An elastic band stretches when you pull it. when you lie on them.
\j • A mattress contains springs that compress
because their shape has changed.
EPE stored in your body
The band and the springs store EPE
V Atendon is a band of tissue that connects a muscle to a bone. One example
is the Achilles tendon in your calf. When you walk, this tendon stretches and
Bungee jumping
stores energy and then releases it again. Some animals, such as kangaroos
Grace is doing a bungee jump. She first goes upon a high bridge. She and frogs, can make huge leaps because of EPE stored in their tendons. calf muscle
compressed attaches a strong elastic cord to her legs.
stretched
▲ Springs can be compressed She jumps and falls, getting faster, and then slows down as the elastic
or stretched. stretches. She stops for an instant, then bounces back up again. achilles tendon
Scientists model the human body using computers. Paralympic athletes
use prosthetic legs that are designed using models of elastic potential
iiiiiiiimiiimniiHil frr GPFjrrnIllllllllll lllllllllllllllllllllim 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 1 i ITTTTT lllllllllllllllliiiiiiiiii IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIITTTTT energy.
ankle joint

GPE
5aaafl/}/j/| ▲
heel bone
The Achilles tendon is a store
of EPE.
...to an
elastic 1. A student is playing with an elastic band.
A bungee Energy is A bungee ...then the force of A bungee store.
jumper ready stored jumper gravity transfers jumper at a. Describe the changes to the way in which energy is stored as she
to jump gravitationally... falling energy... the bottom EPE stretches the elastic band and lets it go.
b. Explain in terms of energy why the band will go further if she pulls
Storing energy in materials it back more.
2. Look at the pictures of the bungee jumper. She will bounce up and
• When materials deform
they store EPE.
When materials are stretched or compressed their shape changes. We say down and eventually come to a stop. • An elastic object
f that they deform. When they deform they store EPE. Materials that return to
their original shape after being deformed are called elastic.
a. Draw an energy transfer diagram for the process from the
moment she jumps off the bridge until she is briefly stationary at
returns to its original
shape when the force is
• When a ball hits the ground it deforms. the top of her first bounce. removed.
• Its kinetic energy is transferred to EPE when it changes shape. b. Explain where all the energy goes eventually.
3. Explain why a ball will never bounce higher than the height from
• Some energy is
• It changes back to its original shape and bounces back up. dissipated when
• The EPE that haskinetic
been stored is transferred to kinetic energy. which you drop it. materials deform.
A Objects store energy when • Eventually all its energy is transferred to GPE and it reaches the
they deform. top of its bounce.
 Energy
Review
5. Which of these statements is not correct? 9. List the following in order of amount of GPE, 12. Some students are thinking about questions to

1.8 A Energy is stored chemically in fuels.

B Energy stored thermally is what some people

starting with the one that you think has the least.
A Josie lying in bed
ask. For each question write down:
a. Is it a question that science can answer? [3]
call heat. B Josie about to jump out of a plane to do a b. If so, how could you collect data to answer
1. a. Explain why people who do different jobs or skydive it? If not, explain why not. [3]
C GPE depends on the mass of the object.
sports need different diets. [1]
D Kinetic energy does not depend on the mass C Josie lying on the floor These are the questions:
b. List these activities in order of energy
of the object. [1] D Josie on the top diving board [1] A Which elastic band is strongest?
required. Explain why they are in the order
that you have chosen. [2] 6. A boy is riding his bike. Complete the sentences 10. Here are some pictures of a girl jumping on a B Do girls or boys have a better memory?
using the words below. You may need to use each trampoline. Choose the picture or pictures that
cycling sitting walking slowly C How should we grow enough food for
word once, more than once, or not at all. match each statement below.
everybody in the future?
2. List these amounts of energy in order from
thermal chemical heat light GPE kinetic Ajust about Cat the D just about
smallest to biggest. [1] to hit the mat Bat the top bottom to leave the mat 13. A student has completed an investigation about
a. The food that he ate for breakfast is a store heating water with liquid fuels. This is her
20 J 20 kJ 2000 kJ 0.2 kJ 2000 J

EA1
of energy. [1] prediction: ‘I predict that the more fuel I use the
3. a. Give one reason why a question might faster the water will heat up.’
b. The useful energy is. energy. [1]
not be a scientific question. [1]
c. The wasted energy is This is a graph of her results:
.energy. [1]
b. Choose the scientific question from these
a. Here the girl has the most GPE. [1] 100
examples. Explain your choice. d. As he moves up a hill and down again energy
is transferred between _ and b. Here the girl has the most kinetic energy. [1] ~ 90
“ 80
A Which is the best type of bread?
-energy stores. [2]
c. Here there is the most EPE stored in
I 70
g 60
B How much energy do different types of
e. The energy stored in the battery the trampoline. [1] S 50
bread contain? -= 40
decreases when he uses his lights. ° 30
C Should I have bread for breakfast? [l] Tÿs 11. Chinonye is timing his friends on a swing. He 1 20
7. A car transfers energy in the fuel to kinetic energy measures the time it takes for 10 swings. 10
4. Match each word or phrase to its definition. so the car moves. o
a. The time for 10 swings is 6 seconds. 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Write out the numbers and the letters.
a. Name two ways in which energy is wasted. [1] volume of fuel (cm3)
Calculate the period of the swing. [1]
Definitions:
b. Draw an energy transfer diagram for a. Suggest what the student has missed out in
b. Explain why Chimonye should measure the
1 the energy that something has because of its the car. [1] her prediction. [1]
time for several swings and divide by the
position
8. a. Write down the two things on which the kinetic number of swings. [1] b. Do the results support her prediction?
2 energy transferred so it is no longer useful energy of an object depends. [1] Explain your answer. [1]
Chinonye measures the time for different
3 energy stored in food or fuels b. Describe a situation in which your kinetic children to complete 10 swings and calculates c. Describe a method that the student could
energy increases. [1] the periods. Here are his results: have used to get these results. [1]
4 the energy that something has because it
is moving c. A student says: ‘If your kinetic energy is Mass (kg) Period (s) 14. You are planning an investigation. Which of
increasing that means that your 35 1.2 these things do you not do? [1]
Words andphrases:
gravitational potential energy is 40 1.3 a. Write down what you have found out.
A dissipation decreasing’. Is this true? Explain 45 1.1
your answer. [1] 60 1.2 b. Work out how to take precise and accurate
B energy stored kinetically
results.
C energy stored gravitationally c. Write a conclusion that gives the link
between the mass and the period. [1] c. Decide which results to record.
D energy stored chemically [4] A
d. Describe how to work safely.

B
 Forces

Contact forces
Introduction to forces Some forces , called contact forces, only act when objects are in
contact (or touching).
What is a force? • Friction acts when solid surfaces are in contact. The force of
When a tennis ball hits the ground, a force changes its shape, speed, and friction acts to stop objects moving.
Objectives direction. A force is a push or pull that can change the shape of an object, or • Air resistance and water resistance act on objects moving
• Describe how to represent
change the way that it moves. through air and water. They are types of drag. The moving
object collides with the particles in the air or the water, and
'i
forces on diagrams You cannot see forces but you can see what they do. If something starts to
the collisions slow it down.
move, or speeds up, a force is acting on it. Forces can also slow things down
• Describe the difference or stop them moving. If an object is already moving, a force can also change • Thrust pushes a car or plane forwards.
between contact and the direction of motion. • Upthrust is the upward force on an object that is in contact
non-contact forces with a fluid. It is the force pushing up on any floating object.
Force arrows • Tension acts when objects are pulled, like the force in a rope
• Describe how to measure that you pull.
forces You can show the force acting on
• Reaction is the force that pushes you up in reaction to your
(JjD
fC
an object by drawing an arrow. The ( weight pushing something downwards, for example when you
length of the arrow shows the size

PS
sit on a chair. It is sometimes called the normal force. ▲ A hot air balloon rises because of the
of the force. The direction of the upthrust from the air around it.
arrow shows the direction of the Measuring forces
force. The arrow is drawn in contact You can measure the size of a force. A device for measuring forces
/
with the object. is called a forcemeter, such as a spring balance. Forces are
measured in units called newtons (N), so force meters are also
A i7£»=TTr\ Different types of force called newtonmeters.
A On a rollercoaster; forces Non-contact forces
change your speed and
direction. Some forces act when even when objects are not touching. They are non-
contact forces.

• Gravitational forces act between any objects that have mass. On

/ Earth, this force is called the object’s weight. This force acts towards the
centre of the Earth. It always pulls you ‘down’, wherever you are on the
Earth. The force of gravity attracts you to the Earth. It also attracts the Earth
to you!
• Electrostatic forces act between • Weight, electrostatic
objects that are electrically charged. For IZt y
force, magnetic force,
t example, rubbing plastic objects can friction, air resistance,
water resistance, thrust,
charge them with static electricity. Once
charged they can attract or repel other upthrust, normal force,
charged objects. and tension are all types
• Magnetic forces act between magnets, of force.
’
and between magnets and magnetic ▲ A magnetic force attracts
a- Name three contact forces.
b. Name three non-contact forces.
• Forces can change the
materials such as iron, steel, or nickel. iron filings to a magnet. direction of a moving
2. A magnet can exert a force of attraction or a force of repulsion on object, speed it up, or
A A plastic comb attracts another magnet. Write down which of these forces is a push and slow it down.
pieces of paper with an which is a pull.
electrostatic force. 3* A car is travelling along a road. List three of the forces acting on it.
• Forces are measured in
newtons using a spring
4- Explain why people on the other side of the Earth don’t fall off. balance.
 Forces

On the Moon there is no atmosphere

Gravity 72 kg

2.2 The force of gravity

(air) and astronauts have to wear
spacesuits to be able to breathe.
Some people think this means there
72 kg
f
There is a force of attraction between
all objects that have mass, called the
is no gravity there. This is not true.
There is a force of gravity on the
95?j}
Objectives force of gravity. This force is pulling Moon, but it is about one-sixth as
* 80ÿ6 N

you down towards the centre of the strong as on the Earth. 80 N

• Describe the difference Earth. But forces come in pairs -you The force of the
between weight and mass Earth on you
are also pulling the Earth with a force Gravitational field strength
• Describe how the force of of gravity. There is a gravitational field
gravity arises

• Describe the factors that

affect the force of gravity
The size of the force of gravity
between two objects depends on: t The force of you
on the Earth

There is a force of gravity between

around all objects. This is a region
where a mass experiences a force.
On the Earth the gravitational field
This diagram is not to scale.

A The weight of the astronaut changes, but his mass stays the same.

between two objects • the mass of the two objects A

you and the Earth. strength is 10 newtons per kilogram (N/kg).
• how far apart they are.
Weight (N) = mass (kg) * gravitational field strength (N/kg)
’
i±
xiI .*• •
When people say that gravity is different on different planets, they
mean that the gravitational field strength is different.
Gravitational field strength decreases as you move away from a
planet.
In physics the idea of a ‘field’ is very important. Fields are
linked to forces. There are other types of field, such as magnetic
A
iS3

The gravitational field strength

fields (see page 156).
on the Moon is 1.6 N/kg.
A Relative sizes of Jupiter and the Earth: a more massive planet exerts a bigger
A The force of gravity always force on objects with the same mass.
acts towards the centre of
the planet.
Weight and mass
The force of the Earth’s gravity on an object is called its weight. When you
use scales or a forcemeter you are measuring the force of gravity. • The force of gravity is an
attractive force that acts
fi • Weight is a force. in newtons (N). 1. a. Describe what is meant by ‘the force of gravity’. between any objects
• Weight is measured of matter in an object. b. Write down two things that affect the force of gravity. with mass.
• Mass is the amount 2. a. Describe the difference between weight and mass.
• The force of gravity
• Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
thinking about mass is to do with motion. An object
b. Is the mass of an astronaut on Mars bigger than, smaller than, or acting on an object on
Another way of the same as their mass on Earth? Explain your answer. Earth is called its weight.
with a small mass will accelerate faster when you apply a force to it than 3. A student says that objects get pulled down because the Earth is
something with a big mass. a big magnet. Explain how a gravitational force is andis not like a
like • Weight is a force, and is
measured in newtons.
It’s easy to confuse weight and mass. Your weight is a force and should be magnetic force.
• Mass is the amount of
4. A baby has a mass of 4 kg. Calculate its weight on Earth.
measured in newtons, but often scales measure your ‘weight’ in kilograms! matter, and is measured
Scientifically this is wrong. 5. An astronaut has a weight of 370 N on Mars where the
gravitational in kilograms.
field strength is 3.7 N/kg.
A This scale reads 300g (mass) The force of gravity depends on the mass of the objects involved, so it is a. Calculate the mass of the astronaut. • The force of gravity is
but should show a reading in different on different
newtons (weight).
different on different planets. The more massive the planet, the larger the b. Write down the mass of the astronaut on Earth.
planets or on the Moon.
force of gravity.

0
 T'
Forces
Science Newton published his idea, called the Law of Gravitation, in a book. A few
in context How ‘old’ is gravity? years later, Newton’s law was used to predict the existence of Neptune. In
1846 the planet was discovered as predicted. This was enough evidence

2.3 Asking questions about the Earth

Many people thought
about the force holding
for many people to believe Newton’s explanation.

Changing ideas about gravity

the Moon in orbit
Objectives before Isaac Newton. When there is lots of evidence to support an idea it is usually accepted by
other scientists, but it may not be a complete explanation.
• Describe how scientific Over the last 300 years, much more evidence about gravity has been
knowledge about gravity
has developed over time
»
. collected by scientists. By making predictions and seeing if they match
observations, scientists such as Albert Einstein and Edwin Hubble built
A The discovery of Neptune
•w on Newton’s work. We now know that the force of gravity is much more
• Describe some reasons
A complicated than both Bhaskaracharya and Newton predicted.
confirmed Newton’s model.
why scientific explanations
change Scientists never stop asking questions. The more we learn about gravity, the
more we can use it. For example, scientists have sent satellites into space
using the gravitational forces of the Sun and planets to get there.

Have you ever wondered why we don’t fall off the surface of the Earth? Or
what pulls us back to the Earth when we jump? Investigations often start
%

w
with questions like this.
Nearly 1000 years ago the Indian mathematician and astronomer
I Bhaskaracharya was head of an observatory in Ujjain. He studied the
•- m V - movements of the planets, the Moon, and the Sun. He wondered why the
Moon went around the Earth, and didn’t get nearer or further away.
Bhaskaracharya noticed that when you drop something, it falls towards
the surface of the Earth. He realised that all objects exert a force on
other objects - the force that we now call gravity. He also realised that if *
the Earth attracted small objects towards it, then it would also attract big A The Voyager spacecraft has been travelling since A In 1969, the first person landed on the Moon and saw
A This Indian observatory was 1977, collecting data about the outer planets.
built nearly 500 years ago. objects like the Moon. This is the force, he thought, that keeps the Earth, a view of the Earth that had never been seen before.
planets, and Moon in orbit.

Evidence from observation

Bhaskaracharya couldn’t do any experiments to test his idea. He made • New evidence from
TWs 1* did Bhaskaracharya think held the Moon the same distance observations can
observations of the world around him, and used the evidence from his from the Earth as it goes around the Earth? support ideas or models.
observations to come up with an explanation. 2. Describe how Newton knew that there has to be a force acting on
In Europe 500 years later, Sir Isaac Newton thought about the same the Moon.
• New evidence can also
prompt scientists to
questions. He knew that a moving object would only change direction if 3. Describe one difference between Bhaskaracharya’s ideas about develop new models.
a force acted on it, and the Moon had to keep changing direction to stay
in orbit around the Earth. Newton realised that a force must be acting on the
gravity and Newton’s ideas about gravity.
4. Give one reason why Newton’s law of gravitation was accepted.
• The new models are
then tested by making
Moon to make it do this. Like Bhaskaracharya, he saw that objects fall towards 5. Give one reason why people might not have believed predictions.
the Earth and wondered if the same force that made them fall kept the Moon from Bhaskaracharya or Newton when they said that there is a force • People may find some
drifting off into space. He developed a mathematical model to describe the force of on the Earth due to the Sun. ideas in science difficult
gravity. «S6. Suggest why our understanding of gravity is not yet complete. to believe.

EH
 r
Forces

Air resistance
2.4 What is air resistance?
Aircraft have flaps that are spread to slow down the
aircraft when it lands.

Objectives
Aircraft designers think carefully about how to reduce
air resistance in flight and use it on landing. P air
removed

• Describe how air resistance

is produced air resistance

• Describe where where

it causes
a problem, and it is * resistance
feather
T1 lead

useful Air resistance M weight air

A. resistance
•
Lt
Describe what happens in ...but increases
a vacuum A The air can produce a force that changes your face!

When an object moves through air, there is a force on it called

as the parachutist
goes faster
and tasters...
JL
*
weight
\
it A In a vacuum all objects fall
air resistance. Most of the time you don’t really notice it. If the air is moving
fast, for example if you are walking into a wind, or you are moving very fast
sÿSS (right at the same rate.

through the air, for example if you are cycling fast or leaning out of a car
window, then you notice the effect. A Without a parachute the parachutist will reach a high, steady speed.

.* A 1 An object moving through the air collides with the particles

in the air and is effectively pushing the air out of the way.
Do heavier things fall faster?

•• :
When we see things fall on the Earth, like a feather or a hammer, the
These collisions with air particles provide the resistance. heavier object (the hammer) falls faster. This is because of air resistance. Air
Air resistance is affected by the speed of the object moving resistance affects the motion of the feather much more than the motion of
through the air. Objects moving with a higher speed will push the hammer.
A A solid moves A solid moves through m0re air out of the way and experience more air resistance.
~
through a gas a liquid 'to '<ÿ/ \0Si -T-ry, If there is no air, there is a vacuum, so no air resistance. If there is no air
Reducing air resistance resistance all objects fall at the same rate.
T

Air resistance slows things down. Air resistance is less if the area in contact with In 1971, an astronaut took a feather and a hammer to the moon, where there
• Air resistance depends
on the speed of the
the air is small. Streamlining reduces air resistance by changing the flow of air is no air, and dropped them together. The feather and the hammer hit the
object and its area in
over a car or plane. Cyclists pull in their arms and crouch forward to reduce ground at the same time.
* Scientists use wind
tunnels to experiment the area in contact with the air. They make themselves more streamlined by
contact with the air.
• The shape of
and find the best shape using special helmets. streamlined objects
for vehicles. Streamlined reduces air or water
cars use less fuel. Using air resistance resistance.
1. Car manufacturers put cars in wind tunnels to help them to design
Air resistance can be very useful for
streamlined cars.
• Parachutes increase air
slowing things down. A parachute resistance, so can slow
a. Explain what is meant by ‘streamlined’.
increases the area that is in contact down moving objects.
El b. Write down which object would experience more air resistance - a
with the air, and therefore increases ■

streamlined car travelling slowly or a lorry travelling fast. Explain

• lfthereisnoair(ina
the air resistance. For example, vacuum), then there is
your answer.
rocket cars use parachutes to brake. 2. Explain why a tennis ball and
no air resistance.
▲ Smoke shows the path a cricket ball dropped
together will hit • In a vacuum, all objects
of air in a wind tunnel. Air resistance depends on: the ground at about the same time, even though the cricket ball is
fall towards the Earth at
*leavier. Assume that they are about the same size.
V • the speed of the object A parachute slows down a car.
the same rate.
• the area of the object. A
 Forces

Thinking Writing a conclusion

and working Planning fair tests: Streamlining Kasini completed her investigation and wrote down her results.
scientifically Asking questions
A She concluded that the evidence did support her hypothesis, and that her
prediction was correct.
Kasini was watching a film about
dolphins. The dolphins have to swim However, Kasini worried that the data were not very good because it was
fast to catch fish. She wondered what hard to see when to start and stop the stopwatch.

Objectives
affects how fast things can move
through water.
Kasini decided to make different
She asked her friend Nadia. Nadia said that Kasini had not taken enough
measurements, so she could not be sure that her measurements were
correct. The measurement for the cone shape could be an anomalous result
rfUooj
• Describe howto plan an objects out of clay and drop them into because of a mistake. Nadia also said that there should be a graph and TiM£
investigation to test an a cylinder of water. She could time evaluation.
Core. 0X8
idea in science how long they took to hit the bottom.
Kasini wrote this for her evaluation: cube. o.6T
• Describe how to write a
Making a hypothesis and prediction 0.6/
conclusion To Improve, this experiment i would find a better method of timing,
I
Kasini had learned that engineers design cars and aeroplanes to be as cylinder 0.7T
• Describe how to write an streamlined as possible to reduce drag. She used this information to make a like using a video camera. I would repent the experiment several
cuboid 0.68
evaluation prediction based on a hypothesis. times for each shape. ( would look for anomalous results and repeat
them. Then l would find the mean. This would make my data more A Here is Kasini’s results
Il accurate.
table.
How How the shape
i have decided to Investigate how the shape of the object affects how
affect the time to hit long it takes to fall through water.
the bottom? I would plot a bar chart of the results because my data are categoric.

vJhat are the

°o Making a plan and choosing equipment
This is Kasini’s plan.
It is important that an evaluation shows how to collect better data, not
make the experiment quicker or easier. Repeating measurements enables

W
variables in this
investigation? you to identify anomalous results.
am going to investigate how long it takes different shapes of clay
o
to reach the bottom of the otjUrÿder of water. I will make different
shapes fromthe same dmount of clay. These are the shapes ! have

% chosen: cone, cube, sphere, cylinder, cuboid.

l will time how long It takes for the shape to hit the bottom with a
stopwatch.
1. Copy and complete this table to explain why Kasini needed each
piece of equipment.
• A plan includes your
hypothesis and
prediction, equipment,
and a method.
My Indeoendent Equipment Why Kasini needs it
variables are: A large measuring cylinder • A conclusion says what
I will write my results In a table. Modelling clay you have found out,
♦
the shape of the clay
whether it matches
This Is a list of my equipment: A stopwatch
• the mass of clay A balance your prediction, and
• the volume of water In • a large measurlng cylinder
whether it supports
the cyllnder • Modelling clay
A nieasuringjug
2. Name the independent, dependent, and
J _ your hypothesis.
• the temperature of the • a stopwatch control variables in this
investigation. Use Kasini’s list to help you.
• An evaluation
• a balance includes what you
water 3. What has Kasini missed
out of her results table? would do to get better
• a measuring jug 4. Explain why
repeating the measurements will produce better data. data next time.
ft Forces

Extension

2.6
Round in circles
A force that changes direction
of motion of an object.
The centripetal force is always directed towards the centre of the
circle. This means that the force is always at right angles to the
direction of motion of the object.

Centripetal forces in space

r
f
A

Forces can change the shape, speed, or direction

how Ammon applies a force The Earth and other planets orbit the Sun. The Moon orbits
1 Objectives Ammon is pushing a trolley. The diagram shows the Earth - it is a natural satellite. The Earth also has artificial
to the trolley. satellites put into orbit for communication and for studying the
y happen if Eboni
• a escri ew a ismean The tro'lley will move in a straight line. But what will
of the motion.
surface of the Earth. A satellite needs the force of gravity to
pushes from the side? The force will change the direction
centripetal force stay in orbit around the Earth.
The centripetal force that keeps the Moon and satellites in orbit
The trolley will start to move in a circle.
• Explain why some objects around the Earth is provided by the force of gravity. It is gravity that also
move in circles keeps the planets and asteroids in orbit around the Sun, and keeps moons
in orbit around other planets, such as Jupiter
• Explain why some objects Communication and
move in orbits other satellite systems,

A. sr
Ammon
pushes
trolley moves
like GPS, have changed
K
-> moves
way this way peoples’ lives, usually for
the better.
sC; i However, there are lots
of old satellites and other
Eboni pushes
'/ft »+ space ‘junk’ now orbiting
the Earth. They pose a
'K. risk to other satellites or
"ÿ'X when they eventually fall

’4/>-K Centripetal force

One of the throwing events in athletics is the hammer
throw. The hammer
to the Earth!

her head on a wire,

/ thrower swings the hammer, a big metal ball, around
i
and then lets it go.
is swinging
Imagine taking pictures from above as the hammer thrower
the ball. In your first picture, the ball is
moving in direction X. In your second
A The force of gravity keeps objects in orbit.
A Friction between the tyres
and road exerts a force to picture, it is moving in direction Y. There x
make a car go around a is a force on the ball from the tension
corner. in the wire, which has changed the
direction of motion.
Y 'F
1. Write down what is meant by centripetal force.
• The force that keeps
something moving in a
2. A centripetal force is needed to keep a cyclist moving on an arc of a
If she lets go of the ball then it will move circle is the centripetal
circle as she goes around a corner. What provides that force?
in a direction that is a tangent to the force.
3. The Moon orbits the Earth.
circle.
a. Name the force that keeps the Moon in orbit around the Earth.
• The centripetal force can

mm mp A force that keeps an object moving in a circle is called

a centripetal force.
in
b. Imagine that this force was suddenly switched off. Describe what
be provided by forces
such as gravity, friction,
I • For the ball on the wire, the centripetal force is provided by the tension would happen to the Moon.
4. A student says that there cannot be any force
or tension.
1
the wire.
force is provided by
acting on a satellite
if it is moving at a steady speed in orbit. Is she right? Explain your
• Planets, moons, and
A The ball moves in a circle • For cars on a curve on the road, the centripetal satellites stay in orbit
because the wire pulls on friction between the tyres and the road. answer. because of gravity.
the ball.

, 46
 Forces

Review 5. On the Earth, a person with a mass of 70 kg has a 10. A student investigates streamlining. a. Copy the diagram and add an arrow to show
weight of 700 N. Which of the following a. Define ‘streamlined’. the force keeping the ball moving in
[1]
statements is or are correct? [1] the circle. [1]
He makes three different shapes using modelling
A If the person were on a more massive planet clay and times how long each shape takes to b. Describe what would happen to the ball
their weight will be larger. if the string suddenly broke. [1]
reach the bottom of a tank of water. Here are his
1. Some forces need contact, and others act at a results.
[2] B If their weight on a planet is 300 N, it means Jupiter’s moons move in a circle around Jupiter.
distance.
that the gravitational field there is stronger
Give the letters of the non-contact forces:
than on the Earth.
j | |
Shape Time 1 {s)|Time 2 (s) Time 3 (s) Average time (s) c. Name the force keeping them moving
A 1.2 1.4. 1.3 1.3 in a circle. [1]
A friction
C A planet with a weaker gravitational field B 1.8 0.1 2.0 d. Describe what would happen to the
B gravity would make their weight smaller. moons if the force was suddenly
C 2.8 2.9 2.7 2.8
C air resistance D A planet with a stronger gravitational field removed. [1]
would make their mass bigger. TWS b. Identify the anomalous result in his data. [1]
D magnetism 13. Copy and complete these sentences about the

2. Match the words to the definitions. [2] 6. Alan Shepherd was the fifth person to walk on the I® c. Calculate the average time for shape B. [l] force of air resistance using these words:
Moon. He took a golf club and ball and hit the ball. d. List the shapes in order of most to least
vacuum force particles same [4]
mass force due to a planet or moon The ball went a lot further than it would on the streamlined. Explain your answer. [2] When an object moves through the air, air
Earth. Give two reasons why. [2]
weight region in which an object experiences collide with it. This produces a

field
a force
amount of matter
7. Scientists are planning a mission to take
astronauts to Mars. Suppose an astronaut has a
—
TWS
V '
e. Give two control variables in this
investigation. [2]
In a
that slows down the object.
there are no air particles, so all
mass of 65 kg on the Earth. The gravitational field f. Describe and explain the type of graph the
3. ♦ strength on Earth is 10 N/kg and on Mars is student needs to plot. [2]
objects fall at the rate.

14. Describe a situation in which air resistance is

3.7 N/kg. g. Another student says that they have made
useful. [2]
a. Calculate the astronaut’s weight on Earth. [2] a shape that takes 4.6 seconds to reach the
bottom of a tank. 15. When a diving bird is about to enter water, it
b. Describe and explain what will be the same folds its wings close to its body, so they are not
and what will be different about their weight Suggest why the first student might not be
weight TWS injured when it hits the water. Explain the other
and mass when they go to Mars. [2] able to use this result. [2]
effect this action has. [3]
8. a. Explain why ideas about gravity from ll. Explain why a streamlined car uses less fuel
hundreds of years ago were than if it were not streamlined. Use these
a. Write down the label on the upward arrow. [1]
‘rediscovered’ later. [1] words in your answer: thrust, air resistance,
b. Describe the other two force arrows that air particles, force. [4]
should be added to the diagram. [1] b. Explain why an idea in science might
change. [1] 12. A boy connects a ball to a piece of string and
c. Identify which of the three forces you have whirls it in a vertical circle, as shown in the
described are contact forces and which are 9. The table shows some information about Jupiter diagram below.
non-contact forces. [1] and one of its moons, lo.

4. Which of these statements about mass and An astronaut has a mass of 100 kg.
Compare their weight on Jupiter and lo. [3]
weight is or are correct? There may be more
than one. [1]

A Weight is measured in kilograms.

Object 1 Gravitational field strength (N/kg)
Jupiter 23
B Mass is measured in kilograms. 1.8
lo
C Weight is a force.

D Mass is measured in newtons.

EE3
 r Sound

What can a sound wave travel through?

Sound waves and how they travel Sound waves need a material, or medium, to travel through, such as air,
water, or walls. The vibrating source produces a sound wave that makes the
Making sounds particles in the medium vibrate backwards and forwards as the wave passes.
If the sound wave reaches your ear you hear a sound.

Objectives You can hear sounds when you are underwater. Animals such as dolphins and
whales communicate over very large distances by making and hearing sounds.
• •

• Describe how sound waves

If someone is talking loudly in the next room you will probably hear them, A Many animals
are produced communicate by sending
because sound travels through solid materials like walls.
sound through water.
• Explain how sound waves
travel LJ What can a sound wave not travel through?
Material Speed of
A space that is completely empty of everything, including air, is a vacuum.
• Explain why sound waves
The skin on a drum vibrates to When you play a guitar you
| sound (m/s)
do not travel through a A A
Sound cannot travel through a vacuum because there are no particles to air at 330
produce a sound. make the strings vibrate.
vacuum transfer the vibration from the source to the detector. sea level
When you make music on instruments, or sing, you are making things water 1500
vibrate to produce sound. Sound transfers energy from a source such as a The speed of sound metal 5000
drum to a detector such as your ear.
Sound waves travel at different speeds in solids, liquids, and gases. They travel A Sound travels at different
fastest in solids and slowest in gases. This is because the particles in a solid are speeds in different media.
What is a sound wave? closer together than they are in a gas, so the vibration is passed on more quickly.
Phones and televisions contain loudspeakers.
motion
hand m
If you put polystyrene beads on a loudspeaker cone, they bounce up and Longitudinal and transverse waves wave direction
down. This shows that the cone vibrates when it makes a sound wave. A wave transfers energy without transferring

makes the air particles next to it vibrate.

matter. «1Illllii:::::::::;::!!!
• The vibrating coneof air next to the loudspeaker vibrates, it makes the next
compression rarefaction

• Whenoftheairlayer • Longitudinal waves can be made on a Slinky longitudinal wave

layer particles vibrate. spring by moving your hand in and out.

A Polystyrene beads bounce • The itself doesproduced

sound wave moves through the air to your ear. • The coils of the Slinky spring move to and fro hand
motion
on a speaker cone to show • The air not travel away from the cone.
You cannot see air particles moving, but you can make a model of a sound
in the same direction as the longitudinal wave
is travelling.
that it is vibrating.
wave using a Slinky spring. If you move the end forwards and backwards, • Sound waves and some types of earthquake
the coils move together and then apart as the wave moves along the Slinky.
The individual coils do not travel to the end, but the wave does.
wave are longitudinal waves.
• Transverse waves can be made on a rope by
moving your hand up and down instead of in and out.
I transverse wave

compression rarefaction
• The particles of the rope move at right angles (90°) to the direction of
travel of the wave.
• Stadium (or ‘Mexican’) waves made by fans at football matches are •
Sound waves are made
by vibrating objects.
transverse waves. The people move up and down as the ‘wave’ moves along.
A You can model a sound wave with a Slinky spring. •
Vibrations are
transferred by particles
vibrating.
1- Your vocal cords and a loudspeaker can both produce sound. Name
three other sources of sound waves.
•
Sound travels fastest
in solids and slowest in
-V particles are close together it is called 2* Explain why sound cannot travel through a vacuum. gases.
a compression. Where they are further 3. Does sound travel faster or slower in air than in water? Explain your
apart it is called a rarefaction.
•
Sound cannot travel
motion of air molecules sound wave
answer. through a vacuum.
moves this way
 Sound

Extension
Detecting sounds You can find out more about specialised cells like sound-detecting cells in

3.2 Your ear and a microphone both detect sounds.

your Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Biology Student book.

Hearing loss
The human ear Your ear contains delicate structures including the tiny ossicle bones and
thin membranes of the oval window and eardrum. There are many ways in
Objective You can only see a small part of your ear, called the pinna, when you look at
which these structures can be damaged, affecting your hearing. Loud sounds, like the music
it in the mirror. Your ear has parts inside that detect sounds and send signals ▲

• Describe how the ear to your brain. • Loud sounds can destroy the sound-detecting cells in the cochlea, at concerts, can damage the
eardrum.
detects sound causing permanent hearing loss.
Having two ears helps you work out where sounds come from. Sounds reach
• Explain how your hearing your ears at different times, so you can locate the source of the sound. • Pressure changes can perforate (make a hole in) your eardrum.
can be damaged The hole will usually heal in a few weeks or months.
signal
outer ear middle ear inner ear
• Ears naturally produce wax to clean themselves, but too much
• Describe how a
microphone works
pinna
ossicles (bones)

hammer anvil stirrup

, semicircular
canals
oval
auditory
•

•
can affect your hearing. It is very easy to remove excess wax.
If you have an ear infection, fluid can be produced around
the small bones. This interferes with the transfer of the
sound wave from the outer ear to the inner ear.
sound
waves
mi I
magnet

coil
diaphragm

m
window
nerve
Head injuries can affect the auditory nerve, which will affect
your ability to hear properly.
i
Older people do not hear high-pitched sounds as well as
M
tw\ cochlea
younger people. Some people wear hearing aids to improve
their hearing.
▲ Like your ear, a microphone
produces an electrical signal
from a sound wave.
auditory/ eardrum Microphones and loudspeakers
canal / (membrane) oval window
(membrane) A microphone is a type of transducer - it converts a sound wave into an
▲ A microphone detects
electrical signal. The human ear is the body’s microphone.
sound...
The microphone contains a diaphragm, which is a flexible plate. Sound
▲ The ear has parts inside that allow you to hear. waves make the diaphragm move backwards and forwards, like an eardrum.
This movement produces an electrical signal that can be amplified and sent
The outer ear gathers the sound wave and directs it down the auditory to a loudspeaker, or recorded.
canal to the eardrum. Once there it makes the eardrum vibrate, and this
makes the ossicles vibrate. A loudspeaker is a another type of transducer - it converts the electrical • The membranes and
bones of your middle ear
signal into a sound wave. The electrical signal makes the cone vibrate, so
The ossicles make up the middle ear. They are the smallest bones in your transfer the vibration of
the air particles move backwards and forwards to make a sound wave.

k \ body. They pass the vibration on to the oval window, and then the inner
ear.
The inner ear is made up of the semicircular canals and the cochlea.
•
a sound wave from your
outer to your inner ear.
Your inner ear converts
the sound wave into
!• a. Explain why it can be dangerous to put a sharp object into an electrical signal that
• The semicircular canals help you to balance.
your ear. goes to your brain.
• The cochlea is curled like a snail itshell, and contains fluid.
• When the oval window vibrates, transmits the vibration to the fluid. b. Suggest which part of your ear is affected by ear wax.
2. a. Write down one similarity and one difference between the ear and
• Loud sounds can
damage your hearing.
A...andso doesyourear. • The vibrating fluid makes hairs in the cochlea vibrate.
• The hairs are connected to sound-detecting cells. the microphone.
b. Write down which part of a microphone is like the eardrum.
• A microphone produces
that travels down the an electrical signal
• The cells release chemicals that produce a signal
3. A student says ‘a microphone is a bit like a loudspeaker in reverse’. that allows us to make
auditory nerve to your brain.
Do you agree? Explain your answer. recordings of sound.
• Your brain processes the signal and you hear the sound.
 r Sound
I

Animal echolation sound waves-

Echoes
3.3 What is an echo?
Animals such as whales and dolphins use echolation
more than they use sight. It enables them to find food
or recognise their family members even if it is dark or
made by dolphin

If you stood in a very big cave and the water is not very clear.
shouted, you would hear an echo of

Objective
your voice. The sound wave spreads • The
The dolphin makes a series of clicking sounds.
out and reflects off surfaces like • The sound reflects off a fish.

• Describe how echoes the walls of the cave. Sound travels • to work
dolphin detects the echoes and uses the time
out the location of the fish.
formed
are relatively slowly, so there is a time
delay between your shout and the Sound travels much faster in water than in air. Dolphins
• Explain how echoes can echo you hear when the sound wave and whales can communicate over very long distances.
be used by humans and is reflected from the cave walls .
Caves have walls that reflect
animals A
sounds. Ultrasound scanning I
Problems with echoes We cannot hear ultrasound, but it is very useful. Pregnant women
Echoes can be a nuisance inside large rooms such as cinemas and theatres.
1 The sound waves reflect off all the surfaces, and echoes can last for several
should not have X-rays because X-rays could harm both the fetus and
the mother. Instead doctors use ultrasound to check the development
seconds, muddying the sound. This is called reverberation. Cinema walls of the fetus.
' and ceilings are covered with soft, sound-absorbing materials to absorb A Bats find the distance to
echoes. The transducer transmits ultrasound waves into the woman. Ultrasound objects using echolocation.
waves are reflected by the boundaries between soft tissue as well as
Using sound from hard surfaces such as bone. The transducer detects the echo and uses
-T
the time delay to calculate where the boundary is. By taking lots of pictures
Humans and animals make use of sound that we cannot hear, called
it is possible to build up a three-dimensional picture of the baby.
receiver transmitter ultrasound (sound waves with a frequency higher than 20000 Hz).
A An ultrasound
Sonar image of a
The word ‘sonar’ comes from sound navigation and ranging. Sonar is used fetus.
return
echo
I by submarines for navigating underwater, and by ships for measuring the
depth of the water. The ship has an underwater loudspeaker (a transmitter)
that produces pulses of ultrasound. Beams of ultrasound waves are more
sea bed focused than beams of audible sound, and they will not be confused with
sounds made by people, animals, or other boats.
A Sound can be used to work
out the depth of the sea... The ultrasound waves travel through the water and reflect off objects such
as rocks or the sea bed. The echoes returning to the ship are detected by
1. a. Explain why you need to use half the time taken for an echo to be
underwater microphones (the receiver). The sonar device uses the
time of the echo being received to work out the depth of the water. detected when you are doing calculations of distance.
-
For example, a boat detects an echo from the sea bed after 1second.
b. Sound travels at 330 m/s in air. It takes 1.5 s to detect the echo • An echo is a reflection of
from a building. Calculate the distance to the building. sound.
The speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s. How deep is the sea? [Hint: Remember that the time is for the journey there and back).
2. Explain why dolphins can find food at greater distances than bats.
• Humans and animals
Distance = speed x time -r 2 -It takes 1second for the wave to use echoes to locate and
3. A woman is having an ultrasound scan. Ultrasound travels at
. = 1500 x-i-
reach the sea bed and come back
again, so the time is divided by 2. 1500 m/s inside the body. The ultrasound transmitter sends out a •
identify objects or prey.
Ultrasound is very-high-
pulse of ultrasound waves, which are reflected from a tissue surface frequency sound that
= 750m.
7.5cm away. Calculate the length of time before the echo is received. can be used to make an
Fishermen can use sonar to find fish. Finding the distance to an [Hint: Be careful with units!) image of a fetus.
A ...and the location offish. object in this way is called echolocation.
 Sound

Review b. The speed of sound in air is smaller than the 6. A bat sends out a pulse of ultrasound. The pulse 10. Here is a diagram of the ear.
speed of sound in steel because in steel the reflects from the insect. The bat is 1.5 m from the
k particles are than they are in air. insect. The speed of ultrasound in air = 330 m/s.

c. Sound made under water will take E

1. Match the word describing sound waves

to the definition. [4]
time to travel a certain distance than sound
made in air. M, B

4. A sound wave travels through water and bounces D

1 A place in the wave A Vibrates
off the sea bed. b
where the particles
Choose the correct words in bold. [2]
are close together i

is called a... a. The sound wave is attached to/reflected by

2 The solid, liquid, B rarefaction the sea bed.
or gas that the
sound wave moves b. The sound wave travels faster/slower in air a. Give the name of each part of the ear
through is called than it does in water. a. Calculate the total distance travelled by labelled. [6]
i the... the pulse. [1]
5. Six different materials, A, B, C, D, E, and F are b. Give the letters of the parts that make
f 3 A place in the wave
where the particles
C compression listed with the speed of sound in each of them. b. Calculate the time between the up the inner ear. [1]

Speed of sound (m/s) emission and detection of the pulse. [2] c. Give the letter of the part that is
are further apart is Use this equation: time = distance/speed
called a... A 4000 filled with fluid. [1]
4 A sound wave D medium B 1207 7. A fisherman uses sonar to find a shoal of fish. A 11. A friend calls your name. Describe:
is produced by C 1497 pulse of sound is sent out and the reflection of the
sound is detected 0.4seconds later. a. how the sound wave is produced [1]
something that... D 259
E 6420 a. Calculate the time it takes the sound b. how it travels to your ear [1]
2. Think about what happen when you talk. Are
these statements true or false? [3] F 435 to travel from the boat to the fish. [1]
c. how it produces a signal that reaches
a. The particles in air move away from your a. Give the letters of the two materials b. The speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s. your brain. [4]
mouth as you talk. that are probably liquids. [2] Calculate the distance to the fish. [2]
12. Copy and complete the table. [4]
b. The sound wave makes the particles in the air b. Give the letters of the two materials c. Sometimes fishermen will detect
Part of the ear What it does
move backwards and forwards as you talk. that are probably gases. [2] another echo after they detect the
echo from the fish. Why? pinna
[1]
c. The sound wave makes the particles move up c. Give the letters of the two materials eardrum
and down as you talk. that are probably solids. [2] 8. Adami is watching a thunderstorm. She counts
pass the vibration from the
4seconds between seeing the lightning and eardrum to the cochlea
3. The speed of sound in steel is 5000 m/s, in water is d. Give the letter of the material in which the hearing the thunder. The speed of sound in air
particles are closest together. Explain your cochlea
1500 m/s, but in air is only 330 m/s. is 330 m/s.
answer. [2]
Use these words or phrases to complete the 13. A dolphin makes a clicking sound and
a. Calculate the distance to the storm. [2]
sentences below. Some words or phrases are not e. Give the letter of the material in which the detects the echo from a fish that is 250 m
needed. [3] particles are furthest apart. [1] b. Suggest one assumption Adami has away. Calculate the length of time before
made to do this calculation. [1] the dolphin detects the echo. The speed of
closer together further apart less more sound in water is 1500 m/s. [3]
9" a. Compare a compression and a rarefaction
a. The speed of sound in water is greater than of a sound wave.
the speed of sound in air because in water the
b. Describe what happens to the air particles
particles are than they are in air.
near your mouth when you talk.
 r Electricity

In an atom the number of electrons, which are negatively charged, is always electron
Charging up
4.1 If you rub a balloon against your clothes it
will stick to the wall. This balloon will deflect
the same as the number of protons, which are positively charged, so an
atom has no charge overall. We say that it is neutral. There is no net charge, nucleus
proton

neutron
Charging objects
Atoms are neutral.
a stream of water from a tap, or pick up small If you move electrons out of one material into another, the materials
pieces of paper. Why? become charged. before rubbing after rubbing
Objectives
These are examples of electrostatic
phenomena. A phenomenon is somethingthat
• When you rub a polythene rod with a cloth, electrons are cloth
• Name the two types of transferred from the cloth to the rod.
charge you can observe. These things happen because
when you rub the balloon you charge it
A charged balloon • Electrons have a negative charge. polythene
• Explain why objects deflects water. • The rod now hastoa net negative charge because there is not enough
become charged positive charge neutralise the negative charge.
What is charge?
• Explain the difference There are two types of electric charge, positive (+) charge and negative (-)
• The dothcharge
negative
has a net positive charge because there is not enough
to neutralise the positive charge.
cloth

between conductors and charge. Charge is a property of a particle or object, like mass. Perspex
insulators Not all rods are the same. When you rub a Perspex rod electrons are
When you bring charges together, electrostatic attraction or repulsion transferred from the rod to the cloth.
The total amount of charge is the
occurs.
(+) ®—
• The Perspex rod has a net positive charge. same before and after.
• A positive charge will repel another positive < • The cloth has a net negative charge.
charge.
• A negative charge will repel another «-© ©-> I It is important to realise that not all the electrons are transferred, just some.
The total amount of charge in the rod and the cloth is always the same. In 600 BCE a Greek
electrostatic negative charge. scientist found he could
Charge cannot be created or destroyed, just like energy or mass.
<
_ repulsion • A positive charge will attract a negative ©— ► <-o pick up leaves with a
+-+-t+-+ :V' charge. Like charges repel, unlike
Moving charges piece of amber that
When you charge a balloon by rubbing it, it can charges attract. he had rubbed. The
polythene repel the negative charge in scraps of paper, There is a region around any charge where another charge experiences a
Greek word for amber is
or r unning water, or a wall. This leaves a positive charge, which produces force. This region is called an electric field.
elektron.
attraction. Static means stationary or standing still. Rods repel and attract each other
A Two negatively charged because the polythene and Perspex are insulators. In an insulator the
polythene rods repel one Charging and discharging electrons stay on the rod once you have rubbed it.
another.
Kunala rubs a polythene rod with a cloth, and then hangs it up If you rub a metal rod with a cloth it will also become charged, but the metal
by a piece of string. He rubs another polythene rod and brings it close to the
A first rod.
is a conductor. Electrons can move in it. Any extra electrons will move • There are two types of
through the metal to your hand, and then through you to earth. charge: positive and
negative.
• The first rod is repelled bynegatively
the second rod.
attraction • Both rods have become rods is the same.charged. • An objectthat has equal
positive and negative
• The net charge on both Explain why an atom is neutral.
charges is neutral.
Then he rubs a Perspex (clear plastic) rod and brings it close to the 2. A teacher rubs a Perspex rod with a cloth. It becomes charged.
polythene
polythene rod. a. Write down the net charge on the cloth and on the rod.
• If electrons move from
one object to another,
Perspex rod
to the Perspex rod. t>. Would the rod attract or repel a negatively charged rod? Explain
• This time the polythene rod is attracted your answer.
each object will become
charged.
A Two rods with unlike charge • The net charge on the Perspex rod is positive. 3* Explain why a plastic rod can become charged if you rub it, but a
attract each other. • The rods have unlike charges and so they attract. metal rod cannot.
• In a conductor the
electrons are free to
Where does charge come from? 4. Explain why when you transfer charge to a person who is insulated move, but in an insulator
Everything is made up of atoms. In a simple model of an atom, protons and the ground, their hair moves away from their body. they are not.
neutrons make up the central nucleus. The electrons orbit the nucleus.
 r Electricity

Conductors and insulators

Electric circuits
4.2 Circuit components
You can use a circuit like the torch circuit to find out whether objects
conduct electricity or not.

Objectives
Televisions, movie projectors, and
loudspeakers run on electricity.
Hospitals use machines that run on
\ • An object or a material that conducts electricity easily is a conductor.
• An object or a material that does not conduct electricity easily is an
insulator.
electricity to keep people alive. They Mawar and Harta are investigating conductors and insulators. They set up a
• Describe howto
in
draw
circuit
all contain electric circuits that use circuit to work out which things are conductors and which are insulators.
components
electrical components.
diagrams I Insulators

9
£ondudors
You can make a very simple circuit
• Explain how to test
something
using a lamp, a battery, some wire, A The anaesthesia machine in an
metal spoon paper
I will put different \
whether operating theatre needs electricity coin plastic spoon
and a switch. This is the circuit that materials in the gap. If the
conducts electricity to work. nail wood bulb lights up that means
you find in a torch.
aluminium foil string the material is a >
V conductor.
Circuit symbols and diagrams
It would take a long time to draw Component Symbol
pictures of the components in a circuit. wire
Instead, we use circuit symbols to show
which components are in a circuit.
You can join circuit symbols in a circuit
cell
H It s&sms that all the
diagram to show how the components
battery of cells
-M- conductors are
made of metal.
in your circuit are connected. lamp
A A circuit for investigating which objects
A cell is something that many people open switch conduct electricity.
refer to as a battery. In physics a battery
closed switch Some people think that only metals conduct electricity, but that is not
contains two or more cells.
A cell has a positive and a negative
buzzer W correct. The material in the centre of a pencil is graphite, a form of carbon.
The graphite conducts electricity but the wood around it does not.
terminal. When you connect cells motor — ®—
together in a battery, you must make The wires for electrical appliances are made of copper, a metal. Bare wires
sure that you do not connect two positive terminals (or two negative would be very dangerous because you could get an electric shock if you
terminals) together or it will not work. On the circuit symbol the long line touched them. The wire is covered in plastic, which is an insulator.
represents the positive terminal, and the short line represents the negative
▲ This simple circuit behaves
terminal.

■
like a torch....
Cell Battery (of cells) 1. Look at the electric circuits below.
A B C • We use circuit symbols
1 for components to draw
circuit diagrams.
• A complete circuit is
L & needed for components
in the circuit to work.
When will circuits work? a. Draw a circuit diagram for each circuit using the correct symbols.
In the circuit diagram for a torch (on the left), the switch is open. • Conductors allow
H8)— The lamp is not lit. The switch is a break in the circuit and you need a
b. In which circuit will the lamp be lit? Explain your answer.
c. What do you need to do to make the other lamps light?
electricity to flow easily
▲ ... and this is a circuit through them, but
diagram for that torch complete circuit for the lamp to work. If you close the switch the circuit will 2* Explain why the wires that you use in circuits are covered in plastic. insulators do not.
circuit. be complete and the lamp will light up.

Hi]
 Electricity

What happens when you change the number of lamps?

Electric current
4.3 When people talk about ‘electricity’ in a wire they are usually talking about
electric current. You cannot see a current, so what is going on in the wire?
You change the current in a series circuit (a circuit with components joined
one after another into a loop) by changing the number of components, or
the type of components. You can also change the current by changing the
number of cells.

What is electric current? Nanda connects up a circuit with one cell, one lamp, an ammeter, and a
Objectives switch. When he presses the switch the lamp shines with normal brightness.
An electric current is the flow of charge. In a circuit made of metal wires
the flowing charge is caused by the movement of electrons. Electrons are
• Describe what is meant by
current charged particles.
Then he adds another identical lamp. Two things happen.
an electric
* |KA • The lamps are now dimmerthan normal.
• Describe a series circuit copper ion ,pC' • The reading on the ammeter is less than what it was with one lamp.
• Describe how to measure
•
circuit
current in a series
Describe how changing
the components in a series
circuit affects the current
A
electron

IK
A copper wire contains copper ions surrounded by electrons.
Inside a copper wire there are copper ions. Ions are atoms that have lost
Each component, such as a lamp, provides a resistance to the flow of
charge. If there are two lamps instead of one, there is more resistance so
less charge flows per second. The current is smaller.

electrons. Some of the electrons on the outside of the copper atoms are not
strongly bound to the atom and can leave the atoms and move around. You L--
might hear people talk about a ‘sea of electrons’ inside the metal wire.
When you connect a battery to a circuit, it provides a push to make the . 0.4A
0 Q
; 0.2Af A

h electrons move. The moving electrons make an electric current. The current
is the amount of charge flowing per second.
A Adding more lamps reduces the current.
How do we measure current?
Current is measured in amperes (A), amps for short. Small currents are What happens when you change the number of cells?
measured in milliamps (mA). 1mA = 0.001A, or one-thousandth of an amp. Nanda goes back to his first circuit of a cell, a switch, one lamp, and an
You measure current with a meter called an ammeter. ammeter. He adds a second cell.
• Current is the flow of
The lamp is brighter, and the reading on the ammeter is more than what it charge (electrons) per
A The current is shown by a The circuit symbol for an ammeter is:
was before. The current is bigger because two cells push electrons through second.
needle on a scale...
-0- the circuit more strongly. More charge will pass the lamp each second, and
there is more energy per charge, so the lamp gives out more light.
• Current is measured
in amperes (A) with an
Here is a drawing of a circuit with an ammeter, and a circuit diagram ammeter.
uu.u to go with it. • A series circuit has only
one loop.

St n\ 1* Describe the difference between current and charge. • A switch controls all the
J components in a series
B: 2. Circuits X and Y are series circuits that each contain one lamp.
."S' circuit.

o ***«§• V'--,')
0 •
One of the circuits has more cells than the other.
•
In circuit X twice as much charge flows through a lamp per second
• In a series circuit the
current decreases if you

E \ as in circuit Y. add more lamps.

<0 a- In which circuit is the current bigger? Explain your answer.

b. Write down the circuit that has more cells. Explain your answer.
• In a series circuit the
current increases if you
A How to measure current. c. There are two cells in circuit X. How many are there in circuit Y? add more cells.
A ...or on a digital display.
 f
Electricity
Thinking
The factory model and the people model
and working Modelling electric circuits Another model for an electric circuit uses the
scientifically idea of a factory that makes things that are sold full of bread
Using models factory
in a shop, like loaves of bread.
&-w
4.4
You cannot see a current flowing in a wire. This can make it difficult to
understand what is happening in an electric circuit. To make it easier to In this model the factory represents the battery,
work out what is happening, and to predict what might happen in different the trucks are like the charges, and the shop is

Objectives
circuits, scientists use different models. A model is a helpful way of thinking
about something that you cannot see, or that is very big, or very small.
You need to remember that all models have limits. This means that there
like the lamp.
There are lots of other ways in which you can
make a model like this.
I shop
empty

• Describe a model of an
electric circuit
may be things that they do not explain very clearly, or at all.

The rope model

• APeople
•
pot of sweets is like the battery.
carrying the sweets are like the
charges flowing in the circuit.
i&.
In this model trucks represent
• Describe strengthsmodel
and
One way of modelling what is happening in a circuit is to use • Another person eating the sweets is like the lamp.
▲
charge, and the bread is like
limitations of the
a piece of rope. The rope is tied to make a continuous loop. • The sweets represent the energy that is being transferred from the the energy.
battery to the lamp.
Person Y Person X One person is the ‘battery’ and another person is the ‘lamp’.
However, like all models, this one has limits. Lamps in a circuit light up
• Person X moves the rope around the circle by pulling it
battery pushing the immediately. This model does not explain that very well. It does not help you
through his hands. This is like the
to predict what happens when there is more than one lamp.
charges around the circuit.
water
• Person Y grips the rope gently and can feel it moving
The water circuit model
pump
through. His hands get warm. This is like what happens
in a lamp. The filament of a lamp gets so hot that it gives In this model:
out light.
• the
the pipes are like the wires in a circuit meter to

▲ The moving rope is a model for charge in a wire.

• the water is like the charges
• pump pushes the water around the pipe
• the tap can stop the flow of water (like a switch can stop
'8

/ 5 \
2-
measure rate
of flow
tap
d
The rope ... is like ... the charges (electrons) in the wire. < narrow pipe
H the current in a circuit)
Person X pulling the rope ...is like ... | the cell or battery pushing the charge.
The amount of rope going through his hand the current (the charge flowing per second).
• the meter measures the flow like an ammeter in a circuit.
...is like.. However, some people think that the insulation around a copper wire is holding A In this circuit water is a
per second the electrons in, like the pipe holding the water in. This is not correct. Water can model for charge.
Person Y gripping the rope _ ... is like ... ] a component, like a bulb, in the circuit. leak out of pipes, but electrons cannot leak out of wires.

The rope model is a good model because it helps us to visualise what is happening. It also helps us to make
predictions. For example, a second lamp is like a second person holding onto the rope: there will be more
resistance to its movement. For the water model:
TWs
a. describe one thing you could do to make the water move
The rope model shows... So in an electric circuit...
faster • Models helps us to work
Person X does not produce the rope. The charges are not produced by the battery. out what is happening in
b. explain what ‘faster water’ represents in an electric circuit.
They are already in the wires and components. a circuit.
2. In the sweet model, describe how you would represent an
The same amount of rope passes through any point The current is the same everywhere in a series
ammeter.
• Models can be used
every second. circuit. _
to predict what might
3. In each of the three models for an electric circuit, what represents
All parts of the rope start to move as soon as person The current starts to flow as soon as the battery is happen if you change
X starts passing it through. _ connected.
a flat battery (a battery that doesn’t work)? something in a circuit.
The rope transfers energy from person X to person Y.
components in the circuit. __
The current transfers energy from the battery to the TWs
4* A stu<ÿent 's wondering how to put a switch in the rope model and
the truck model. What would you say to her?
• All models have
limitations.

64
 Electricity
1
Reducing risk
Extension Dangers of electricity Risk is a combination of the probability of something happening and the

4.5 There are lightning storms all over the world every day. Lightning is an
example of an electrostatic phenomenon.
consequence if it did. We cannot change the probability of lightning hitting
a building, but we can change what happens if it does. If you want to reduce
the risk of damage by an electric current, you can earth the object. This
means connecting it to the ground with a conductor.
Sparks and current
Objectives If enough charge builds up due to Lightning conductors
friction, thdn a spark will form.
Many tall buildings have a lightning conductor to save them from damage
• Describe how electricity A spark is charge moving through the
by lightning. A lightning conductor is a thick strip of metal, such as copper,
can dangerous air, heating it up. We see light and

• Explain how the risk of

damage or injury from
electricity can be reduced
hear a sound. The moving charge is
an electric current.

This is what happens in a

T running from the top of the building down the wall to a copper plate buried
underground. If lightning strikes the building, electrons flow down the strip
and into the ground. The metal conducts electricity much better than the
building. This is called earthing.
thundercloud.
A current transfers a lot of energy.
Fuel in cars and planes
• Inside the cloud the air moves around, like When cars or planes are refuelled, the friction of the fuel moving along the
rubbing a rod with a cloth. pipe can cause a charge to build up. This could cause sparks, which would
cloud ++++ +++++
'cloud + + + + -A • The movement forms a region that is positively
charged and a region that is negatively charged.
be dangerous because the fuel could catch fire. S'
lightning Fuel pipes are earthed by attaching a metal wire to the pipe. Any charge that
• Negative charges at the bottom of the

...
A lightning conductor earths
thundercloud can make a huge spark as they builds up will flow down the wire to earth. This reduces the risk of a spark, this chimney.
travel to Earth. and an explosion.
• We see that spark as lightning.
Electronics V
lightning • Sometimes a spark is produced when charge

— 4
*+++++
lightning

**
+++++ +++++
moves between positive and negative regions
inside the cloud.
Air does not usually allow a current to flow through
it. It takes a big difference in charge to make the air
Engineers who make circuits for TVs or phones need to reduce the risk of
damage to the delicate electrical components. They often wear special
wristbands connected to a metal wire that goes to the ground. Any build¬
up of charge flows down the wire to earth rather than through the delicate
components.
=rStI.
m
conduct electricity so that a current flows. A A wristbandconnected to
earth.
v Electric shocks
Lightning can be very dangerous. If it strikes a person it can break their
18 bones, cause burns, or even kill them. The charge travels through the
person to earth. The electric current can damage their heart or even stop Sparks happen when
1. a. Describe what is meant by ‘earthing’. the air conducts
their heart beating.
b. Describe what lightning is. electricity.
I ■

Doctors in hospitals can use an electric current to try to restart a patient’s 2. Explain how an electric current can be dangerous to the Lightning is a big spark
< heart if it stops beating. This can save their life. human body. that can cause damage

kf,‘ / Everyday shocks

3. Explain how the engineer’s wristband can protect delicate electrical to people and buildings.
Lightning conductors

1'
components.
Sometimes people feel a small shock when they touch a car door. This 4. A student notices that she gets a shock when she touches a metal reduce the risk of
% *\ is because the car has become charged by friction as it has been moving door handle. She has been charged by walking across a carpet. damage to buildings.
A A defibrillator uses charge to along. You might sometimes hear the crackle of sparks as you remove a Would she get a shock if the handle was made of plastic? Explain Earthing reduces the risk
restart someone’s heart. piece of clothing, or feel a small shock when you touch a door handle. your answer. of sparks and shocks.
 Electricity

Review 5. Copy and complete the following sentences. [6] 9. Look at the circuit diagram below. d. A lightning is a piece of metal
attached to a building. If it is struck by

4.6 Current is the amount of

called move when you connect a

flowing per
In a metal wire, charged particles
_ 3 o 1
lightning the flows through
the metal. We say that the building
[3]
battery. You can use a meter called an -
1. Explain what is meant by the following words. to measure current. Current is measured in units 11. a. In which circuit below A, B, or C, will the
a. neutral [1] of which have the symbol -- current be biggest?

[1] 6. a. Draw a circuit diagram to show how you b. In which circuit, A, B or C, will the lamps be
b. charged
could use a switch to turn a battery-powered 62 dimmest?
c. charge [1] motor on and off. [2] 4\ A I h
d. conductor [1] b. Describe what happens when you close the
switch. [1]
e. insulator [1] The circuit contains two special switches.
[1] 7. You can model circuits with a rope loop, or as a The switch at the top can be flipped between
f. earthed
ser'es °f trucks delivering food to a supermarket. connections 1and 3. The switch at the bottom
fws
2. Copy and complete the sentences below. [6] can be flipped between connections 2 and 4.
Copy and complete the table to show how
a. There are two types of electric charge: each part of the model goes with each part a. Copy and complete the table below to show
charge and charge. of a circuit with a battery, lamp, switch, and what happens to the light bulbs when the B
ammeter. [6] switches are flipped. [4]
b. When you rub a polythene rod with a cloth you
transfer from the cloth to the rod. Component/ Rope model Supermarket Position of Position of Are the bulbs
feature model switch on left switch on on or off?
c. Two charged polythene rods would - battery right
if you brought them close together.
k lamp 1 2
d. A charged polythene rod would a
switch 1 4
rod that had a positive charge. current 3 2
C
e. An electric field is a region in which charges ammeter 3 4
experience a -- TWS charge
b. This circuit can be used to control the
3. A student rubs a balloon on his jumper 8. Look at these circuits. They have identical cells. lights at the top and bottom of a staircase.
and sticks it to the wall. Explain in terms of Explain how it works. [2]
[3] A B
electrons why the balloon sticks to the wall.
10. Copy and complete these sentences using the
4. Read the sentences below. Which circuit component
or type of circuit does each sentence describe?
a. This is the energy source for an electric
© i 0 words in question 1. You may need to use words
more than once.
a. In a thunderstorm air moves to produce
circuit.

b. In this circuit all the components are

[i]
Mg)-<gM - J regions that are
b. The air is usually an _ but if
[i]

in a single loop. [1] there is a large amount of

a. Compare circuit A and circuit B in terms of: in
the cloud it can become a [3]
c. This enables you to turn a component i. the brightness of the lamps [1]
on or off. [1] c. When this happens _ flows
ii. the reading on the ammeter. [1]
between clouds, or between clouds
d. It measures the charge flowing per second. [1] and the ground, and we see lightning.
b. Describe the effect of adding another cell to [1]
circuit B. [2]

S3
 The Earth in space

_
Is that correct?
Our planet: Day and night 5'
Every day you stand on a planet that ' I thinfc that the $un goes
around the (earth. It is night¬
seems to be staying still. You see the time when the Sun is on the
Sun rise, move across the sky to its v other side of the (earth, X
Objectives highest point at noon, then onwards
till it sets. At night the stars seem to
• Explain why the Sun and
to move
move in the same way.
stars appear
across the sky The Sun and stars are not moving.
We are! These ideas are not correct.
• Explain why we have day This photograph of the night sky Some people think that day and night can be explained by the Earth moving
and night Day and night was taken over 10.5 hours.
around the Sun each day, and that it is night-time when the other side of the A long, heavy pendulum
• Describe evidence for the At any one time, the light from the Sun lights up half of the Earth. The other Earth is facing the Sun. In this model the Earth is not spinning. shows that the Earth is
rotation of the Earth half of the Earth is in shadow. We can see that from space. spinning.
It is true that the Earth moves around the Sun, but it takes one year, not one day!
The Earth spins on its axis. This means that the area that is in the light
changes. Day and night are caused by the Earth spinning every 24 hours.
During the day the part of the Earth that you live on is moving in the light.
4
At night-time it has moved into the dark.
The spinning Earth
How can we show that the Earth is spinning? One very important
rotation axis
experiment to show this was first done in Paris, France, in 1851.
ch
Earth spins N A scientist called Leon Foucault made a pendulum of a very long piece
V-
of wire, 67 m long, and a big ball of metal with a mass of 28 kg. He hung
the pendulum in a very tall building so that it was just a metre off the The pendulum always
m sunlight floor. There was hardly any friction at the point where the pendulum swings in the same direction,
joined the ceiling. When he started the pendulum swinging it would but the scale moves under it
as the Earth spins.
swing for a very long time because it was so heavy. Over time the
Half the Earth is lit up by the s, direction of the pendulum swingseemed to change against a scale on
Sun at all times. (not to scale) the floor.
The only explanation was that the pendulum was swinging in exactly
Looking down from above the North Pole of the Earth, the Earth is spinning the same way, but the Earth was spinning beneath it.
anticlockwise. This means that the Earth rotates from the west towards the
east. So we see the Sun rising in the east and setting in the west. The Sun
appears to move across the sky because the Earth is spinning. • We have day and night
because the Earth spins
light from the sun on its axis.

daytime
1. Copy and complete the sentences. • The Earth spins once in

--
24 hours.
The Sun rises and sets each day. The Sun rises in the
• The Sun appears to
ft /
G
and sets in the The Sun is highest in the sky at
■

V
sunrise sunset*

V' f)
■-
-- There are _ hours in a day.
A student thinks that we have day and night because the Sun is
move across the sky
because the Earth is
spinning.
night-time hidden behind clouds at night. Explain why this is incorrect. • You can show the Earth
rotaion axis 3. Explain why Foucault’s pendulum needed a very heavy weight is spinningusing a long
A You experience night when your part of Earth moves out of the light on the end. pendulum.
into shadow.

[M
 w The Earth in space

As Jalandhar goes from summer to winter, sunrise gets later and sunset gets
Our planet: Seasons
5.2 Changing day length
earlier. The days get shorter.
It is winter in the southern hemisphere when it is summer in the northern
hemisphere. The Sun stays in the sky for less time each day until midwinter.
Harish lives in Jalandhar, India. It is October and he is watching the Sun setting.
It is setting earlier than it did the night before. The days are getting shorter. Thetiltoftheaxismeansthatin i
Objectives
Six months later the Sun sets later than it did the night before. The days are regions in the north inside the Arctic
getting longer. He wonders why the Sun sets at different times throughout Circle such as Finland, Norway, and
• Describe and explain
and the the year. Canada, the Sun doesn’t set in the
how temperature
24 h
summer. These places are known as
height of the Sun in the sky
the ‘Land of the Midnight Sun’. The

•
change over the year
Explain what causes
» 20 h

16 h
night night same happens in Antarctica during its I
summer, but no one lives there to see it. A series of photographs taken at noon over a year
seasons
1 In winter in these places, the Sun does not just south of the Arctic circle.
-S 12h Mar 20
itm20
Sep 20
13:24 h
12:07 h
Dec 21 rise at all. This is called a polar night. 1 square
■£ 8h 12:06 h 10:51 h
CT> day metre
J 4h Changing temperature /
0h
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
It is hotter in the summer than in the winter because:
—
-I Rays hit
at 90°
northern —-axis
month
In most places on Earth the length of the day changes over the year.
• the Sun is in the sky for longer
2 square metres 1 square metre
hemisphere
North Pole
A
• the rays from the Sun are concentrated over a Winter Summer
__ smaller area. In the winter the Sun’s light is spread over a bigger
Tropic of
Cancer a Arctic Circle
The tilt of the Earth’s axis area than in the summer.
If the rays hit the surface at 90° then more energy hits
/ The Earth orbits the Sun once every year or 365 days. We divide the surface per square metre per second. This means:
/ path of the the year into seasons: spring, summer, autumn, and winter. In east
summer west
Earth's orbit
some countries near the poles there is a big difference in the • the surface heats up faster

southern
/ •
equator
weather between summer and winter. In summer the days are • the air temperature increases more quickly.
Tropic of Capricorn winter
hemisphere longer and warmer, and in the winter they are shorter and colder. Some people think that it is hotter in the summer
Antarctic Circle
Other countries near the equator do not notice much change. because the Earth is closer to the Sun in the summer.
South Pole
The Earth’s axis is tilted by an angle of This is nottrue. The Earth’s orbit is nearly circular. It is
We can explain the seasons by thinking about the tilt of the
23.5° from north. slightly closer to the Sun in January each year.
Earth’s axis. The axis is tilted by an angle of 23.5°. This angle of
spring in
tilt does not change. As the Earth orbits the Sun, for 6 months
Changing height of the Sun in the sky
the north and the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, and for 6 months it is
autumn in the south tilted away from the Sun. During the day the Sun is highest in the sky at noon.
The height the Sun reaches at noon changes over the
The tilt of the Earth’s axis means that the Sun is
W The Earth’s tilted axis explains: year. In summer it is higher than it is in winter. This
higher in the sky in the summer than in the winter.
is also because of the Earth’s tilted axis.
• different day lengths in summer and winter
i
summer in x
Sun
I /
"

winter in
the north and
• different temperatures in summer and winter
• the varying height of the Sun in the sky in summer
the north and
winter in summer in and winter. 1. Compare the length of a shadow that a fence post makes at noon in
the south
the south autumn in
Changing day length
the winter and at noon in the summer. Explain your answer. • The Earth’s axis is tilted.
the north and
spring in the south Jalandhar is in the northern hemisphere. In summer:
2. a. Explain why the length of a day changes over the year.
b. Which month has the shortest day in the northern hemisphere,
• This is why in summer
it is warmer, days are
The Earth stays at about the same
and which month in the southern hemisphere? longer, and the Sun is
distance from the Sun throughout the • the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun 3* Describe what would happen to the day length and seasons if the higher in the sky than in
year, but the tilt of the axis changes day • the Sun stays in the sky for longer each day as the Earth spins Earth’s axis was not tilted. winter.
length and so produces seasons. • the day is longer than the night.
 r The Earth in space

only one moon, while other planets have more. Saturn has over 60 moons.
The night sky
5.3 Stars
Moons are not always small. Titan, one of Saturn’s moons, is bigger than the
planet Mercury. The difference is that a moon orbits a planet and a planet
orbits a star such as the Sun.
When you look at the night sky you
see millions of dots of light. Most of Comets
Objectives
the dots are stars. Stars are huge A comet is made of ice and dust like a big, dirty snowball orbiting the Sun.
balls of gas that give out light. When As a comet gets nearer to the Sun it produces a tail that makes a spectacular
• Name types of objects we you [ook at a star jt mjght appear to sight in the sky. The name ‘comet’ comes from the Greek for ‘hairy star’. We
can see in the night sky twinkle - the light seems to flicker. see comets because, like planets and moons, they reflect sunlight.
This is not because the star’s light
• Explain how weofseeobject is not constant. It is because the The bright dots of light in this
From ancient times people have watched comets, and often thought comets
different types A
This comet was photographed
light changes direction as it travels image are stars. were a bad omen. They seem to appear out of nowhere and then disappear. A

It wasn’t until astronomers started to make measurements that they realised

through a telescope.
through the Earth’s atmosphere.
that some comets come back again and again. Comet Encke can be seen every
Stars are the only objects in the night sky that continuously give out light. three years. Other comets return after hundreds or thousands of years.

Planets Meteors and meteorites

We always see the stars in the same arrangement. Other objects appear to Sometimes you see streaks of light in the night sky. People call them
move against the stars. Ancient astronomers named them planets, which ‘shooting stars’, but they are not stars.
means ‘wanderers’. Planets are not stars - they are objects in orbit around
stars. They are made of rock or gas and do not give out their own light. • When a particle of dust or a piece of rock called a meteor enters the
Earth’s atmosphere it burns up.
• You see planets because light is reflected off them into your eyes.
• A piece of rock that survives to reach the ground is called a meteorite.
• You can see five planets without a telescope: Mercury, Venus, Mars, Vi
Jupiter, and Saturn. You see a meteor shower when the Earth moves through the dust left by
a comet.
• There are two other planets: Uranus and Neptune.
• An asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter contains much smaller pieces Tiny meteorites hit the surface of the Earth all the time. If you go outside
of rock and one dwarf planet. about a dozen will land on you every hour.
A You can see some objects • Pluto is another dwarf planet, much further from the Sun. A You can see the International
in the night sky without a Space Station moving across
These planets and other objects orbiting the Sun make up our Solar System. Man-made objects the sky because it reflects
telescope. Here you can see
the planet Venus at the top There are thousands of artificial satellites in orbit around the Earth. light.
Our Sun is not the only star to
and the Moon at the bottom. Many are part of the global positioning system (GPS). This system
have planets in orbit around it.
pinpoints positions of things on Earth using signals from lots of satellites.
Astronomers have found lots of
Sometimes you can see these satellites near dawn or dusk when they
planets that orbit other stars. These
reflect light from the Sun. The biggest and brightest of all of these is the
planets are called exoplanets.
International Space Station.
• The objects that we can
Moons see without a telescope
On a clear night you can see the
in the night sky include
1* Name two planets you can see without a telescope. stars, planets, the Moon,
Moon. It is made of rock and orbits
2. Some of objects in the night sky are in orbit around the Sun, and comets, meteors, and
the Earth. It is the only object
beyond the Earth that a person has ▲ The Earth has only one natural
some are in orbit around planets. artificial satellites.
set foot on. satellite - the Moon. a- Name three objects that orbit the Sun.
b. Name two objects that orbit the Earth.
• Stars emit light, but we
can see other objects
A Phobos and Deimos are A moon is an object that orbits a planet. It is sometimes called a natural 3- Name three objects can only be seen because they reflect light from because they reflect
moons of Mars. They are not satellite. Most of the other planets in the Solar System have their own the Sun. light from the Sun.
spherical. moons, although you cannot see them without a telescope. The Earth has
 The Earth in space

How did the Solar System form?

Our Solar System
5.4 We live on a planet that orbits a star called the Sun. You can see some other
Our Solar System was formed about
5 billion years ago from a swirling cloud of
gas, rocks and dust

planets in the night sky with the naked eye. To see other objects that orbit
the Sun you need a telescope.
dust and gas.
Gravity pulled the dust and gas together to
*
The Sun formed at the centre of a spinning cloud of dust,
Objectives make the Sun and all the planets. Some of
gas and rock due to the force of gravitational attraction.
Planets that orbit a star make up a solar system. How did our Solar System gas
form, and why do things in it orbit the Sun? the material formed rings around the outer
• Describe what is in our planets.
Solar System rocks
What is in our Solar System?
• Describe how the Solar Our Solar System contains four inner planets, an asteroid belt, and four
The Sun's heat evaporated ice and drove gas away from the
inner Solar System, leaving rocks behind.
System formed
outer planets. Planets are objects that have cleared their orbits of dust,
• Explain why the objects gas, and rock. There are also dwarf planets in the asteroid belt and beyond F m •C « .• r
orbit the Sun the outer planets. The outer planets have rings made of rock, dust, and ice.
A There is a force of gravity between The rocky planets formed near the Sun and the gas giant planets formed
all objects. further away. The minor planet Pluto orbits the Sun beyond the giant planets.

\ % %
%
*X % %% % X % Why do objects orbit the Sun?

1
\ path of comet
Gravity is a force that acts between all objects with mass. There is a force
of gravity between all the planets and the Sun. It is this force that keeps the
/1
planets orbiting the Sun. .y
1 # The Sun pulls on the Earth, and the Earth pulls on the Sun. The mass of the
Sun is much larger than the mass of the Earth. The Earth is continuously
/

A
A Our Solar System, with the Sun on the left. The sizes of the planets, but not the distances, are to scale.
pulled in, keeping it in orbit. If gravity was ‘switched off’ the planets would
fly off into space.
Objects such as asteroids and comets also orbit the
Sun because of the force of gravity.
▲
Vÿÿ'Pluto’s orbit
The orbits of Pluto and
comets are different from
the orbits of the planets.
Inner planets Outer planets
Names Mercury, Venus, Earth, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
Mars Neptune _

Made of... mostly rock mostly gas (hydrogen,

helium) and/or ice
Size small large
• The Solar System
contains four inner and
Rings? no yes four outer planets, and
Moons Mercury 0, Venus 0, Earth Jupiter 79, Saturn 82, an asteroid belt.
1, Mars 2 Uranus 27, Neptune 14 1. a. Describe what a solar system is.
b. List the planets of the Solar System, starting with Mercury.
• The Solar System
Reflected light Reflected light formed from a cloud of
Seen by... _
c. Compare the inner planets with the outer planets in terms of: gas and dust brought
Life detected? Only on Earth No
i. their moons and rings together by gravity.
This table compares the inner and outer planets.
▲ ii. their composition (what they are made of).
2- Describe how the planets of the Solar System formed.
• The planets, asteroids,
and comets orbit the
Until 2006 Pluto was called a planet. Then astronomers found other objects 3. Suggest what would happen to the Solar System if gravity was much Sun because of the force
like Pluto beyond Neptune, so they started calling Pluto a dwarf planet. stronger than it is. of gravity.
w The Earth in space

Lunar eclipses
The Moon
5.5
Sun
A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes Eartt
between the Sun and the Moon. The Moon is in umbra
Moonlight the shadow of the Earth.
You see the Moon in the sky during the day and during the night. Moonlight penumbra
Objectives is actually reflected light. The Moon does not give out light itself. Why are eclipses rare?
You might expect to see a solar eclipse every
• Explain why we see phases The phases of the Moon 27.3 days, because the Moon orbits the Earth in that
of the Moon The Moon orbits the Earth every 27.3 days. If you took a picture of the Moon time. In fact, total eclipses are rare. This is because the How tides form
orbit of the Moon is tilted slightly. The Earth, Sun, and
• Explain why we see solar each night you would see that its shape changes in a regular way. These are
called the phases of the Moon. Moon need to be lined up for an eclipse to happen. high
and lunar eclipses iowtide
/tide
7 If the orbit of the Moon was nottilted then the
• Explain why we have tides light from Sun high _ gravitational
8
» I6 Earth would block out the light and we would
never see a full moon.
tide attraction

low tide
1
> Earth Why are there tides? Spring tides maximum tidal
2
Moon
>4 Water in the oceans is free to move. Gravitational ™9e
Sun
What we see: 3
attraction of the Moon and Sun produces tides.

»
5 6 7 8 Moon Moon

) • There is a bulge of water either side of the

new crescent first gibbous full gibbous

ft
third crescent
Earth due to the force of gravity from the Moon.
Earth
Moon here or here, in line with the Sun and Earth
quarter quarter • The Earth spins through the bulges, producing
Neap tides
two high tides a day. Moon
sl- The light from the Sun lights up half of the Moon, just as it lights up half of • When the Sun and Moon are aligned there is minimum tidal
extra force on the water, and we get a higher Moon at right
every planet and moon in the Solar System. The Moon appears to change range
angles to the
shape when seen from the Earth because it is moving around the Earth. tide, called a springtide. Sun and the ¥ Earth % Sun
• When they are not aligned we get a lower tide, Earth
V 7
A The Moon casts a shadow on Eclipses called a neap tide.
the Earth to produce a solar When an object moves in front of a source of light, a shadow is formed. This (not drawn to scale)
eclipse. can happen when the Moon or the Earth moves in front of the Sun.

Solar eclipses
There is a solar eclipse on Earth when the Moon blocks the light from the Sun.

Outside that region, in the penumbra, you • Phases of the Moon

Sun Earth happen because half the
■ see a partial eclipse.
Moon is lit, and it moves

▲ A solar eclipse happens

.«0 penumbra
The region of deep shadow, or umbra, is
where you see a total eclipse.
1. a. Write down the time between one full moon and the next.
b. Write down how much of the Moon is lit by the Sun when there is
a new moon.
2. Describe the difference between a solar eclipse and a lunar eclipse.
3. Describe one difference that we would notice if the orbit of the Moon
•
around the Earth.
Eclipses happen when
the Earth or the Moon
blocks light from the
Sun.
when the Moon blocks the
light from the Sun.
We see eclipses because the Moon happens to be the right size and
distance away from the Earth to exactly cover up the Sun. This is simply
was nottilted. • The gravitational force
Explain the connection between a new moon, a solar eclipse, and a of the Sun and Moon
coincidence. springtide. produces tides.

0
 W The Earth in space
Science Another Indian mathematician-astronomer, Brahmagupta, described a law
in context Changing ideas 1: Ancient ideas of gravity about a thousand years before Newton. He worked out a method
about the Universe for calculating the positions of planets, and when they rise and set.

5.6 Past times

Astronomy in Africa
Thousands of years ago the Egyptians made a huge number of observations
v** iA

u
Objectives Imagine that you were living 2000 years ago. Many things about your and worked out a calendar with 365 days. This is not the same as saying that
h
• Describe some ideas in
ancient astronomy that
have changed over time
everyday life would be different, but if you looked up at the night sky you
would sde the stars and planets change position just as they do today.

What is the difference between a story and an explanation?

the Earth goes around the Sun in 365 days. It was an observation that the
seasons change over a year.
One of the oldest astronomical sites known is in southern Egypt at Nabta
**
Playa. Scientists think that more than 7000 years ago people put stones in ▲ Part of an ancient
In the ancient world people told stories to explain why things happened,
• Describe how scientists like the sun rising and setting, eclipses, and seasons of the year. This is not
places that would line up with where certain stars would rise. observatory in Africa.
develop explanations People were probably making measurements of the stars many thousands
what scientists do.
of years ago in West Africa. Scientists think that people put stones at
Namoratunga on the west side of Lake Turkana in Kenya in 300 BCE and
tilted them to make an astronomical calendar pointing to stars at particular

ll)))))0O
times.

Islamic astronomy
li
The earliest records of astronomical observations came from Babylonia, a
region that is now in Iraq. People there recorded the positions of planets
1 and the dates of eclipses. Their observations were later used by Greek and
▲ Many cultures told stories about the Sun being eaten during an eclipse.
Indian astronomers.
• Scientists ask questions, for example, ‘Why do the stars and planets Ibn Al-Haytham, who was born in Basra in Iraq in 956, thought that the Earth

Wtll
move in the way that they do?’ was spinning on its axis. Al-Biruni, a scientist born in Uzbekistan about
• Then they collect evidence by making observations or measurements. 1000 years ago, developed a model to explain the phases of the Moon.
• They develop explanations to account for the evidence. One of the big achievements of Islamic science was the construction
• Sometimes the explanations use a model. A model is a physical or of many observatories and invention of new instruments, such as the
mathematical way of explaining how something works, like a model of
▲ Astronomers using a range
the Solar System. astrolabe. With these instruments astronomers could make very precise
of instruments.
measurements of the stars and planets. They made detailed charts of the
t The invention of numbers and of writing were important for developing positions of the stars.
explanations. If people could not make measurements and write down their
results, they could not look for patterns.

'
Astronomy in India • Scientists ask questions,
collect evidence, and
The Indian astronomer Aryabhata was born in Bihar, India, in the year 476. develop explanations.
He thought that the motion of the stars was because the Earth was spinning
on its axis, not because the stars were moving. The Earth’s spin also
1. Explain why the invention of writing was important for the
• Ancient astronomers
development of scientific explanations. measured positions of
explained day and night. 2. Suggest how the scientific explanation of day and night was objects in the sky.
At the time some people thought that eclipses happened because dragons developed.
3* a.
• They produced models
or demons attack the Sun during an eclipse, or that the Sun is swallowed by Describe a story people used to tell about eclipses. to explain eclipses,
gods. Aryabhata showed that his model could predict when lunar and solar b. Give a scientific explanation for eclipses. moon phases, and day
▲ Part of an old observatory in eclipses would happen. c. Explain how the story and the explanation are different. and night.
Jaipur, India.

Eli] 0
 The Earth in space

Science Evidence for the geocentric model

in context Changing ideas 2: The geocentric The ground that you are standing on does notfeel as if it is moving. This
model
5.7 You know that the Earth is not at the centre of the Universe, but people did
supported the idea that the Earth was at the centre of the Universe. There
were many other ideas.

• Greek philosophers thought that all objects fall towards the centre of the
not always believe that.
Universe. If you drop an object it goes down, so the Earth had to be at the
Objectives centre.
Astronomy in Greece
• Ptolemy saw that half the stars were above the
• Describe the geocentric Plato and Aristotle were Greek astronomers who lived about 2400 years ago. horizon and half were below the horizon at any
model They developed the geocentric model of the Universe. ‘Geo’ means Earth in time. If the Earth was not at the centre, then the distant stars
the Greek language. In this model the Earth is at the centre of the Universe. numbers of stars above and below the horizon
• Describe evidence for the •.
•

geocentric model In their model: would not be the same.

• Explain why scientific • the Earth did not move, but the • If the Earth was moving then stars would appear
to move between January and July as the Earth
stars and planets movedaround
*
Earth
explanations change
the Earth Moon Venus Sun Mars moves around the Sun. In fact the stars do '• :* •.*
• there were seven planets: Mercury, / / move, but they are so far away you cannot see
Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the
Sun, and the Moon, with stars
beyond them
4 that movement without a telescope, so Ptolemy
did not know this.
Ptolemy’s geocentric model was very successful
view in January
\
view in July

• all these objects were spherical, because it could explain lots of observations and
including the Earth make predictions. It was a popular model because Earth in January Earth in July
• all the objects moved at a steady it fitted what people could see and feel. Only when
speed on spheres around the Earth people had evidence from things that they couldn’t
The geocentric model.
• light could travel through the immediately see would the scientific explanation Ancient astronomers could not detect the apparent
spheres, called ‘crystalline spheres’ change. movement of stars.
• the Moon was on the sphere closest to the Earth, and the stars were on
the sphere furthest from the Earth.

•v. Moving backwards

The geocentric model explained a lot of astronomical observations, but it
did not explain one important observation. The planets seemed to wander
across the sky. They did not always go in the same direction. This motion is
The position of Mars
photographed every week
called retrograde motion. • In the geocentric model
the Moon, planets, Sun,
for several months. Ptolemy was another Greek astronomer who lived about 1800 years ago.
and stars orbit the Earth
He changed the geocentric model to explain the retrograde motion of the
1. Complete these sentences: on crystal spheres.
planets.
He added little circles on top of the bigger circles that were the paths of In the geocentric model the is at the centre of the
• This model was easy
Earth
• Universe. The Moon, Sun, planets, and stars orbit on
to believe because the
the planets. Earth does not appear
O /j1 planet • He worked out how big they needed to be to explain the ‘backward’ This model made sense to people because the Earth does not appear
to
to be moving, but the
. motion of the planets. Moon, Sun, and stars do
• He predicted the future positions of the planets. 2* Explain why people found it easy to believe the geocentric model. appear to move.
• He wrote about his model in a book that was used for hundreds of years. 3. Describe how the geocentric model was changed to explain the
• Scientific explanations
A Little circles are added to observation that the planets seemed to wander backwards and change when there is
orbits to explain retrograde forwards across the sky. new evidence.
motion.

[j] 0
 r The Earth in space
Science Galileo and the telescope
in context Changing ideas: Modern ideas The telescope was invented in 1600 in the

5.8
\

about the Universe Netherlands. Galileo Galilei was an Italian

mathematician and scientist who made his own
People who lived before 1600 had telescope in 1609. One night he pointed it at the i.
only ever seen five planets. They planet Jupiter and made some important K-T
Objectives watched the planets, the Sun, and observations. 7
the Moon move across the sky. They Earth Mars
were happy with the explanation • He saw four objects that seemed to be in orbit
• Describe the heliocentric
the Universe that astronomical objects were
around Jupiter, not around the Earth.
A The planets show retrograde
model of
carried on celestial spheres. • These were the four biggest moons of Jupiter. motion when viewed from
• Describe the evidence for • These moons are now called the Galilean satellites in his honour. the Earth because they are
the heliocentric model Only new evidence would change orbiting the Sun at different
This was evidence that not all the objects in the Universe orbited the Earth.
people’s view of the Universe. speeds.
Galileo thought that planets orbit the Sun just like moons orbit Jupiter.
• Explain how scientific
That new evidence came with the A
v
Galileo and his telescope
explanations develop Galileo also used his telescope to make observations of the Sun. He
invention of the telescope.
observed dark spots on the Sun called sunspots. The observations showed
Challenging the geocentric model that astronomical objects such as the Sun were not perfect.
Nicholas Copernicus was born in 1473 in Poland, before telescopes were Unlike Copernicus, Galileo talked about his model in public. Church leaders
invented. He is famous for developing the heliocentric model of the in Rome were not happy with Galileo. They tried to make him take back his
Universe. ‘Helio’ means ‘Sun’ in the Greek language. Copernicus promoted
the heliocentric model in Europe, but he did not invent the idea. The Greek
astronomer Aristarchus had produced a model with the Sun at the centre
claim. He refused, and published his ideas in 1632.

• His book showed how the heliocentric model explains the evidence
more simply than the geocentric model.
y
about 1200 years earlier. Al-Biruni suggested that the Sun might be at the
centre about 500 years earlier. He thought that it was not possible to prove • book was published in Italian, which a lot of people understood.
The
that the Earth was moving. He was kept imprisoned in his house until he died in 1642. After his death,
the heliocentric model gradually became accepted. A A sunspot on the surface of
In the heliocentric model: the Sun.
In fact, the Sun is at the centre of our Solar System, not of the Universe.
• the Sun was at the centre of the Universe
— Jupn
• all the planets were in orbits around the Sun Since Galileo, astronomers have built up a model of the Universe that is
much larger than the Solar System and contains galaxies.
• the Moon was in orbit around the Earth.
This model was able to explain the motion of the How do ideas change?
wMarj
planets much more simply. Scientists look for
-Venu\ ySatarn Scientists might not know that an explanation has already been developed
the simplest explanation of their observations. If
Mercury- by someone else because:
explanations begin to get very complicated, then
Sun
they will look for a simpler one. • it may not have been published
It was very difficult for Copernicus to discuss his • it might have been written in a book that hadn’t reached them yet • The heliocentric model
Moo heliocentric model openly. Most people believed • it might have been written in another language. has planets in orbit
around the Sun.
the Earth to be at the centre of the Universe at
the time. This was an important part of religious • Moons orbit planets,
which is evidence
beliefs. Copernicus was worried that he would be 1* Describe the difference between the geocentric and heliocentric models. against the geocentric
persecuted if he published his ideas. His book about 2. Describe the piece of evidence that was important for overturning model.
the heliocentric model was published as he died. It
not to scale was published in Latin, which was not a language
the geocentric model.
3. Describe the observation that was simpler to explain with the
• If a scientific explanation
is simpler it is more likely
A The heliocentric model. that many people could understand. heliocentric model than with the geocentric model. to be accepted.

84
 The Earth in space
Thinking
Answering Yuda’s question
and working Using planetary data Yuda knows that seasons on Earth are due to the tilt of the Earth’s
axis.
scientifically
Eko and Yuda are looking at pictures of the planets. • He finds a website about the planets.

gfi V V
M l
..
[ between the length of a
da'j and the length of a
j
J
1®
W ,
CSW
• He writes down the angle at which the axis of each planet is tilted.
• He checks on several other websites and finds that the data are very
similar on all the sites.
Data are not always presented in the form of a table. Yuda found
the data on
Mereur-f
Venus
6arth
Mars
Jupiter
o
m.4
25.5
2-4.0
y >(ear on each planet, y this diagram. He took the numbers from the diagram and made a table 3.\
I wonder if there are for
Objectives seasons on other them. When you are using secondary data you may need to display the Saturn 2W
. planets. .
data Uranus
in a different way, such as on a chart or a graph. 44.4
• Describe the difference
primary and
Neptune 26.0
between laboratory.
They cannot answer these questions by doing experiments in a
secondary sources of data
Primary and secondary sources
• Name some secondary In an experiment you take measurements or make observations.
These
sources data
observations or measurements are called data. Scientists record their
• Use information from in tables and display them using charts or graphs. An experiment
is an
secondary sources to
example of a primary source of data in science. There are other primary
answer questions sources of data, such as fieldwork. Mercury Venus Earth Mars
0C 177° (-3°) 23.5°
Answering Eko’s question 25°

Eko wants to know if the day length on other planets is related to the year

• She knows that the Earth takes 24 hours to spin on its axis.
This is the length of one day on Earth.
length.
;
• '
• It takes 365 days to orbit the Sun.
• This is the length of one year.
She finds a book and looks up data about other planets.
The book is a secondary source of data. Eko did not make the measurements
Jupiter
3°
r Saturn Uranus Neptune
27° 98° (-82°) 30°
herself. She used measurements that other people have made.
not to scale
It is very important to check data, whether they are primary
data or
secondary data. This could mean repeating an experiment, or
looking at
more than one secondary source to check that the data are the same.
1. Look at Yuda’s data.
These are the data Eko found. TWS
w
a. Which planet doesn’t have seasons? Explain your • Experiments and
Time to go onee around the
answer. fieldwork are primary
"Planet Time to spin onoe on its | b. Which planets have seasons that would be similar to
a*is (hours) Sun (wears)_ sources of data.
Earth’s seasons? Explain your answer.
Mercury l4iU (54 daÿs) <xz4
c. On which planets would there be seasons, but you would • Secondary sources of
Venus 2 171 440 (244 .ears) oM information, such as a
1.00
hardly notice them? Explain your answer. book or the Internet,
earth 24
d. On which planet would the seasons be very different from
Mars 25 the contain data that other
ll.Slo Earth’s seasons? Explain your answer.
Jupiter 10 people have collected.
2. Look at Eko’s data. Write down whether there is a
Saturn u 24.40-
tAm
relationship
between day length and year length. Explain your answer. • You can use primary
Uranus lgs 3. Explain why you should look at more than and secondary data to
HA6Q one secondary source.
\ Neptune k answer questions.
Eko can use the data to answer her question.
m ED
 The Earth in space

Review can see from the

4. Here is a list of objects that you
Look at where the Earth is on the diagram. How
many months later will the Earth be at:
8. Below are some statements about how the Solar
telescope. System formed. List the letters in the correct
Earth, with the naked eye or with a

5.10 Sun comet Jupiter’s mooni

Moon planet L
star (not our Sun)
Earth Venus Mercury Neptune
can see
a. A

b. B
[1]

[1]
order.
A The Sun formed.

B A cloud of gas and dust was spinning in space.

a. Write down the objects that you c. C [1]
1. Match each object to its correct
definition. a telescope. [1]
without using C Gravity pulled the dust and gas together.
The distance between the Sun and Mercury
1 a piece of dust or rock that burns up in b. Explain why you cannot put the objects
[1] is 60 million km. The distance between the Earth D The Earth and other planets formed.
the atmosphere in order of size. and the Sun is 150 million km.
Mars
2 a piece of rock in an orbit between three other E Asteroids are leftover pieces of dust and rock.
c. ‘Mercury’ could form a group with d. Calculate the closest distance that Mercury
and Jupiter why? [1]
words on the list. Which three, and gets to the Earth.
9’ Therearetidestwiceaday-
the ground [2]
3 a meteor that has landed on other
d. ‘Sun’ could form a pair with one a. Draw a diagram of the positions of the Earth,
[1] e. Use the diagram to explain why we see
4 a big, dirty snowball that orbits
the Sun word on the list. Which one, and why? Moon, and Sun during a spring tide. [1]
different stars at different times of the year. [1]
You may use
A asteroid 5. Copy and complete these sentences. b. Describe the type of eclipse that would be
each word once, more than once, or not at all. 7. When studying astronomy you cannot do
produced by the positions of the Earth, Moon,
B comet experiments. Scientists make observations
away from towards North South
day month and Sun you have described in part a. [1]
C meteor and develop explanations to account for the
[4] year equator axis shorter longer observations. Here is a list of observations that c. Explain why we do not get eclipses every
D meteorite
2. Write the letter of the statement
we have day and night.
that explains

a day.
why
__
a. We have seasons because the
Earth is tilted. The Earth orbits the Sun
once every
of the

[2]
astronomers made thousands of years ago.
A The ground that we are standing on does not
appear to move.
month.

d. Describe the phase of the Moon when the

Earth, Moon, and Sun are in the position you
[1]

A The Earth orbits the Sun once hemisphere

b. In summer in the southern B We see different stars in June and December. described in part a. [1]
B The Sun orbits the Earth once
a day. _ Pole is tilted towards the Sun
C The Sun spins on its axis once
a day.
the
and the
_ Pole is tilted away. C The Sun moves across the sky. lO.a. For each statement below write ‘primary’ or
‘secondary’ to describe the type of data.
This means that the days in the northern
TWS
a day. U1 D Planets appear to wander across the sky.
D The Earth spins on its axis once

3. at the diagram of the Solar System.

Look
--
hemisphere are
hemisphere are
southern
and the days in the
[4] E The stars move together across the sky
i. An astronomer uses data from a science
book to develop an explanation about the
without wandering. atmospheres on different planets. [1]
4 is spread out
c. In winter the energy from the Sun
over a area because that part of the a. Write the letter of each observation that fits
ii. A student uses a table from a magazine
Earth’s surface is tilting the Sun. [2] with a geocentric model of the Universe. to find out about moons around the
( (There may be more than one.) [1]
planets in the planets. [1]
6. Here is a diagram of the first four
Solar System. b. Write the letter of each observation that fits
iii. A teacher uses a telescope to observe
2 3 5 with a heliocentric model of the Universe.
1 the craters on the Moon. [1]
(There may be more than one.) [1]
you find:
Write the number that shows where
A
b. Which data are likely to be more reliable?
[1] c. Write the letter of the observation that is TWS Explain your answer.
a. the inner planets [1]
Venus explained more simply by the heliocentric
[1]
b. the outer planets A model than by the geocentric model. [1]

c. the asteroid belt

[1] B Sun • Earth

[1]
d. a comet Mercery
[1]
e. a star. C

Mars
not to scale

88
 ■■
■ Stage 7 review

d. Does 51 Pegasi b have seasons? Explain

Review 3. Here are some data about
different types of
your answer. [1]
6. a. Here are some statements about the
TWS geocentric and the heliocentric models of the
music player.
Universe. Write down which statements are
Stage 7
51 Pegasi is a star in the constellation of Pegasus.
It is 51 light years away. true and which are false. [4]
_ II e. Suggest how 51 Pegasi formed. [1] A The geocentric model could only work if
70
A you added smaller orbits to the orbits of
of gravity between
force
1. A student says ‘There is a 100 f. When astronomers look at 51 Pegasi, are planets.
force of gravity B
any objects with mass. There is a 80 they seeing it as it is now? Explain your
of gravjty B A heliocentric model explains the motion
between me and my chair. The force C answer. [1]
get out
me and my chair makes it hard to is dissipated of planets more simply than the geocentric
between a. Calculate how much energy [1] 5. A teacher is showing the class how you can make model.
of my chair!’ by music player A. a balloon stick to the wall by rubbing it on your
is or
Write down which sentence or sentences b. Suggest how the energy is
dissipated. [1] clothes. C Nobody before Copernicus had thought of
are correct. the heliocentric model.

•I
of efficiency
c. Put the music players in order [1]
2. A baby gorilla is playing. starting with the least efficient.
D Copernicus built his heliocentric model
using the ideas of others.
[1]

r
r d. Explain why you have chosen
this order.
E The orbit of the Moon around the Earth was
2 e. Describe how the sound travels
from the evidence that Galileo used to convince
; the music player to the ear.
[i]
people that the Earth orbited the Sun.
V B
4 f. A student takes the music player
into a large F The invention of the telescope was very

m
Suggest
canyon. They hear multiple sounds. important for the development of the
in
□ where the sounds come from.
in orbit around a
heliocentric model.

4. A planet has been discovered a. As she rubs the balloon on her clothes the G There were no astronomical observatories
(51Pegasi) is
star that is not our Sun. The star balloon becomes positively charged. in India before Copernicus.
a branch. He about the same size and brightness as our Sun.
He climbs up a tree and sits on the planet, which
Describe what has happened to charge b. Astronomers use telescopes to collect data.
they fall to the Here is some information about
pulls some leaves off the tree and the balloon. [1] Is that primary or secondary data? [l]
ground. Then he jumps down from the
branch. He is called 51 Pegasi b.
each other. b. The wall is neutral. Explain what that
sees his mother and they run towards 51 Pegasi b Earth
means. [1]
c. Scientists ask questions, and then use evidence
energy as to develop explanations and test them. Think
a. Name the energy store that
gained Distance from the 150
[1] 7.7 c. As she brings the positively charged about the development of the heliocentric
he climbed the tree. star (million km) model. Fill in the table below to show how the
balloon towards the wall the outside of
[1] Time to orbit the
b. Describe where this energy comes from. 4 365
the wall becomes negatively charged. question/evidence/explanation system fits the
sun (days) development of the heliocentric model. [3]
a small leaf from Explain why. [1]
c. He dropped a large leaf and Time to spin once 4 1
hit the
the branch. Write down which one [2] on its axis (days) d. She leaves the balloon stuck to the wall but it Applied to the development
ground first. Explain your answer. Tilt of the axis 79 23.5 eventually falls off. Why? [1] of the heliocentric model
from when he (degrees) Question
d. Describe the energy transfers e. A student goes home and tries to stick a Evidence
has landed on temperature of 51
jumps off the tree to when he [2]
a. Suggest whether the surface balloon to the metal case of a refrigerator. Will
temperature Explanation
the ground. Pegasi b is higher or lower than the [2] it work? Explain your answer. [i] TWS
at the same on the Earth. Explain your answer.
e. His mother runs towards him HI
Write b. How long is a day on 51 Pegasi
b?
speed that he is running towards her.
Explain
down who has more kinetic energy. b? [1]
[2] c. How long is a year on 51 Pegasi
your answer.

EH
 Forces
Their speed varied depending on the wind:
Speed • with strong wind they went faster
How fast? • in storms, wind could reach hurricane force (over 100 km/h)

xm
Bicycles, cars, and planes all travel at different speeds.
Speed is a measure • sometimes they were stuck for days with very little wind.
per second or
of how fast something is moving. It is the distance moved
Objectives (m/s) or kilometres per
per hour. The unit of speed is metres per second
hour (km/h).
* Calculate speed
• Explain what is meant by
average speed

• Describe the difference

average and
between
instantaneous speed \
W
CapeofGdÿWop14* / * CapeLeeuwirv
\
""xÿCapeÿmÿ7

... but you cart walk at about ▲ Many round-the-world sailors take this route.
A fast car can drive at over ▲

- -
A
300 km/h, or about 80m/s... 5 km/h, or1m/s
You can work out their average speed over the whole
journey by dividing
You may have heard people describe a cricket or tennis
ball as moving at the total distance by the total time that it took. This average
speed makes it
as 80 mph. In the UK and
50 80 miles per hour, which would be written down easier to compare how fast different people, or boats, or cars
travel.
the USA speeds are usually measured in mph rather than km/h. „
Average speed = total distance
,
40 --
total time
How to calculate speed Average Average
time it takes to travel _ 40707 km
To find the speed of a moving object, you measure the
speed (m/s) speed (km/h)
the time: 6096 h walking quickly
a known distance. The speed is the distance divided by 1.7 6.1
= 6.7 km/h sprinting_
distance 10 36
Speed = typical driving speed 14 50
time Instantaneous speed limit
steady speed. It takes him
A Speed limits are described in A long-distance runner runs part of his race at a During a car journey the speed that the driver sees on
km/h in India. 20 seconds to run 100 m. the speedometer is the speed at that moment in time,
(typhoon) _
category 1hurricane 33 119

Speed =
distance
time
called the instantaneous speed. That speed is worked
out from the size of the wheels on the car. It is not the
plane cruising speed | 255 _
A The table shows some typical average
918
100 m average speed. speeds.
20S
= 5 m/s
the units of distance
It is helpful to write out calculations like this. If you put
- * '

for the speed. 1. Write down the difference between average and • Speed is distance
and time in the equation, you will have the correct units 2. a. David drives 150 km in 2 hours. Calculate
instantaneous speed. divided by time, and has
his average speed in km/h. units m/s or km/h.
b. Fatima runs 200 m in 40 seconds. Calculate her
k- Average speed average speed. • Average speed is total
3. Preeti runs 100 m in 19 seconds. Nikita runs
Navy set off to sail the same distance in distance divided by
In September 2017 six female officers of the Indian 15 seconds.
The speed of a boat changes three oceans.
around the world. They made four stops on the way, crossing total time.
A
during a voyage. Write down who is faster. Explain your answer.
They had to sail through storms with waves as high as
nine-storey buildings.
4. A student says that a speed of 50
m/s is slower than a speed of
• Yourspeedata
707 km in
They arrived safely in Goa in May 2018. They had sailed 40 140 km/h because the number is smaller. What would you say
particular moment is the
to them? instantaneous speed.
254 days, which is 6096 hours.
 Forces
Thinking • This delay is called the reaction time.
and working Precision and accuracy: What’s • It is the time that it takes the brain to process information.
scientifically the difference? • It is typically about 0.2 seconds.
The judge stood by the finish line. They could anticipate when
the athlete
would cross the line. This meant that there was not the same
reaction time

fj
when they stopped the stopwatch. The times measured were
shorter than I
they should be by about 0.2 seconds. Automatic timing is •i
more accurate.

Measuring time in the laboratory

Objectives It is important to think about reaction time if you are
timing an experiment.
3 Starting blocks are
• Explain the difference • If you are timing something over a long period of time, then your reaction
A

connected to the timer.

between accuracy ( time will not make much difference.
[BOLT
and precision
1 • If you are timing something that happens very quickly, then
reaction time
• Define reaction time
J
will have a big effect. falling ball

• Know how to measure Dev is doing an experiment about air resistance.

time precisely
• He drops a ball from a metre off the ground. light

• He times how long it takes to hit the ground. gate 1

• The reading on his stopwatch is 0.65.

Short races needprecise measurements of time.
• If Dev’s reaction time is 0.2, then the accurate time could be 0.45!
P0
A
Dev could improve the accuracy of his experiment by
100 metres in a using timing gates or
Usain Bolt won an Olympic gold medal in 2012 by running light gates. These gates work like the finish of the 100 m
Blake, with race. When the ball
record time of 9.63 seconds. The silver medal went to, Yohan falls through the light beam of the first gate, the timer is timer
When differences started, and when
9.75. Justin Gatlin, who won the bronze medal, took 9.79. it falls through the second beam the timer is stopped.
are so small, timing must be as accurate and precise as possible. light
figures These timers can record times that are accurate and are precise to
Precision is shown by the number of significant figures. Significant
gate 2
3 significant figures.
figures, but
are the number of digits in a number. So, 24.3 has 3 significant
24 has 2 significant figures. O
A Light gates automatically
Yohan Blake and Justin Gatlin both had times of 9.8 seconds to start and stop the timer.
say who is faster.
2 significant figures. You need 3 significant figures to
Accuracy tells you how correct a measurement is.
1. Explain which measurement from the list below, below
is the
• A measurement can be very precise, but not be accurate.
If Usain Bolt’s time had been recorded as 9.73 seconds it would
have the most precise. • Accuracy is how close
• 1.3 1.348 1.35 1 a measurement is to its
same precision, but would have been very inaccurate. true value.
2. Explain why timing gates give you a more accurate
measurement of
What is reaction time? the time it takes a ball to fall than a stopwatch does. • Precision is the number
In the 1970s 3. Explain why automatic timing is more of significant figures to
A A stopwatch. For a long time the 100 m race was timed with a stopwatch. important in a 100 m race than
in a marathon (over 42 km, or 26 miles). which a value is given.
automatic timing was introduced.
4. When sprinters start a race, sensors in their
starting blocks detect a • Your reaction time is
• The starter’s gun triggers the start of the timer. change in pressure. If the time difference between the starting gun about 0.2 seconds.
• The athlete breaks a light beam when their body crosses the line. off and the change in pressure is too short, a false start is
going
• The reaction time is
registered.
• A light sensor automatically stops the clock. Which of these times could be the time difference that gives a false the time that it takes
for the the brain to process
When automatic timing was first introduced, the measured times start: less than 0.2s, 0.2s, more than 0.2s? Explain your
answer.
a short delay information.
100 m got longer! When a stopwatch was used there was
between the judge hearing the gun and starting the stopwatch.
I
 Forces
But usually when we are walking we
Distance-time graphs don’t suddenly change speed - our speed
4500
4000
changes continuously. A more realistic 3500
What is a distance-time graph?
something is moving.
graph would have curved lines as Rana’s % 3000
S 2500
>
A distance-time graph is a way of showing how speed changed gradually.
2000
from its starting
Objectives You can measure the distance a moving object has travelled 1500
from those Working out the speed from a
point each second. Then you can plot a distance-time graph 1000 1
distance-time graph 500
• Describeusing
the motion of an
a distance¬
data.
a track. The lines on
You can calculate the speed of a moving
object A cyclist is photographed every 2 seconds as he cycles along 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
object from its distance-time graph. For
time graph and on a graph.
the track show the distances. These data are displayed in a table
time (min)
example, in section A of the graph Rana A This distance-time graph tells the story of Rani’s journey to
60 walks 1000 m in 10 minutes. Ten minutes school.
Time (s) Distance (m)
50 converted to seconds is 600 seconds.
0 0
-g 40
2 12 Average speed = 5*!5tance

Jt
30
time
4 24 I 20 _ 1000 m
36
6
8 48
,0ZJ
°0 2 4 6 8 10
600 s
= 1.7 m/s The line gets steeper...
60 time (s)
10
A... on a distance-time graph.
This is how to calculate the average speed in section C. 1 the speed of the ball is
increasing...
A You can plot distances it is accelerating. .
(2400 m -1000 m)
and times... Average speed =
A A cyclist moving at a steady 12.5 min x 60s/min
speed.
Telling a story = 1.9 m/s
In each second the cyclist moves the same A
time

distance - his speed does not change. This Changing speed

steep =
means the graph is a straight line. fast When you drop a ball its speed increases as it falls. A distance-time
graph

s The slope, or gradient, of a distance-time

graph tells you the speed.
In the graph on the right, both objects are
s shallow = slow
(shorter distance
in more time)
for the ball will not be a straight line because the speed is not
a curve and the slope of the curve is increasing. This shows
increasing.
constant. It is
that the speed is

moving at a steady speed but the lines A distance-time graph of something that is slowing down
would also be a
have different gradients. curve but the line would become less and less steep. This would show • A distance-time
that
time
time the speed is decreasing. graph shows how
The graph on the left also tells a story, but A A and B are moving with the distance moved
A A horizontal line (flat) means not a [ot js happening! The line is flat, so different steady speeds. changes with time.
the object is stationary. the slope is zero. This tells you that the speed is
zero - the object isn’t moving. • A straight, upward-
sloping line means a

t> A journey to school

Rana walks to school. She stops to chat, and changes speed
along the way. 1. Describe the difference between a distance-time
graph showing a
•
steady speed.
If the line is horizontal,
then the object is not

'S
steady speed and one showing acceleration.
to school.
At the top of the next page is a distance-time graph of Rana’s journey 2. In which section of her journey to school is
moving.

Sections B and D of this graph are flat. This tells you that Rana
stopped. In Explain your answer.
Rana moving fastest?
• If the line is steeper, the
object is moving faster.
is moving
sections A, C, and E, the graph is a straight line that is sloped. She
3. Calculate Rana’s speed for section E of the graph
at steady speed. the page.
at the top of
• If the line is curved, the
speed is changing.
sections.
Rana’s graph suddenly changes between flat sections and sloped
■ T Forces

Speed-time graphs
Acceleration and
40-

Extension You can calculate the gradient of a line on a graph.

speed-time graphs • The gradient of a line on a distance-time graph tells you about the 30-

6.4 Changing speed

speed of an object.
• The gradient of a line on a speed-time graph tells you about its
1
120-

—
.12 i acceleration.
I
changes,
When the speed of something
10j
Objectives we say that it is accelerating. The r In the graph on the right, the speed is increasing by 10 m/s every second.
speed of a ball can change quickly. A)

• Describe how to calculate Acceleration tells you how much the • The acceleration is 10 m/s2. 0-t-
0
-r-
1
acceleration speed changes in one second. • The acceleration is constant the line is straight and the gradient, or
-
time (s)
▲ Footballplayers make a ball slope, is constant. ▲ A straight line shows constant
• Explain what is meant by speed up and slow down. • If the acceleration was bigger then the line would be steeper. acceleration.
Calculating acceleration
deceleration
To calculate average acceleration
you • If the speed does not change, then the line is horizontal. The
acceleration is zero.
• Explain how speed-time need to know: terminal
graphs tell a story Terminal velocity velocity
at the start
• the speed the end A cyclist is riding a race. He accelerates at the start and gets faster no acceleration
• the speeditattook and faster.
• the time
change.
for the speed to

change in speed
iÿKSS
\AA_hockey player accelerates a ball.i
As he does so the force of air resistance increases until eventually
it balances the forward force. He cannot go any faster - he has
reached terminal velocity. A speed-time graph tells the story
1
St-
/
/
/
/ acceleration
decreasing

Acceleration - time of this journey. At first the line is steep, showing that his speed large
is increasing very quickly. The line gets less and less steep as acceleration
i « final speed - starting speed his speed changes less quickly. This does not mean that he is
time
(m/s2). slowing down. It means that it takes longer for his speed to oT time
We measure it in m/s per second
or metres per second squared increase. Eventually he travels at a steady, terminal velocity. The
work. She sets off from her house
and line is horizontal because his speed is no longer changing.
Sinita is using her scooter to get to
accelerates from 0 to 20 m/s in 5 seconds.
final speed -starting speed
Her acceleration - time
20 m/s - 0 m/s
1. Explain the difference between speed, acceleration, and deceleration.
5s
2. Copy these sentences, choosing the correct words from each pair.
= 4 m/s2
The slope of a speed-time graph tells you the acceleration/distance. • Acceleration is change in
Slowing down: decelerating is
If the line is straight/horizontal the speed is not changing. speed divided by time.
» starting speed, it means that the object • If an object slows, its
If the final speed is lower than the This is/is not the same as a speed of 50
is negative. acceleration is negative.
slowing down or decelerating. The acceleration zero. 40
'A It is decelerating.
from 20 m/s to 10 m/s in 2 seconds. 3. A football decelerates from 10 m/s to
Sinita sees a friend. She slows down |30 • A straight, sloping
0 m/s in 0.1seconds.
_ 20 m/s - 0 m/s
a. Calculate the acceleration of the ball, g 20
line on a speed-time
Her acceleration 2~s graph shows constant
b. Write down the deceleration of the ball. acceleration.
_ - 10 m/s 4. Use the information on the graph to
10
• A horizontal line on a

9
“
2s
calculate the acceleration of car A and 0 speed-time graph
= -5 m/s2 car B. 0 12 3
This is the same as an acceleration time (s) shows constant speed.
We say that her deceleration is 5 m/s2.
of -5 m/s2.

ED
 T Forces

Thinking Drawing line graphs: speed | Distance (m)

Presenting data from racing
Time (s)
and working The speed of a racing car changes as it goes round the track - the car 0 0
scientifically accelerates and decelerates. The speed of a racing car is a continuous 2 28
Formula 1racing variable because it varies all the time. 4 80
The first Formula 1racing driver from India, The table on the previous page shows the speed of a car during the first
6 170
Narain Karthikeyan, races on race tracks all 8 330
over the world. Formula 1cars are designed
B5" 20 seconds of a race. Both the table and the graph show that the speed is 10 510
changing. It is much easier to see how the speed is changing from the graph. 12 680
to reach speeds far greater than ordinary cars.
14
• When the line slopes upwards, the car is accelerating. 860
Objectives Drawing charts: winners • When the line slopes downwards, the car is decelerating. 16 1030
18 1200
In the 2019 season there were 21races in the • When the line is flat, the car’s speed is constant. 20 1360
• Explain which type of
graph to plot from different
World Championship. The table shows the The line is smooth because the speed changes continuously, not suddenly.
number of races won by each driver. A Narain Karthikeyan waits
types of data to start a race.
We could show this information in a bar chart
Drawing line graphs: distance
• Apply ideas about
distance-time graphs
ora pie chart. This table (top right) shows the distance that the car travelled in 1400-]
Number of races won the first 20 seconds of the same race. We can show these data on a 1200-1
Number of races won 12 line graph too. Like speed, distance changes continuously. 1000- *
10 "T'800-
8
6
Telling a story
I 600- x
Sebastian 1 4 On a distance-time graph for a car: 73 400
2 200-
Vettel • when the line is horizontal the car is stationary
Charles
Leclerc_
2
° sv CL MV VB LH • a straight sloping line means that the car is moving at a steady
speed
°0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time (s)
Max 3 A Bar chart for the same data. • when the line curves up the car is accelerating. A Distance-time graph for a racing car.
Verstappen
Valtteri 4 On a speed-time graph for a car:
Pie chart. It has 21 equalparts, one per i
■ Sebastian Vettel ■ Charles Leclerc
Bottas
■ Valtteri Bottas ■ Lewis Hamilton
race. The slice for each race is 360° * 21 • when the line is horizontal the car is moving at a steady speed
Lewis
Hamilton ■ Max Verstappen
=17.1°. • a straight sloping line means that the car is accelerating at a steady rate.
You can calculate the acceleration from a speed-time graph by reading the
Categoric variables are
• The name of the driver is a categoric variable. values of speed and time from the axes.
words, not numbers.
only have whole
• Variables that are names
• The number of races is a discrete variable. You can are categoric.
0 I 0 j numbers of races. • Variables that can only
2 100 350- have certain numerical
If one of the variables in your table 1. Look at the distance-time graph. values, are discrete.
4. 195 300-
is a discrete variable, then you will
6 270
need to plot a bar chart or pie chart.
a. How far did the car travel in the first 18 seconds? • Variables that can have
8 310 E200 b. After what time is the speed constant? Explain your answer. any numerical value are
10 320 A variable that can take any 150
2. A student wants to plot the number of races that each driver continuous.
12 320 number, like time or distance, is CD
SHOO /
finishes each season. Suggest which type of graph or chart they • Pie and bar charts are
14 320 continuous. should use. Explain your answer. used when a variable is
50-
16 300 3. The car stops in the pits for 10 seconds. How would this be not continuous.
r
18 280 • The data in both columns must
vary continuously to plot a line
°0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
time (s)
represented on: • Line graphs are used
20 300 a. a distance-time graph when both variables are
graph. A Speed-time graph fora racing car. Tÿs b. a speed-time graph? continuous.

101
100
 Forces
Lots of forces
Balanced and unbalanced forces
6.6 You can use forces to explain why an object is moving in the
way that it is, or
why it is not moving. The force of gravity, or weight, is always acting
on the
Sometimes more than one pair of forces is acting on an object.

• The weight and the upthrust acting on the boat are balanced. The |
boat does not move up or down.
diver. Why is she moving in only one of the pictures?
• The thrust of the engine is balanced by the air and water
Objectives resistance. The boat moves forwards with a steady speed.
moving If an object is stationary or moving at a steady speed, then you know
• Explain the difference that the forces on it are balanced.
between balanced and
If it is speeding up, slowing down, or changing direction, then the

mm
unbalanced forces forces acting on it must be unbalanced.
• Describe the effect of
forces
not moving
balanced Do you need a force? The forces acting on the boat
Lots of people think that if something is moving, such as a leaf falling are thrust, water resistance, air
• Describe the effect of at a steady speed, or a football rolling along the ground, then
resistance, weight, and upthrust.
unbalanced forces there
is a force acting on it. This is not the case. An object can move without a A air resis

4
resultant force.
reaction
directions, they The ball...
If the forces on an object are the same size but in opposite | The forces... I The ball will...
cancel out. The forces are balanced. It’s like a tug-of-war when the teams is in contact with the are unbalanced accelerate
diver
are equal. The object behaves as if there is no force on it. When the player’s foot _
floats, her weight is balanced by the upthrust of the water. leaves the player’s foot are unbalanced decelerate
is rolling on the ground are balanced
;l
If the forces on an object are balanced, its motion will not change: continue at the same speed
weight Ifwe could remove friction and air resistance, then the ball would carry on
• If it is not moving it will stay still.
The boy’s weight and travelling at a steady speed forever. You will learn more about Galileo, who
andth' e ai r
A

Resistance are
A
moving at a steady speed.
the reaction force are • If it is moving it will keep had this idea, on pages 106-107.
balanced. He doesn’t If the forces on an object are not equal and opposite, they are unbalanced. balanced. The 'leaf folk
move. with a steady speed.
If the forces are unbalanced then the motion of the object will change:

• If it is not moving it will start moving.

• If it is moving it will speed up (accelerate), slow down (decelerate), or 1. Copy and complete the table for forces acting on an object.
change direction. Tick the
correct column for each statement.
Resultant forces Balanced | Unbalanced
• Forces are balanced
if they cancel each
If you know the size of each force acting on an object, you can work
out
there is zero resultant force
direction other out. They are
the resultant force, or net force. If the arrows are in the same the forces do not cancel out
one unbalanced if they do
you add the forces. If they are in opposite directions you take away the forces cancel out not cancel out.
force from the other. there is a resultant force • An object stays still or
• If the resultant force is zero the forces are balanced. moves at a steady speed
2. A cricket player drops a ball, and the forces on it are
• If the resultant force is not zero the forces are unbalanced. unbalanced. if the forces on it are
Describe its motion.

mr - ;?«r
200 N 200 N 200 N balanced.
1000 N 3. Vil says that if a car is moving, then there must be a
200 N A 600 N
resultant force • Unbalanced forces
acting on it. Atom says there doesn’t need to be a resultant force
change the speed,
acting on it. Write down who you agree with, and explain your
direction, or both of a
The resultant force is 800 N to A The resultant force is answer.
A The resultant force is 400 N to A
zero. moving object.
the right. the left.

103
102
■ Forces

Using forces: Friction Friction can be useful

6.7 What is friction?

often be a
Friction is not always a bad thing.

• When you walk, friction acts between your feet and the
When an object is moving, there will
force of friction acting on it.
Ml •
ground, making it possible for you to move.
Vehicles too need the force of friction between the tyres

M
Objectives
of
• Describe the effect objects
- When a child goes down a slide, there
of friction between them and the slide.
is a force
This is
that feel
and the road to make them move. In icy conditions friction
is reduced. Wheels skid because there is not enough
friction for them to grip the road. When there is not much friction, you
because all surfaces, even surfaces
A
friction on moving
very smooth, are uneven. A metal slide
looks
A Friction slows down
• Bicycles and cars also need friction to stop. The force of realise how important friction is!
can see friction acts between their brakes and the wheels. The
• Describe howto reduce smooth, but under the microscope you moving objects.
friction between brake pads or brake blocks and the wheels
friction how uneven it is. wears the brakes away and they have to be replaced. rubber bands newtonmeter
• Describe how friction can You need to push things to get them
to move.
Measuring friction V
be useful does not move, the forces are
If you push a book on a table and it
• balanced. You can use a newtonmeter to measure the force of friction box
between two surfaces. « A The newtonmeter reads the force
• The uneven surfaces produce the force of friction cable of friction when the box moves at a
that you have to overcome. steady speed.
are unbalanced.
force is bigger than friction, the forces
• Then the book will accelerate.
When your
•
Reducing friction
order to go faster or reduce damage.
People often want to reduce friction, in
brake [M fc
blockrw/ÿ
A Even smooth surfaces
like
shiny metal are rough if
you look at them under a Friction between the brake blocks and the wheel helps you to
microscope.
control the speed of a bicycle.

A
w
Cyclists lubricate the chains
of their bicycles to reduce A
1. Name one situation where friction is useful, and one situation where
friction is not useful and needs to be reduced.
2. a. Explain what causes the force of friction between two surfaces
that are sliding over each other.
b. Explain how lubrication with oil reduces friction.
friction.
Skiers and snowboarders wax their skis and boards to reduce friction
A 3. a. Ice skates create a thin layer of water T
and to go faster. between the blade and the ice.
it • The force of friction
I
9
You put oil in a car to reduce friction
is called lubrication.
between engine parts that move.
A layer of oil between two surfaces
This
makes it easier for
Suggest how this affects friction and
helps the skater.
slows things down.
• You can reduce friction
reduces the force of friction.
the surfaces to slide over each other. It b. Suggest why ice skates have a by lubrication or by
L
of a skateboard. They roll over jagged edge at the front. using ball-bearings.
Ball bearings in the wheels There are ball-bearings inside the wheels
A
slow down surface wear. each other as the wheel turns, and reduce
friction. 4. Tyres have treads to remove water • Friction is useful for grip,
from between the tyre and the road. to start moving, or for
Explain why it is important to remove the water. braking.

105
104
 Forces

Science ... if the second ...the ball would

in context Changing ideas about motion slope was continue moving! ?

completely flat

6.8 Starting and stopping

Moving objects are slowed down
by friction, air resistance, and
f ? Galileo realised that the ball would keep rolling at a steady speed
water resistance. forever!
Objectives
A moving object still needs
He had shown that you do not need a force to keep something moving.
• Describe how explanations a force to balance the forces
A It takes a force to start something
This is an example of someone using creative thinking to solve a
about motion were slowing it down in order to keep it problem in physics.
moving when it is stationary.
developed moving. To cycle at a steady speed,
the cyclist pushes the pedals around. If he stops pushing on the pedals he What happened next? 1
• Explain why ideas take a
will slow down and stop. Galileo wrote a book about motion in 1590. The idea that you did not
long time to change
need a force to keep something moving wasn’t very popular.
What did people think before?
A Over 2400 years ago a Greek philosopher called Aristotle
developed • People saw in the world around them that you did need a force to
keep something moving.
air resistance and Ml ideas about motion. He said that objects move only when they are
friction balance
pushed, and slow down when you remove the force. He did not really
• They didn’t realise that in most situations the force is needed to
the driving force °rCe
cancel out friction or air resistance.
understand friction. • Without friction and air resistance no force is needed to keep
~
3 His ideas were accepted for a long time. something moving.

▲ The cyclist moves at a It took a long time for his idea to be accepted.
steady speed. Asking questions about motion
Galileo lived over 400 years ago. He was interested in experiments about Newton’s first law and inertia
motion. He made lots of observations that did not agree with Aristotle’s About 100 years later, Sir Isaac Newton developed Galileo’s work into
ideas about motion. He asked this question: three laws of motion. Newton’s first law of motion states that, unless
What would happen if there was no friction? an external force is applied, stationary objects will remain stationary, and
moving objects will continue to move in a straight line at a steady speed.
He could not do experiments without friction in a laboratory. There is
always
some friction between surfaces, even if they are really smooth. Objects resist changes to their motion - this is called inertia. This is
obvious when you try to move an object with a very large mass.
Instead of doing an experiment with equipment, Galileo did a ‘thought
experiment’. This can be very useful to work out what might happen in a
situation where it is not possible to carry out the experiment.

Galileo’s ‘thought experiment’ 1. Imagine that there is no friction for a day. Make a list of things that

Galileo knew that something rolling down a slope speeds up. He thought it would not be possible for you do. Which things would still be
• Some questions can’t
that if there was no friction and... possible? be tested easily using
2. A boat on a river is moving with a steady speed. The engine is
equipment.
...if the slopes ...the ball would running.
were equally reach the same same a. Explain why you need to keep the engine running to move at a
• You can use your
h imagination to do
steep... height height, h steady speed. thought experiments.
b. Describe what would happen if the engine was turned off.
... if the second ...the ball would 3. Suggest what would happen if the slopes in Galileo’s experiments
• Sometimes it takes a
long time for an idea to
slope was longer... reach the same same had been curved rather than straight. Explain your answer.
height, h be accepted.
height again...

107
106
 Forces

If you keep loading more and more on, eventually the spring will not
Using forces: Tension and upthrust return to its original length when you remove the force. It has reached

6.9 Under tension

Ropes for rock climbing are
designed
its limit, called the elastic limit. The spring cannot spring back and it is
permanently extended.

Elastic materials will break if the force applied to them is too big.
to stretch a certain amount, just
in
Objectives case the climber falls. If the rope did Why do things float?
be £
not stretch then the.climber could
• Describe what happens injured. Rop'es, cords, and springs all ◄ Oil tankers can be 400 m long
F?
when you stretch a spring stretch when you pull them. 7 and have a mass of 500 000
tons fully laden.
• Describe what is meant by There is force in the rope that
elastic limit

• Explain how upthrust is

produced
• Explain why things float
or sink
balances the climber’s weight. The
force in a rope that is being stretched
is called tension. As you pull on the
rope the particles inside are moving
apart. The tension force that you feel
is the force of attraction pulling the
particles back again.
|
I
S
£

I ’tam
■
Im¬

dm nilii * ik
In the water a force called upthrust pushes up on the boat. The upthrust
balances the weight so the boat floats.

• Water particles collide with the bottom of the boat.

o
Elastic bands and bungees
A bungee cord is designed to stretch
• They push the boat up.
a very long way. It is made of lots of
A The tension in the rope exerts an • A large area produces a big force that can balance a big
upwards force on the climber. weight.

2
elastic cords all bound together.

■
to its original length when you
• If something is elastic, it will go back Apparent weight
is called the extension.
▲ A bungee jumper jumps
off a remove the force. The amount that it stretches If you weigh an object underwater it appears to weigh less
original length after stretching, we 4 N of
platform with a long elastic • If something does not go back to its because of the upthrust. It is much easier to pull yourself out water

cord attached to them. say it is plastic. of a swimming pool than it is to pull yourself up when you
are not in water.
Stretching a spring

:
Springs are used in spring balances, In this diagram, the upthrust is 4 N. The water level has risen because the
trampolines, and car suspension weight has displaced some water. The weight of the displaced water is 4 N.
elastic limit systems. It is important to use the This is Archimedes’ principle. The apparent weight of the object is now 6 N.

1
spring right spring for
the job, so you need
breaks to fjncj out how much a spring will
Spring -

1 • Springs, ropes, and

elastic materials have
a tension in them
stretch when you apply a force to it.
£ Hooke’s law region - when stretched.
Weight of parcel
extension is directly
• A bigger force will produce a bigger = 5.3 N 1. Aspring is 3 cm long. A student hangs a weight of 2N on it. It • The extension is
proportional to force
_ extension. I stretches to 4.5 cm long. proportional to the
extension (m) • If you double the force you double A a. Calculate the extension. tension, up to the
A A graph for a spring. the extension. b. Calculate the extension with a weight of 4N on it. elastic limit.
• The extension is proportional to Parcel c. Calculate the lengthofthe spring with a weight of6N on it. • Springs in tension pull
the force. 2. A floating boat weighs 20 000 N. Write down the magnitude and back.
We say that the spring obeys
• Hooke’s Law. ! direction of the upthrust. • Objects float when the
3. When people do a bungee jump, they are asked how much they upthrust equals the
A A newtonmeter contains a
spring because the extension is weigh. Explain why. weight.
This is why we can use a spring
balance to measure forces. proportional to the force.
109
108
 Thinking Forces "
and working Presenting data from springs What sort of graph?
Suma knows that to find a pattern in her results, she needs to
12i ~r
scientifically plot a graph.
10d /
The elastic limit
Suma is on the • Both weight and extension are continuous variables. I8'
6.10 trampoline. The label says • She plots a line graph of the weight and the mean 1 61

in
that the weight limit for extension.
I 4-
• She draws a line of best fit.
Objectives
the trampoline is 1200 N.
The springs must be
f Her line starts at the origin (0, 0) because when the force is
zero
S

2-J '
"
x - anomalous result
the extension is zero.
below their elastic limit
when the weight is 1200 N. Her line was straight at the start, but then curved up as the
0- --
-I
1
1
2
r
3
• Describe how to present
increased.
load 4
weight (N)
5 6 7 8
results in tables ▲ A trampoline contains many springs.
Recording results
• Describe how toidentify
draw lines ready to Points that don’t fit
Suma collects a spring, some weights, and a ruler. She draws a table
of best fit and unit. One point was far away from the line. This is called an anomalous
anomalous results record all of her repeat measurements. Each column has a heading with a result. Suma
probably measured the extension wrongly. Anomalous results:
Weight (N) Extension (cm) Mean extension (cm)
• Explain which data points 1 2 3 • should be identified, as shown on the graph spring
are reliable • should be repeated or checked.
Suma applied a force of 6 N to the spring and then removed it. The
spring
How can I find out is the did not go back to its original length. She had found the elastic limit!
the- elastic limit Suma measures the length of the spring with no weights on it. This metre
. of a spring?,
oo
original length. Are the results reliable?
rule

• She records zero force and zero extension in her table. Suma can be confident in the conclusions based on her data
because: U
• She adds one 1N weight to the spring and measures the new length. weight
To find the extension she subtracts the original length from the new
• length, and writes the result in her table. • she repeated each measurement three times
• repeated measurements make the data more accurate
experiment by adding weights until she reaches 8 N. and reliable.
• She repeatsthetheresult
• She writes in her table.
• Suma calculates the extension for each weight.
mean

Weight (N) | Mean extension (cm)

0 0 original
• A results table shows
length what you are measuring
1 1.1
extension and the unit.
2 2.0 1. Describe what you should write at the top of each
3 2.5
metre
rule results table.
column of your • A line of best fit goes
4 4.2 through most points
2. Describe how to draw a line of best fit.
5 5.4 and is a smooth line or
3. Identify the force that was the weight for Suma’s
1 6.8 anomalous curve.
result.
L 8.5
11.0 4. Jamila did a different experiment. She put 2 N weights
onto lots
• Anomalous results are
8 results that do not fit
of different coloured springs and measured the extension of each
the pattern.
spring.
a. Draw the table that she would need to record her results. • Repeating
TÿS b. Explain why measurements makes
she could not draw a line graph for her results. results more accurate.

110
 T Forces

Levers
6.11 Levers in the world around you
Levers are not always straight bars.
/;
■
i

Other examples offeree multipliers

Objectives
4 include using a hammer to remove
a nail, or using a wheelbarrow. In a
• Describe what a lever is wheelbarrow, the load is between the
effort and the pivot.
A A hammer taking
out a nailis a force
• Describe how we use levers multiplier.
Some levers are distance multipliers.
You move your hands (or fingers) a
smaller distance than the load moves.
▲ The pyramids at Giza were built over 4500 years ago.
For example, using tongs to hold a test A.
no cranes or big
When the ancient Egyptians built the pyramids there were tube or beaker: if you push the handles
H
machines. How did they do it? We know that they carried huge
blocks of together a small amount with your
V -4
stone long distances by putting them on rollers and
how did they get them onto the rollers?
pulling them along, but fingers, the ends of the tongs move much
further. The distance is bigger, and the
force is smaller.
mA A wheelbarrow is a force multiplier.
a turning effect.
They used levers. Levers work because some forces produce

Turning forces *
also make things A Tweezers reduce
Forces can change the motion of objects, and they can the force.
turning force. When you
- - turn. Every time you close a door you are applying a
turning force.
use a wheelbarrow or sit on a see-saw you are applying a
A The Egyptians used levers to effort load
get large blocks of stone on Levers
to rollers to move them.
A lever is a bar that can turn
when you exert a force on one force of your pivot force of the 1. Circle the names of objects that act as force multipliers.
end. hand on the lever (fulcrum) load on the lever
lever tongs wheelbarrow
• The force that you exert on the bar is called the effort. 2. The picture shows how you could make a lever to lift a
stone using a
• The weight of the object that you lift is called the load. plank of wood.
• The bar rotates about a pivot (or fulcrum).
large stone
down on one side A
You can use a lever to lift a block of stone. When you push
end of the
of a lever you produce a turning force. This will make the other
B

lever move up, lifting the stone.

plank of wood
c • Forces can turn an
object clockwise or
A lever works because: anticlockwise about a
pivot.
• the distance from the effort to the pivot is bigger a. Which letter (A, B, or C) is the pivot?
/
force ofryour hand
than thedistance from the load to the pivot b. Which letter (A, B, or C) shows where you should
apply the least
• A lever can be used as
a force multiplier, ora
on the lever effort to lift the stone?
• you push down with a force that is much smaller c. Which letter (A, B, or C) shows where you should
distance multiplier.
thanthe weight of the stone to move it.
effort to lift the stone?
apply the most
• Levers can produce
force of the lever 3. Using tongs to hold things in a chemistry lab forces that are much
on the load means that we need a bigger than the effort,
The lever is a force multiplier. bigger force. If this is the case, explain why we use them.
A to lift heavy loads.
1 T Example 2 0.2 m l 0.4 m
Forces

Calculating moments Davina is balancing some 10 N weights on a see-saw. Is it balanced?

6.12 On the high wire

Walking on a tightrope can be
difficult and
Anticlockwise moment = 30 N x 0.2 m Clockwise moment = 20 N x 0.4 m
= 6 Nm = 8 Nm
30 N
t
20 N

dangerous. The tightrope

walker uses a long The anticlockwise moment and the clockwise moment are not equal,
he feels that his
Objectives pole to help him balance. If I so the see-saw is not balanced.
he can adjust the
body is going to tilt one way,
way. The pole cancels
• identify turning forces, or pole to tip him the other
help him balance.
Balancing a see-saw
moments out the turning force to You can use the principle of moments to work out how much weight you

. • Calculate moments
Use the law of moments
identify equilibrium
to
what is a moment?
The turning effect of
moment. The size of
a force
the
is
moment
called a
depends
A The pole is used
to alter
the turning forces.
and how far it is from a pivot.
need to balance a see-saw or where you need to put the weight.

Problem 1: what’s the weight?

0.2 m 0.3 m
Problem 2: what’s the distance?
0.3 m ?m
on the force being applied (m)
(N) x perpendicular distance from the pivot I
• Moment (Nm) = force ?N
:
in newton metres (Nm).

0
• A moment is measured
A boy uses a force of 5 N
hinge (the pivot). What is
Moment = force x distance
to close a large door.
the moment of the force?
The handle is 1.5 m from
the

*~r 4N
r~K
3N
t
2N

Anticlockwise moment = clockwise moment Anticlockwise moment = clockwise moment

= 5 N x 1.5 m
You use a turning force
when ? N x 0.2 m = 4 N x 0.3 m 3Nx0.3m = 2Nx?m
A = 7.5 Nm
you open or close a door. ? N x 0.2 m = 1.2 Nm 0.9 Nm = 2 N x ? m
Balancing 0.9 Nm
is in equilibrium.
on a see-saw, we say that it ?N = 1.2 Nm 2N =
?m
When two people balance moments and clockwise moments
are 0.2 m
This means that the anticlockwise Force = 6 N Distance = 0.45 m
principle of moments:
the same. This is called the
the same.
balanced, the anticlockwise and clockwise moments are
If an object is
Example 1
on a see-saw (left). Is It balanced? 1. Copy and complete the sentences using these words:
Sunita and her mother sit
Sunita's mother small big moments equilibrium
Sunita On a see-saw, a force acting a short distance from • The turning effect of a
force is a moment.
the pivot will be balanced by a force acting a long

-4- . • moment
| distance from the pivot. Then the see-saw is in
This is the principle of . = force x distance.
• A see-saw is in
2. Explain why the handle of a door is not close to the hinges. equilibrium if the
1.5 m
W600N 3. For Davina’s experiment in Example 2 above, write down which way anticlockwise
400 N
the see-saw will turn. moments balance the
pivot
x 1.0 m 4. Citra has a weight of 450 N. She sits 1.2 m from the pivot of a see¬ clockwise moments.
moment = 600 N
moment = 400 N x 1.5 m Clockwise saw. How far away from the pivot must Ari sit on the other side to This is the principle of
Anticlockwise = 600 Nm
= 600 Nm
balance the see-saw if his weight is 600 N? moments.

and the clockwise moment are equal, so the

The anticlockwise moment
see-saw is balanced.
 Forces

Stability
stability
Extension Centre of mass and If an object is in a position that makes it difficult to topple over, we say that it
is in a stable position.

6.13 Centre of mass It is harder to topple objects with a low centre of mass than objects with a

centrÿ ras
of plank of wood
If you want to carry a plank high centre of mass.
wood on your shoulder, you need
to place it so that your
shoulder is
_ your shoulder • If the centre of mass is higher, the object will be less stable.
Objectives underneath the middle of thethrough plank.
(the pivot)
• The object does not need to be tipped as far before the centre of mass
moves outside the pivot.
There is a point in an object
• Define centre of mass (or which all of the weight of the
object • A car has a lower centre of mass than a truck.
centre of gravity) seems to act, called the centre of
,
weight
• High winds can blow over a tall vehicle like a truck, but are less likely to
topple a car. 'centre of massÿ
If this
Explain why some objects mass (or ,centre of gravity). ... The plank balances.
• topple over easily and
. .. .
point is above your shoulder,
. ,
which
wood. Moving your centre of mass
turning force acting on the plank of
others do not is the pivot, there is no You can demonstrate how your centre of mass can
away from your shoulder, there
• If you move the centre of
will be a turning force on the
the plank
plank.
move. If you bend over to pick up a chair, you naturally
lean back slightly so that your centre of mass stays over
9 # 9
Al
through its centre of mass.
• The plank’s weight acts

l 11%
your feet. If you stand against a wall and try and pick
that turns the plank clockwise.
• This produces a turning force with your hand. up the chair, you will find it impossible. You cannot lean
to apply another force
• To balance it you will need and balance its weight. forward and still keep your centre of mass over your
will the plank anticlockwise
A The plank turns. • This force turn
such as a plank or a ball, is in the centre of
feet. You feel you are going to topple over.
a regular shape,
The centre of mass of throughout the object. For an
the shape because
irregular shape
the
such as
mass
a
is
broom
evenly
the
distributed
centre of mass of will not be in the
centre. iwfej stable stable unstable

Why do objects topple over?

why some objects are easier to topple
than others by A ol
We can work out
centre of mass. r In July 2012 the world record for human mattress
thinking about the position of the
toppling was set by 1001 volunteers in Shanghai, China.
centre of mass
C
centre of mass 1 If i The gaps between the mattresses were fixed so that
centre of mass 1 /4 | j when one toppled over it knocked the next one over.
I* Each person falls safely because the mattresses are soft.

y\
0 pivot
:

pivot-
pivot * 1. Describe where the centre of mass of a cube is.
2. If you lean back in a chair, the two back legs act as a pivot. You can
only lean so far back without falling over. Explain why in terms of
• The centre of mass (or
centre of gravity) of
an object is the point
through which the
your centre of mass and a turning force. weight of the object
weight weight 3. Sketch a diagram of a brush with a long handle that you use to
weight seems to act.
over, the centre of mass moves
toward sweep the floor. Label where you think the centre of mass might be. • Objects with a high
lorry
& vy a Asy°u start to push the
toy
it will fall back. Explain your answer. centre of mass are easier
stop pushing it at this point,
above the pivot the lorry it will balance, but 4. Explain why it becomes more and more difficult for the acrobats on to topple than those
The acrobats balance so that mass is
f
A b When the centre of the bicycle to keep their balance as more acrobats climb to the top. with a low centre of
there is no net turning force this is hard to achieve. lorry will 5. It is almost impossible to balance a pencil on its point. Explain why. mass (gravity).
acting on the group and the the centre of mass is the other side of the pivot, the
c When
bicycle. topple over.
 Forces

6.14 |
Pressure
What is pressure?
Large and smalt pressure
Sometimes it is useful to increase the pressure.
The studs on a football boot
have a small area compared with
Earthmovers use wide tracks instead area of the foot. This produces the
more pressure, so that the studs
of ordinary tyres so that they can into the ground and help the sink
Objectives
• Explain what causes
— move across mud without sinking in.

An earthmover is very heavy. It has a

>3 more easily.
The same force over a smaller
footballer to grip the ground and move

pressure area produces a much bigger pressure. A Football boots have studs on
weight of about a million newtons, the bottom.
r
• Calculate pressure
—
equal to about 15 000 people! If you
stand on the same muddy ground ▲
*
Wide tracks reduce the pressure on
Tine- weight of a footballer is 800 N.
The total area of the studs is lo
em2.
you might sink. The earthmover does the ground. The area of his two feet is ZOO cm1.
not sink because its weight is spread Pressure . area
j out over a bigger area.
„
Pressure = ——
force
area _ 800 N
Pressure is a measure of the force exerted by an object or substance over a 800 N_ Z0 cm2
certain area. zoo cm2 reducing the area increases
the pressure = 4o N/cm2
= 4 N/cm2
• The earthmover’s tracks have a much bigger area than your feet.

J.
• You exert a greater pressure even though your weight is much smaller.
At other times it is useful to
reduce the pressure.
How to calculate pressure
| You can calculate pressure using this equation:
The weight of an earthmover is i ooo
force ooo N. The total area of the earthmover
A The hippopotamus exerts Pressure = The total area of four normal tyres tracks is Z5 m2.
a greater pressure on the area is Z m2.
ground than the bird. Force is measured in newtons (N) and area is measured in
Pressure . *£» Pressure = —area
metres squared (m2), so pressure is measured in newtons per metre squared area I 000 000 N
You can also use these (N/m2). 1N/m2 is also called 1pascal (Pa). I 000 000 N
zlfm2
equations:
Force = pressure x area
It is often easier to measure smaller areas in centimetres squared (cm2). If
you measure the area in cm2 and the force in N, then the pressure is measured
=
Zm2
5oo ooo N/m2'
increasing to ana reduce,
to ytww
- 4o ooo N/m2

force in N/cm2.
Area = pressure The same force over a bigger
area produces a much smaller pressure.
When you do calculations it is very important to look at the units of area. If 40 000 N/m2 is 4 N/cm2,
which is much less than the pressure
you write them next to the number in your equation, then you will see which of the studs.
unit of pressure you need to use.

A force of 100 N is spread over an area of Z m2. A force of Z0 N is spread over an area of 4 cm2.
What is the pressure? What is the pressure? 1. Copy and complete
this table. 150 N 25cm2
Don’t forget the units! SO N I
„ force force 2. A pressure of 0.01 15 m2
Pressure = - Pressure =
area area N/cm2 is 5N | 0.1 cm2 | • Pressure =Jggh
produced by a book with
100 N Z0 N an
Z m2 4 cm2
area of 300 cm2. What is the weight
3. A brick has a weight of
of the book? • Pressure is measured in
= 50 N/m2 =5 N/cm2 15 N. If the pressure it produces N/m2 (Pa, pascal) or
is the area in contact with the is 0.5 N/cm2 what
ground? N/cm2.
4. A hippopotamus produces
a pressure of 250 000 Pa when
on all four feet. If its weight is it is standing
• A small force over a big
40 000 N, what is the area of area produces a small
each foot? pressure, and vice versa.
118
 T
1 The weight of a camel is 5000 N. The weight of a horse is 4000 N.
Forces

Using pressure
6.15 Where is a lot of pressure
useful?
The area of its four hooves is
2JOOO
„
cm1

Pressure = -
force
The area of its four hooves is
4oo cm4.
„
Pressure =-
force
area area
5000 N 4000 N
Objectives woo cm1 4oo cm1
= 2.5 N/cm1 = IO N/cm1
• Describe howbelarge
useful
pressure can
Even though a horse has a smaller weight than a camel, the pressure that it
• Describe how small produces on the ground is four times bigger because the area of its hooves is
pressure can be useful work. smaller.
ideas about pre ssure to explain how some tools
You can use
very small area.
blades of knives and scissors have a Handles and straps
• The
you apply produces a large pressure. Wide handles are more comfortable to carry than narrow ones. Their larger
• The force that blunt then the area gets bigger.
• If the blade becomes smaller, and may not be high
enough area reduces the pressure on your hands.

ft
means the pressure is
• A bigger area Straps on rucksacks are made wide to spread the force over a big area.
to cut things.
so it has a very small area.
• The end of a nail is pointed,
on a surface when you hit the
nail with the Bike tyres
• The pressure produced
hammer will be very large. Some bikes are designed to travel across mud and others are designed to be I
things used on the road. The tyres of road bikes are much narrower than those of
so that they can cut or make holes in
Lotsof tools have sharp edges an off-road bike.
easily.

N
The force applied to a knife is 2.0 cm1.
is 0.5 cm1 The area of the blunt knife blade is 1.2.5
The area of the sharp knife blade
force
Pressure =
force
-area
„
Pressure = - area
2-0 N
fc. ▲ Wide straps reduce pressure.
2-0 N
1.25 cm1
0.5 cm1 = iloN/cm1 A A mountain bike... A ... and a roadbike.
« 4o N/cm1

Where is small pressure useful?

sand and mud if the pressure
is too
like
It is possible to sink into surfaces 1. Explain in terms of force, pressure, and area why knives do not work
iv large. when they are blunt.
have wide flat feet to reduce the pressure on the ground. This 2. Explain why the feet of camels and wading birds have the shapes • Increasing the area
Wading birds soft surface.
I that they do not sink so much when they have to walk over a that they have. reduces the pressure,
S means
sand than it is for horses to walk
3. Two birds have the same mass but one has feet with twice the total which can be useful in
for camels to walk across
It is much easier of a area of the other. Describe the difference between the pressure that
area of a camel’s foot is much larger than the area some situations.
across sand. The they produce on the ground. Explain your answer. • Reducingthe area can
horse’s hoof. 4. Describe what would happen if you tried using a road bike to ride be useful if you need a
over a soft surface. Explain your answer. large pressure.

A Camels’ feet have evolved

not to sink in sand.

120
1 This is why the bottom of a dam wall has to be many times thicker than the
Forces

Pressure in liquids
top. The pressure at the bottom is much, much bigger.

6.16H Particles and liquid pressure

| >;»
If you go swimming you can feel
the pressure of the water. Your
ears I
Objectives detect liquid pressure.
-
• Explain liquid pressure in Pressure in liquidsproduced
is different
when CVsjr V VI
JHHBr
terms of particles from the pressure
one solid is on top of another. itZi*
• Explain why liquid pressure Liquid pressure is due to the BBT
increases with depth
forces between the liquid particles A However you move your head under needle coiled metal tube
and the surfaces of a container. water, the pressure feels the same.

|g|
are
• The particles in a liquid
so liquids cannot be compressed.
A A diving vessel protects divers against the pressure in deep water.
very close together,
SgSSffi • We say that they are
incompressible.
s
When people go deep underwater they use diving vessels or submarines
with very strong walls to withstand the pressure.
500000 Isha fills a syringe full of water. He
holds one finger
Q over the hole so the water cannot
presses down on the plunger. Nothing
get out. Then he
happens! It is ■
fl /1 Measuring pressure
not possible to force the liquid
into a smaller space.

When Isha applies a force to a liquid

between the particles increase,
and
the forces
the forces
r The pressure in a liquid or gas is measured with a pressure gauge.
This contains a tube that is curled up. The tube straightens out as the pressure
inside the tube increases. This moves a needle to show a reading on a scale. p■ressure being measured ‘

SKm oo act in all directions. Isha demonstrates

that the
pressure in a liquid acts in all directions.
and makes holes in it.
Oh„ • He fills a bag with water
the water comes out of
P0 • When he squeezes, the surface.
the bag at 90° to
to gravity.
• The curved path of the water is due 1. Describe what produces pressure in a liquid.
upthrust, the A Liquid pressure forces 2. Explain why the pressure at the bottom of the
It is liquid pressure that produces the water out of the bag
A The particle model describes Pacific Ocean is much bigger than the pressure
the different arrangements force that keeps things afloat. at right angles. near the surface. • Pressure in liquids
ofparticles in solids, liquids, 3. A student fills a plastic bottle full of water. He
and gases. Liquid pressure and depth makes a hole in the bottle half-way up, and
hole A
results from the forces

The pressure on a fish at the bottom

of a lake is bigger than the between particles in the
another hole at the bottom. liquid acting over an
low pressure pressure on a fish half-way down. a. Copy and complete these sentences: area.
on the weight of water The water will come out faster from hole • Deeper in a liquid the
•Liquid pressure at a point depends _
.. This is because
hole B
pressure gets bigger
above it of
twice as much water above a point at the bottom b. Explain why the water comes out at right angles to the surface of because there is a
• There is
the bottle. greater weight of water
a lake than there is halfway down.
of a lake is double the c. Describe and explain what happens to the speed of the water above you.
•The liquid pressure at the bottom leaving the bottle from the bottom hole as the water drains out. • can measure liquid
You
pressure halfway down. 4. Suggest why pressure gauges have a maximum pressure that they
A Dam walls are thicker at the bottom. pressure with a pressure
can measure. gauge.
•
6.17
Objectives
• Explain gas pressure in
terms of particles

Explain the factors that

affect gas pressure
_m
Pressure in gases
David blows up a balloon. The balloon
gets bigger and bigger.
the
Eventually
balloon will burst. Why does this
happen?

We can explain gas pressure

• David
using the

particles in a gas are far apart, and

pumps air particles into the
are

bump into each other and into

A A balloon bursts.
particle model. In the particle model moving fast.

balloon.
the rubber of the balloon.
• The collisions with the walls of the container produce gas pressure.
Particles
Wjf.uM
T
Atmospheric pressure
The air around us exerts gas pressure on our bodies all the time. This is called
atmospheric pressure. We do not feel the pressure because it is balanced by
the pressure of the gases and liquids in our bodies pushing outwards.

'•HLotsofairÿH

MM
pressure high up a mountain.
inside
I
BM

« Marshmallows contain pockets

of air that expand when you
pump out the air around them.
The atmospheric pressure at sea level is bigger than the atmospheric
ft

You add air particles but

the tyre doesn’t get much
Forces

bigger, so the pressure inside

goes up.
• of their • Gravity pulls the air particles towards the Earth.
All gases, including gases inside
container.
What affects gas pressure?
you,exert a pressure on the walls
• The
• IfThis
•
air near the Earth’s surface is compressed.
the particles are closer together, then the pressure is bigger.
means that there will be more collisions producing a bigger force
and a bigger pressure near the surface.
*
Adding more gas
cardboard disc - the balloon too. People can use oxygen tanks in places where oxygen levels are low. The
Air particles hit the outside of
steel balls
moving piston -far!Id I
-

II •
•
By blowing
If there are
more
more
air into the
collisions
balloon, David increases the pressure
on the
inside it.
inside than on the outside the balloon
tanks contain oxygen gas compressed into a small volume. Some firefighters
use oxygen tanks.

fU ; • The gas has to be compressed because otherwise they would not be able
drive j
belt will get bigger. bursts.
When too much gas has been added, the balloon to carry the number of containers of oxygen that they need.
• i

has a fixed shape the pressure

will increase. • The pressure inside the oxygen tanks is very high.
container that
., , .
Model of gas pressure in
If you put air into a • The tanks are made of metal which can withstand the high pressures. I
A Oxygen compressed into
which the cardboard disc is changing the volume or temperature tanks helps the firefighter to
gas particles
pushed up by the collisions the number of collisions between
Gas pressure changes when breathe.
of the steel bolls There will be more collisions if:
and the container walls changes.
are moving faster
• the particles
• the particles are in a smaller volume. • Gas pressure is caused
by particles colliding
Increasing temperature
[iH 1. Describe in terms of particles what causes gas pressure. with the walls of the
2. Explain why you can compress a gas but you cannot compress a liquid. container.
'ft
* 3. Explain why a balloon might burst on a hot day. •
i

ms
If you compress a gas
9
9
«
9
9 ft •- 4. Aircraft cabins are ‘pressurised’. Explain why air is gradually pumped into a smaller volume, or

*%• 4\ V into the aircraft as it climbs, and then let out again when it lands.
5. Explain why the pressure inside a bicycle tyre increases as you pump
heat it, the pressure will
increase.
* Particles in a cold gas
gas
1 Particles in a hotmove
Particles in a big volume
| Particles in a small volume When the temperature is higher,
particles it up. • Atmospheric pressure
are more collisions, and the 6. Explain what would happen to the pressure in a gas if you decreases as you go up a
When the volume is smaller there
and the pressure is higher pressure is higher.
_
faster and there are more
collisions,
compressed it into a volume that was one third of the size. mountain.

124
L_ Forces

6.18 Diffusion in liquids and gases

Rebekah is cooking dinner for her family.
Very soon, everyone in the house can smell
air particle -
f
o o
—
° °
} £

Objectives
• Use the diffusion
particle theory to
the food. Why?
Food particles evaporate as Rebekah is
cooking. They move around randomly in
food particle
I o

o
o o o°
O

f
in liquids the air, and spread out. The food particles The particles from the crystal diffuse into the water.
explain
and gases mix with air particles. Soon there are food
through the water. The particles of the purple crystal have
particles all over the house. Some of the moved away
• Describe evidence for
food particles enter your nose, which
from the crystal and mixed with the water particles.
diffusion
detects the smell. Diffusion happens more slowly in liquids than in gases. This
is because
particles are closer in liquids, they collide more
A Food particles diffuse into often, and there are stronger
Diffusion and particles the air. forces between them.
The random movement and mixing of
iK
particles is called diffusion. Particles in Diffusion and temperature If
or stir a substance to
gases and liquids are moving. You do not need to move Particles from warm food diffuse more quickly than those
make diffusion happen. The speed of mixing by diffusion
depends on three
The particles in a warmer gas or liquid move faster.
from cool food.
Diffusion is faster in
>
You can observe the
factors: hotter liquids or gases.
‘Brownian motion’of smoke
• temperature
and mass of the particles
particles in air.
• sizestates
> • the of the substances that are diffusing. Evidence for moving particles
Diffusion in gases In 1828, Robert Brown suspended pollen grains
in water. He looked at
a particle can travel a
Diffusion happens quickly in a gas. This is because them through a microscope. The pollen grains moved
around quickly in
long distance in a gas before it hits another particle. a random motion now called Brownian motion.
Why?
The pollen grains are pushed around by the random

il r.
movements of the
Particles from an incense •• water particles around them. But how? Water particles
to pollen grains. The answer lies in the speed of
are tiny compared
burner diffuse throughout a air —U gas jar- the water particles - on
room. average, a water particle moves faster than 1600
• #
km/h at 20 °C.
••
lid
. it
it
bromine — f
vapour *
mixture of bromine
and air particles .
•*
1. Explain, in terms of particles, why diffusion
2. Put the following situations in order of
happens. • Diffusion is the random
I speed of diffusion from movement and mixing
slowest to fastest: of particles.
A When you remove the lidbetween the jars, the : ,k> hot liquid cold gas hot gas cold liquid • Diffusion happens faster
air andbromine diffuse into each other.
3. Explain how and why temperature affects at higher temperatures.
the speed of diffusion.
Diffusion through liquids 4. Suggest why it is difficult for solids to
diffuse.
• Diffusion is quicker in
in a beaker of water. He gases than in liquids.
Mo puts a crystal of potassium manganate(vii)
through the water. The
watches carefully. The purple colour starts to spread
next day Mo looks at the mixture again. The purple
colour has spread evenly
 Forces
Review 3. A student drops a stone off a cliff. Look at the
5. Arya is hanging some weights on an elastic
band. 8. A car mechanic is using a hydraulic jack to lift
a
graph of distance against time for the stone.
6.19
™s a. Give the letter of car. This is a simple diagram of a hydraulic jack.
the correct table for
ft collecting his results. [1] 5000 N
100
JL A I I

i
90
Weight Extension
1. Rafal went to visit his grandmother in a plane,
80
70
i r
which flew a distance of 1440 km. 1 60 B piston A
CL Mass (kg) Extension (m2) area = 0.25 cm2
a. The journey took 2 hours. Calculate £ 50

the average speed of the plane. [2]

ID
3 40 t
30 c
b. When the plane landed it had to slow 20
Mass (kg) | Extension (cm)
down. Write down the scientific word for 10
slowing down. [H
2 3 4 5 D The weight of the car is 5000 N. The area of
1
(sec)
Weight (N) | Extension (cm)
c. On the way home the plane has to fly
time the piston that lifts the car is 0.25 m2.
TWS
into the wind. Describe and explain the
[2] a. Describe how you can tell from the a. Calculate the pressure needed to
effect on its average speed. b. Define ‘elastic’. [1]
graph that the stone was speeding lift the car. [2]
[1]
2. Aadi went to visit Dev. The graph shows how up as it fell. c. Arya finds that if he hangs a weight of 2 N The area of the piston that the mechanic pushes
Aadi’s distance from home varies with time. [2] on the elastic band the extension is 1.5 cm, down is 0.01m2.
b. Calculate the average speed of the stone. and when he hangs a weight of 4 N on it the
3500 b. Calculate the force the mechanic needs
3000 c. Is the average speed bigger or smaller extension is 4 cm. Is it a good idea to to use to lift the car. [2]
~ 2500 than the speed of the stone just before use an elastic band in a newtonmeter?
it hit the ground? [1] Explain your answer. c. Explain why liquids, not gases, are used
E
_g 2000 [2]
e
in machines that use pistons to lift cars. [1]
4. What is the difference between balanced
(B) and 6. Two glasses are filled with liquids to the same
2 1500
I1000 unbalanced (U) forces? height. The first glass is filled with water and the 9. Calculate the moment of each of these forces:
7
£ ; second glass is filled with fruit juice, which has a
Copy the table below and put a tick a. a force of 10 N acting 2 m from a pivot
i
500 greater density than water. [2]
[7]
0 in the correct column for each statement. b. a force of 2 N acting 0.4 m from a pivot
120
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 Put these pressures in order from the smallest [2]
time (min) B pressure to the biggest pressure. c. a force of 0.1N acting 0.2 m from a pivot. [2]
The object is not moving
Use the graph to deduce: A pressure at the bottom of the fruit juice 10. Jamal is playing with his friends on a see-saw.
There is only one force acting
He sits at the end of the see-saw and his friends
a. the distance from Aadi’s home to on the object B pressure at the bottom of the water
[1] take turns to sit on the other end, an equal
Dev’s home The object is accelerating
C pressure halfway up the glass of water. distance from the pivot. Jamal has a weight of
[1] The two forces are the same
b. the time Aadi spent at Dev’s home 400 N.
size but in opposite directions 7. It is very important to make measurements that
a. Jamal’s friend Maria, who has a weight of
c. on which part of the journey Aadi The object is slowing down are both precise and accurate. Which of these
[1] measurements of time is the most precise? 350 N, sits on the other end. Describe what
travelled the fastest The two forces are different [1]
will happen to the see-saw.
sizes and in opposite directions

_ 5.1 seconds [1]

d. Aadi’s speed walking back to his home 5.14 seconds 5 seconds
in m/s.
[2] The object is moving with a b. Jamal’s brother has a mass of 200 N.
steady speed Calculate where he should sit on the see-saw
to make it balance. [2]
c. Ryan sits on the other end of the see-saw.
He has a mass of 450 N. Can Jamal make the
see-saw balance? [1]

128
 Light

Light can be transmitted by (pass through) objects it hits, or be reflected

Seeing things (turned back), or it can be absorbed. Light that is absorbed is neither
transmitted nor reflected. It stays inside the object. Energy cannot
the Moon?
difference between light from the Sun and light from disappear, so the energy of the light is transferred into thermal energy.
What is the
Moonlight is not emitted by the Moon. Absorbing light makes the object heat up a bit.
Sunlight is emitted by the Sun.
Light spreads out as it moves away from the source. This means that less
4 light will hit a certain area if it is further from the source. Some people think
Objectives that light ‘runs out’, but that is not the case. The source appears dimmer as
you move away from it because the light is spread out more.
• Describe how light travels
• Explain how we see things What does light travel through?
• Describe how light Moonlight is light that came from the Sun. You can see through some materials, but not others.
interacts with objects
These words describe some ways in which different materials behave with
What is light? light:
energy.
Light is a way of transferring

r,Md
say they are luminous.
Light sources give out light. We
Light can reach
is transferred from the Sun to the Earth by light waves.
Energy space because,
the Sun and other stars. It can travel through empty
us from through.
a medium, a substance, to travel
unlike sound, light does not need very similar
heat or thermal energy, is
Infrared radiation, sometimes called energy reaches us from the Sun.
by which
to light and is another method
A You can see through clear glass. Frosted glass lets light through, A Bricks do not let light through.
How do we see things? see
It is described as transparent. but you cannot see through it. They are described as opaque.
The Sun is luminous. It emits
light. In the same way, you can It is described as translucent.
light from them enters your eyes.
other stars at night because the
are non-luminous. You can
Objects that don’t give out light
from them into your eyes.
see them because light is reflected
only mirrors reflect light, but all
Sometimes people think that
it reflects light, objects reflect at least some light. This is how we see them.
You see a book because • Light travels in
straight lines.
How does light travel? • We see things when

1
1 You can demonstrate that light
travels in straight lines using
holes cut in card. You line up the
holes so that light can travel in
straight line from the candle to your
eye.
a 1. Copy and complete the sentences by selecting the correct word or
words in bold.
The Moon is a luminous/non-luminous object. We see it because
light emitted by a
luminous source or
reflected by a non-

1
You cannot see the candle unless
all
You can think of light
a detector
travelling on a journey from a source
to

transmitted
light reflects from it/is emitted by it and travels into our eyes.
More light is absorbed/reflected by opaque objects than
•
luminous source
enters our eyes.
Light is emitted by
A by translucent objects. You can/cannot see through sources and can
three holes are exactly lined up. transparent objects. be transmitted,
2. Explain the difference between the words ‘emit’ and ‘transmit’. reflected, or absorbed
absorbed, s' 3. Compare the difference in the journey that light takes when you by transparent,
look at the Moon directly with the journey it takes when you look at translucent, or opaque
yourself in a bathroom mirror. materials.
The behaviour of light depends
on the type of material. /reflected

130
 Light

‘How can we measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection?’ normal

The law of reflection

wonders Diya. Arjun suggests drawing the rays on the diagram. He draws two

7.2 How is light reflected? How

out the law of reflection.
can you find out? We use a beam of light to
work
dots on the paper undereach ray.
He takes the ray box away and Diya joins up the dots to draw the rays.
Now she can measure the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection. -
mirror

What is the law of reflection?

They move the ray box to make different angles. Each time they draw the angle incident ray reflected ray
of incidence and the angle of reflection. Diya records their results in a table. normal
Objectives •

• State the law of reflection Angle of incidence (°) Angle of reflection (°)

of reflection mirror 10 12
• Use the law how light is 30 29 -mirror
to describe
reflected / r 50 51 J incident ray reflected ray

reflected
70 68 normal .
incident ray ray
Mirrors in periscopes
Periscopes can be useful things. A periscope contains two mirrors. It
enables you to look over the top of a wall, or over other people if you are mirror

r normal at the back of a crowd.

ft
i= angle of incidence /=r
r = angle of reflection
mirror, in a regular way.
£
off a smooth shiny surface, such as a
Light reflects angle.
called the incident ray, hits a mirror at a particular
A ray of light, obstacle
angle.
You can measure this
a line at right angles to the mirror at the point
where the ■
• First you draw
ray hits it.
• This line is called the normal. the incident
angle between the normal and
A A periscope is used in a submarine. Parallel mirrors are used to
of incidence is the A
• The an gle
make a periscope.
ray, and is usually labelled
i.

• The ray reflects off the mirror. angle of

between the normal and the reflected ray is the
a
• reflection, labelled r.
The angle 1. a. Define the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection.
Beams of light reflect from mirror and the ray. b. State the law of reflection. • The angle of incidence
is not the angle between the
A
mirror. The angle of incidence 2. a. Name two things that Arjun and Diya did to get accurate equals the angle of
the angle of reflection. This is the law of reflection. measurements of the angles in their experiment. reflection. This is the
The angle of incidence =
b. Suggest one improvement that they could make to their method law of reflection.
Making measurements
Arjun and Diya are investigating the reflection of light in a
that would make the results more accurate or precise. • Mirrors are used in
ray of 3. Look at the drawing of the periscope. What are the angles of periscopes.
box, a device that shines a

d&
mirror. They set up a ray incidence and reflection at each mirror? • To take accurate
the ray of light.
Arjun places a mirror to reflect
light. 4. A student does an experiment with a mirror. She measures the angle measurements about
Diya draws a diagram of the
normal and the mirror. Arjun between the mirror and an incident ray and finds that it is 30°. the law of reflection you
ray
puts the mirror on top of
the diagram and shines the a. What is the angle of incidence? need to mark carefully
sure the ray hits the mirror b. What is the angle of reflection? where the rays go.
box at the mirror. He makes
where the normal is drawn.
Uow are we going to vJe- could draw the
-tafce. nwa6ure.me.nts? mirror and the- normal
on some papery
 T“ Light

How is the image in a mirror formed?

Reflection and images Y
7.3 Looking in a mirror
and reflect animals
You see an image because your brain assumes that light
travels in
straight lines, even when the light has in fact been reflected.
p mirror
We often see reflections. Water can behave like a mirror A ray diagram helps to show how the image is
formed. A ray
or the sky. diagram is a model of what is happening. We choose two paths
Objectives that the light takes to help us to work out where the image
is.

• Use the law ofimages

reflection to • Light is emitted by a candle and spreads out. M' f!
explain how • Some light from the candle is reflected from the mirror. ii I!
are formed • travels
The brain works out where the light appears to come
from if it
candle image of candle
in straight lines.

ft ft
• Describe the different types
of image
• This is where it sees the image.
When you look in the mirror the light from the top of your
You can see
face
appears to come from the top of the image. The light from
reflections in the
bottom of your face appears to come from the bottom of the
a variety of image.
different places. Your image is the right way up.

reflection an Adinda's face

Adinda is looking in a flat mirror, or plane mirror. We call her Types of reflection virtual image
III ]M
image. It is the right way up, or upright, the same size, and
the same colour
All surfaces, rough or smooth, reflect some light. The image
as Adinda. If she moves closer to the mirror the image moves
closer, and if that you see in a
mirror is very clear. An image on water will only be clear if the
f<§£uE
4 if; she moves away the image moves away. The image always
the same distance behind the mirror as Adinda is in front
appears to be
of it.
the water’s surface is very rough you do not see an image
The light must be reflected in a regular way for you to see
water is flat. If
at all.
an image.
Scientists have developed
reflective materials that
"
A piece of white paper reflects most of the light that are used on clothing.
Types of image hits it, but you cannot This helps people to stay
see an image in it. This is because the surface is rough
A plane mirror produces an Images can be: and the reflection safe if they are working
image that is the same size is diffuse. The light is scattered from the surface.
it is virtual or cycling at night. Some
as the object. look in the mirror to see her image, so
• virtual - Adinda needs to project onto a screen is real, because you don’t roads have reflective
• real -an image that you studs to mark their edges.
need to look through anything to see it.
mirror appears
*
If Adinda holds up her left hand, the image she sees in the
we see in a mirror is
to be holding up her right hand. We say that the image smooth A
laterally inverted. surface
on the front
In these pictures the word AMBULANCE is written backwards A Reflection from a smooth A Reflection from a rough
but not on the back. When a driver sees the ambulance in
the rear-view surface (regular reflection). surface (diffuse reflection).
mirror, the word appears the correct way round.

IJIOIOI • You see an image when

'*
1. a. Describe the difference between inverted and
upright images. light reflects from a
b. Describe the difference between virtual and real
images. smooth surface such as
V 2. Write down all the CAPITAL letters that look the
t* - 3. Explain why you can see:
a. your face in a shiny saucepan, but not in a painted
same in a mirror.
•
a mirror, water, or glass.
The image is virtual
white wall and laterally inverted.
PC b. a faint reflection in the surface of a shiny plate or cup.
4. Explain why the image of the candle above • Reflections from rough
is virtual. surfaces are diffuse.
A The word on the front can be read as a laterally inverted image.

134
 T Light

Refraction Why does refraction happen?

7.4 Refraction of light

You can model what happens to light when it goes into
water using people.
direction of motion

• People are marching in a carnival. tarmac

• They are moving from tarmac onto sand.
Objectives • As each person reaches the sand they slow down.
* *
/
• This changes the direction of the row, because there is a
• Describe how boundary
light is change in speed.
refracted at a
The same thing happens to light when it is refracted.
between air and water

• Explain why light is • In air, light travels at about 300 million km/s, but in water
it only travels at about 230 million km/s. sand
refracted Is this pencil really bent?
►
Why does it look bent? • Light going from air into water slows down.
• Light coming out of water into the air speeds up.
normal When light travels from one medium (substance) to
another, such as from air • In both cases the direction will change. A Rows of marching people make a
incident ray to water, it can change direction. How much the light is refracted depends on how much the model
of refraction.
speed changes. The speed in different materials depends
• The ‘bending’ of light is called refraction. on
interface, between the density of the material. A more dense material will slow
i angle of
incidence • The change of direction happens at the boundary, or more, so the light will be refracted more.
light down
boundary
two media.
medium 1
boundary is the
medium 2 The angle between the normal and the ray reaching the The speed of light and refraction
on the other
angle of'-'r'
refraction i
angle of incidence. The angle between the ray and the normal When light goes from air into a denser medium such as water or glass,
side of the boundary is the angle of refraction. it slows down. Scientists work out a ratio for the two speeds
medium, like called the
• If light goes from a less dense medium to a more dense refractive index.
the normal.
| refracted ray from air to water, the direction of the ray will move towards
medium, like speed of light in a vacuum (empty space)
A A ray diagram shows what • If light goes from a more dense medium to a less dense Refractive index =
happens when light is from water to air, then it will move away from the normal. speed of light in the medium
refracted. Refractive index does not have a unit because it is the ratio of two speeds.
Real and apparent depth
Light is reflected off a rock at the bottom
y The speed of light in air is almost the same as the speed
in a vacuum.
"0*

___
The refractive index is high if the light slows down a lot. The
of the pool and travels to the surface. It refractive index
of diamond is 2.4, and the refractive index of glass
changes direction when it travels into the is 1.5. This means light is
refracted more when it goes into diamond than when it goes into glass. %
air * air.
water
When light reaches your eye, your brain B A Diamondis denser than
assumes that it has travelled in a straight A glass, so light travels slower
apparent depth
real line. So you see the rock as being in a 1. Think about the carnival procession marching onto in diamond than in glass.
depth The bent pencil isn’t really bent. sand. If the rows
different place. The depth that the rock
A
marched straight towards the sand, and not at an angle, what
ima_ge
appears to be is called the apparent
The refraction of the light from
the end of the pencil at A makes happen to:
would
(5|ÿ
object( L
depth, which is shallower than the real it look as if the light is coming a. their speed
• Light changes direction
depth. Refraction explains why a pool from B. b. their direction?
when it goes from one
A A pool looks shallower than it looks shallower than it actually is. 2. A hunter is standing on the edge of a river
trying to spear a fish. Should
he aim above or below where he sees a fish? Explain your medium to another.
really is.
3. Calculate the refractive index of water
answer.
using the information on this
• This is called refraction.
page. What assumption are you making? • Refraction is a result of
light changing speed.

136
 Light
Total internal reflection
Refraction and total internal
7.5 reflection f This glass block \
When light travels from a more dense substance into a less dense
substance, such as from glass or water into air, the angle of refraction is
bigger than the angle of incidence.
Investigating refraction I71 feels a lot heavier than
this plastic one. I wonder
Daren is planning an investigation into <
Objectives if there is a difference in
refraction. . how the'f refract light. > air r air air
• Describe what happens This is Daren’s prediction.
glass glass glass
when light goes through a /
glass block / = critical
plastic
l predict that the glass block will refract U light more than U
angle
• Explain why light is light ray
all the light
refracted by different block. This is because, the glass is heavier than the plastic. - light ray
i= r is reflected
amounts in different As the angle of incidence increases, ... the angle of refraction reaches 90° When the angle of incidence is bigger
materials it:
so does the angle of refraction... when the angle of incidence is at
Daren’s friend Amadi looks at Daren’s prediction. Daren then rewrites the critical angle
than the critical angle, there is
total internal reflection.
S' You are. right.
\ thin* that it is to do with theA Using total internal reflection
(fensitj. I have- tooted it up in a
boot: and the glass is denserÿ
\ÿthan the plastio>ÿ/ÿ plastic block,
_
l pre-diet that the glass block will refract the, light more than the
I An optical fibre is a very thin fibre made of glass or
plastic. It behaves like a ‘light pipe’. If you shine light

<a
into one end, the light is totally internally reflected
This is because the glass is AtI r. l than the plastic When light goes I
down the fibre, which means that all of the light stays
from air into a dense, material it slows down and is refracted Denser I
inside the fibre.
« materials will slow light down more., so light will be refracted more l>j _
the glass than the plastic _ I
An endoscope is used to see inside the human body.
Light is sent down one bundle of optical fibres, and
f?ut Paren, 'jou l
shines on a structure inside the body. Another bundle
think will of optical fibres transmits the light reflected from the *
haven't explained why you When you make a prediction you are not just saying what you
i
tlninfc that will happen using inside of the body to a camera, so the doctor can see
what we know about the speed happen. You should say why you thinkthat will happen, using scientific i
an image and diagnose the problem.
knowledge. The scientific knowledge that you use in this way is called
a i
of X\dfi-ÿs
hypothesis. Daren can test his prediction by doing an experiment to collect
explain his
data. Later, he can use the scientific knowledge that he has to A Light is reflected
conclusion. A conclusion says what you have found out. inside an optical
fibre. Doctors can see inside a
"7
air
— Refraction in a glass block body using total internal
reflection.
When a ray of light goes from air into glass, it is refracted.
7 ray
•As the ray goes from the air into the glass it slows down. The
glass bends towards the normal. The angle of refraction is smaller than 1. Explain why Daren’s second prediction was better
than his first.
the angle of incidence. 2. Look at the diagram on page 138 showing the path of a
L
_ ray
light ray.
Explain why the ray leaving the block is parallel to the ray • Light is refracted when
•As the ray goes from the glass into the air it speeds up. The going in. it goes from air into
3. Anyam drew a diagram to show how light travels
bends away from the normal. The angle of refraction is bigger down an optical fibre glass, or glass into air.
made of a material with a critical angle of 50°. Describe two things
than the angle of incidence. i
i that are wrong with his diagram. • Denser materials
refract light more than
The ray going into the block is parallel to the ray coming out of \/\/\/\/\A/\ less dense materials.
the block. If the ray travels along the normal it does not change
A The path of a ray of light through a
glass block. direction, but it will still slow down.

138 139
 Light
Extension Distances in astronomy
The speed of light
7.6
Suppose that you travelled at the speed of an aeroplane, 900
km/h. The
table below shows how long it would take you to reach different objects
How fast does light travel? in
the Solar System.
faster
The speed of light is the fastest speed possible. Nothing travels
than light. Object Distance in km Time in an Distance in light¬
Objectives aeroplane time
There are lots of ways of writing down the speed of light. Moon
A Saturn is over a billion (1 000
384400 18 days 1.3 seconds 000 000) km from Earth.
• Know how fast light travels 300 million mVs 300 000 000 m/s 300 000 km/s 300 thousand km/s Sun 150000000 19 years 8 minutes
• Understand how Mars 62000000-399000000 8-50years between 4 and
astronomers use the 20 minutes
speed of light to describe Neptune 4500000000 600 years 4 hours
distances Measuring the speed of light
light 10 minutes
For thousands of years scientists argued about how long it takes
to travel. With sound you notice a time delay, but you cannot
detect a Light travels approximately 9500000000000 km in a year. We call this
delay between light being emitted and light being detected. distance a light year. A Andromeda is the nearest
thought that It is much more convenient to write down huge distances in light galaxy to the Milky Way.
Over 2000 years ago the Greek philosopher Empedocles minutes,
light did take time to travel, but another Greek philosopher Aristotle light hours, or light years rather than metres or kilometres.
disagreed - he thought that light travels instantaneously. Object Distance (km) Distance (light years)
In 1021, the Arab philosopher Ibn Al-Haytham argued that, because Voyager 1, furthest spacecraft 23300000 000 0.002 (21 light hours)
of
light reflects off objects into your eye, it must take a certain amount Proxima Centauri (our nearest star) 40000000000000 4.1
time to do so even if we cannot sense it. diameter of the Milky Way galaxy 946000000000000000 100000
It was not until there were methods for measuring very, very short
periods Andromeda (our nearest galaxy) 23 700 000 000 000 000 000 2500000
of time that accurate measurements of the speed of light could be made. Because light takes time to travel from faraway stars and planets, when
The metre and the speed of light astronomers study them they are looking back in time! They are seeing the
was Sun as it was 8 minutes ago. If you look up at the night sky, you are
For nearly 200 years a piece of metal was kept in Paris, France, that seeing
stars and galaxies as they were when the light left them. For some
exactly 1 m long. People would check the length of their rulers against this objects
this is thousands or millions of years ago!
bar. In 1983 the definition changed. An international committee decided
that one metre is 1/299792458 of the distance that light travels in 1 second.
So the units of distance that we use are related to the speed of light.
(Sj]ÿ
Using speed to measure distance 1. Explain why looking up at the stars at night is like looking back • Light travels at
Earth. in time. 300 000 km/s. Nothing
Rajiv reads that light takes 1.3 seconds to travel from the Moon to the 2. Look at the table of light times. It takes light about 9.3 times
as long travels faster than light.
He wonders if he can work out how far away the Moon is. to reach us from Saturn as it takes to reach us from the Sun.
a. Calculate the distance to Saturn in light minutes. • It is convenient to
measure the distance
distance b. Approximately how long would it take to get to Saturn travelling at
to very distant objects
the speed of an aeroplane? {Hint: look at how long it would take to
“Speed = time using light years
reach the Sun in an aeroplane.)
rather than metres or
speed * time 3. Mars and Earth both orbit the Sun. Use this information
so distance » to kilometres.
explain why there are two distances from the Earth to Mars in the
= ?oo ooo ooo m/s * 13 seconds table above.
• Measurements of the
speed of light are
= i<\o ooo ooo m or o ooo km
4. Suggest one of the problems with using a metal bar as
the standard difficult because the
length for the metre.
times are so short.

140 141
 Dispersion T How rainbows form
You see a rainbow when you are facing
falling rain with the Sun behind you.
Raindrops behave like small prisms. The (total internal)
refraction and
dispersion light from
the Sun
Light

sunlight from behind you is refracted, ~ -

, reflection /
raindrop
Objectives reflected, and dispersed so that you see a rainbow seen
spectrum, which we call a rainbow. in this direction
• Explain how a spectrum of About 700 years ago people didn’t know refraction
light is produced
what caused a rainbow to form. An Iranian
• Explain why we see scientist, Al-Farisi, correctly explained how
rainbows the raindrops dispersed the white light. * You “nnotsee 0 rmnbw Su"
“ front ofyou.
One of his students demonstrated his idea
by directing white light through a large spherical glass
container filled with
water.
You only see a rainbow when the Sun is behindyou.
Recombining the spectrum
rays from a light
When you look at a normal light bulb it looks white. We use More than 350 years later, in 1666, Sir Isaac Newton
‘white’ light is demonstrated that
bulb to investigate how light is reflected and refracted. This light from the Sun could be split into colours. He also showed
look at rainbows. that he could
really a mixture of colours. We see those colours when we recombine all the colours back into white light. He did this by using two
prisms.
dispersed light
Splitting light (spectrum) white screen
of white light
When light goes into glass or water it slows down. If a ray white
or refract. white light
shines into a rectangular block of glass it will change direction
We see a ray of white light entering and leaving the block.
a triangular
If, instead of a block, we use a triangular piece of glass, called
Some white light is reflected from the prism
prism, at a particular angle of incidence the light emerging
A
and some is dispersed by a L
triangular prism. is split into colours. spectrum colours recombined

• All the colours together are called a spectrum. A Using a secondprism shows that white light consists of a spectrum. • A prism splits white light
• The process of splitting white light into a spectrum is into the colours of the
refraction A refraction called dispersion. spectrum. This is called
dispersion.
We cannot see the light inside the prism because our 1. a. Write down the number of times that light is
refracted
R eyes are outside. From the ray going in and the colours passes through a prism.
when it • A spectrum is formed
when different colours
t |Y that emerge we can work out the paths that the different b. Write down the colours of the spectrum from the
colour that is are refracted by different
/ ID colours take inside the glass. refracted most to the colour that is refracted least.
visibleÿ | 2. The spectrum of white light is described as amounts.
L
prism spectrum v •Different colours of light are slowed down by continuous. • The colours of the
a. Explain what ‘continuous spectrum’ means.
Dispersion is produced by refraction. different amounts. spectrum are red,
A b. Explain how there can be separate colours in a
orange, yellow, green,
• Red light is slowed down the least, so it is refracted the least. continuous spectrum.
3. Suggest which colour travels fastest in glass.
blue, indigo, and violet.
• Yellow light is refracted more than red, and so on. 4. You can have refraction without dispersion,
Explain your answer. • Rainbows are formed
glass.
• Violet light is refracted the most, so it travels the slowest in but you cannot have
dispersion without refraction. Explain why, and give an
example.
when raindrops split
The colours of the white light spectrum are: sunlight into colours.

orange yellow EH indigo violet

142 143
 7.8 Colour
Colour addition - primary and J 3?
T • If you shine white light through a red filter, the filter will only let red
light through.
• Red light is transmitted.
Light

secondary colours • All the other colours are absorbed.

Objectives
In 1937 Ardeshir Irani made the first colour film in
Hindi. It was not until the 1950s that colour film
ilr • The filter has taken away all the colours except red.
This means that the light you see through a filter will be
dimmer than the
became popular. Now everything we watch on

_
light without the filter because some light has been
absorbed.
• Explain what happens the Internet', television, or our phones is in colour.
when you mix light of • If you shine red light through a green filter, then no light will get through.
. different colours together
Explain how filters work
You can make all the colours of light with just
three primary colours. The primary colours are
red, green, and blue. If you combine any two of
the three colours you get a secondary colour.
thJSI
• If you look at a white light through the red and green filter together you
will see black.
• Your brain perceives no light as black.
A Filters make beams of
different coloured light

If you mix all three primary colours of light you

get white light. ■4-
n
'
red filter green filter

light.
• Red and green light make

white
• Red and blue light make
cyan light.
• Green and blue light makemagenta light.

It is not possible to make red, green, or blue

£
A Your phone emits
L

three colours of light.

red light transmitted
no light

light using any combination of other colours. That transmits: red transmits: green
yellow absorbs: orange, yellow, green
is why they are called primary colours. Your eye blue indigo violet
absorbs: red, orange, yellow,
blue, indigo, violet
detects these three colours of light. You perceive different colours A Ifyou combine filters of two primary colours, then no light will
magenta filter

when different amounts of red, green, and blue are detected. get through.
primary
Colour displays on televisions, computers, and phones combine Filters do not just come in primary colours - you can also have a
secondary
colours of light to produce the range of colours that you see. colour filter. A magenta filter will transmit red and blue light and
absorbs red light
green light. transmitted

The primary colours are red, blue, and green because these are
the colours
that your eye detects. The cells in the back of your eye
absorb different blue light
amounts of red, green, and blue light. This means that the human transmitted
eye can
distinguish between thousands or millions of different colours.

A Screens emit three colours of light.

1. Deduce what colour light would • The primary colours
of light are red,
Colour subtraction - filters be produced by mixing light red + blue green, and blue. The
But if
Coloured lights in a theatre can make a production very dramatic. in these situations. Copy and cyan + red
secondary colours
lights for
a light bulb produces white light, how can we produce coloured complete the table. blue + yellow are yellow, cyan,
2. a. Describe what a green filter
i the stage? and magenta.
does to white light.
Coloured filters are used to produce different colours from white
light.
b. Some people think that the green filter has added colour
to white
• The primary colours
add to give white light.
A filter absorbs some colours of light and transmits others. light. Suggest how you could show that this is not true.
3. Describe and explain what you would see if you
look at white light
• Colour filters absorb
all the colours of light
through a blue and a yellow filter at the same time.
except the colour that
! 4. Suggest a similarity between a phone
screen and your retina. they transmit.
!

144 145
 T Light
Looking at coloured objects Coloured objects in coloured light
7.9 Filza is using filters to produce light
beams of different colours. She shines
coloured light on pieces of fabric of different
colours. Here are her data.
Red fabric Blue fabric Green fabric
Objectives Red light red black black
Blue light black blue black
• Explain why coloured
objects look coloured in
Green light
Yellow light
black
red
black green
black green
Cyan light
white light * black
im Magenta light red
blue green
blue
• Explain why coloured Filza writes this conclusion down.
black
different
objects look
colours in different colours I. It
of light

white light shirt looks red t 1 k c* . 1 1 Tine colour of an object is how it appears
in white light. If th& light
shining on the, object contains one or more of those colours
_ is fine colour that see. If the-
>fou
then that
light shining on the- ob>rt do,frs not
r
0
shorts
* look blue
Most of the time we see coloured objects in white light.
Imagine that you are looking at a fabric that looks red. If the light from the
_
contain an>( of those colours, then it will
both primary and secondary colours.
look black. This is theMW for

* Sun or lamps is a mixture of colours, why does only red light enter your eyes?
The red shirt reflects red
light and the blue shorts
Coloured objects absorb some colours of light and reflect other colours. 1 3
reflect blue light.
Coloured objects in white light
< The colour that an object
A red shirt absorbs all of the colours in white

I*'
appears depends on the
light except red. The red light is reflected into

*
colour of light reflected
our eyes and we see a red shirt. from it.

Paint vs light
• An object looks white because all, or nearly 1

* i all, of the colours of light are reflected. :r°wn which coiours °f iight are refiected fr°m an
°b<ect that
• An object looks black because none, or a. white

%
almost none, of the colours are reflected. A Black clothes absorb
nearly all of the light
b. black. • A coloured object
In science, the primary colours of light are red, 2. You are looking at a yellow flower absorbs all the colours
that hits them. growing outside in the sunshine.
White clothes reflect all green, and blue, because human eyes have cells Explain why it looks yellow. of light except the colour
colours of light. that detect these colours best. These three colours of light are added 3. Explain why a combination of that it appears to be.
red, yellow, and blue paint looks black.
together to give all the other colours. 4. A football team wears a yellow
shirt and white shorts. Write down • Coloured objects appear
what the kit would look like: different colours in
In art, the primary colours of paint are red, yellow, and blue. The different a. in red light different coloured light
colours of paint absorb different colours of light. Green paint absorbs all the b. in green light because they absorb
colours except green, which it reflects. It acts like a filter and subtracts the c. in blue light. certain colours and
red blue
other colours. reflect others.
Mixing paint is not the same If you mix all the colours of light you get white light, but if you mix all the
as mixing light. colours of paint, all the colours are absorbed and the paint looks black.

146
 Extension At the time the idea that light was a particle was very
Light
\
Changing ideas: Light easy to understand
because people could see balls bouncing off walls and imagine

7.10 Two ideas about light

Scientists make observations of the
does the same thing.
But there was one observation that Newton found
with his particle model.
that light

very difficult to explain

world around them. They describe
Objectives what they see and try to make sense When light passes into a glass block, some of it is refracted
but some of it is
of their observations by asking reflected. It is difficult to explain this observation using the idea of
there can be particles
• Recall thatexplanations for
questions and producing of light.
different an explanation.
the same observations Which idea was accepted?
Sometimes two people who make Light is emitted by the Sun and
• Explain why some
explanations are accepted
the same observations can come up
A
by lamps - but what is light?
Even though the particle idea did not explain
some observations very well, people believed
with different explanations. This was
and others are not the case for two scientists who lived Newton’s explanation for over 100 years. This
over 400 years ago: Isaac Newton was because Newton had published a lot of
and Christiaan Huygens. explanations about gravity and was a very
famous scientist. All his explanations had been
very successful at explaining observations that
Waves and particles astronomers made about stars and planets.
••
into colours using a prism, A Newton struggled
Isaac Newton showed that light could be split In 1801 another scientist, Thomas Young, did an
to explain why light
also invented a
and that it can be recombined with a second prism. He experiment on light that could not be explained does this.
telescope that used mirrors instead of lenses. with the idea of particles. The wave theory
.* Lots of people had became accepted as a better explanation of how
Newton thought that light was made up of particles. light behaves.
used the same idea over thousands of years.
That is not the end of the story. Another 100 years later
ago, philosophers in India thought that light was made scientists did a light
A Newton thought of light as • Nearly 2000years
a stream of high-speed ‘atoms’.
experiment and made some observations that could
not be explained with
particles. of the idea of waves! Now it seems that you need both
light that models to describe
1000 years ago Ibn al-Haytham wrote a book about Newton’s ideas explained
A
• About
included the idea that light was made of particles.
what light is. a lot of observations of the
night sky.
explained many observations about light using the idea
• Newton
particles.
of
The idea that light is a
Christiaan Huygens thought that light was a wave.
Huygens thought that • Scientists produce
gr: “ wave is much newer than the idea of light as particles.
lightwaves moved in some invisible medium, just as
waves move through explanations for their
1. Explain why the idea of light as particles was
A Huygens thought of light water. He too worked out some explanations for
observations about light. 2. Explain why Isaac Newton was famous.
popular at first. observations about
as waves. 3. You can use a football to model the particle the world around
idea about light. them.
Mil a. Describe how you could use a football to explain
M»ra
Particles travel in straight lines. Waves travel in straight lines. of light.
the reflection
• Good explanations
Light travels in straight lines. b. Suggest how you can use a football to show how light explain a wide range of
Particles of light bounce off the Wave bounce off barriers in the is refracted. observations.
Light is reflected at equal angles. Explain your answer.
way that sounds make echoes.
mirror like a ball off a wall.
Waves slow down when they go
4. Newton tried to explain the fact that when
light goes into a block of
• Sometimes
Light is refracted. Particles near a boundary with glass, some of it is reflected and some of it is explanations need
a dense medium are pulled off | into shallow water, and bend. refracted. He said that to be changed if they
some particles of light bounce off and others go through the
course by the particles in the block. Is do not explain new
this a good explanation? Explain your answer.
medium. observations.

148 149
■ Light

Extension • Each cone is very sensitive to either red, green, or blue light.
The eye and the camera • This is why red, green, and blue are the primary colours of light.
7.11 How does your eye form
an image? • The cones absorb the light, and send a signal to your brain.

Objectives
How is the eye like a camera?
like a camera?

How do eyes work?

How is it not

camera. If
• Your brain processes the signals and produces the colour image
that you see.

• The human eye can distinguish between thousands or millions of

different colours, but it is not possible to know if someone else perceives
mm
• Describe how your eye The eye is the human body’s
from the Sun is Nobody else has the same
the same colour as you.
works you look at a tree, the light
reflected off the tree into your eye.
* pattern in their iris as you. Some people have cones that do not work properly, and they don’t see ▲ If you have normal colour

• Describe how a camera lens - focuses the light

colours accurately. About 1in 20 people (usually men) have the most vision, you will see the
numbers 1and 4 in this
works common form of colour blindness. They find it hard to tell the difference
onto the retina, together picture. Ifyou have red-
Compare the camera and with the cornea between red and green. green colour blindness you
• optic nerve -
I may see 2 and1.
the eye transfers the signal
from the retina to
How does a camera work?
the brain If you take a picture of a friend with a camera, light is reflected from your
cornea -

m
transparent outer
friend and goes into the camera. Your friend is the object, and an image
is formed at the back of the camera. The image is focused by the lens and
-layer of the eye
inverted, just as it is in your eyes.
In the past, cameras used photographic film to capture the image. Modern
31
1:*V
pupil - the hole
object
cameras, such as phone cameras, use electronic sensors to produce an
image that can be stored or transferred easily.
»I
retina -
Where the image forms,
contains light-sensitive
where the light
goes in
lens film or electronic
▲ Phones contain cameras.
m •y.

sensor
cells that produce a signal
iris -the coloured part of the
eye, a muscle that controls image
the size of the pupil

material.
• The lens is a small sack of jelly-like keeps it nearly spherical. aperture (hole)'
*
liquid that
• Your eyeball is filled with a is upside down, or inverted.
A A lens in a camera focuses light into an image.
image formed on your retina
• The
image the right way up.
• Your brain, your brain makes the • Light from an object
and cones. is focused by the
light-sensitive cells of the retina are called rods
• The
of the retina and are sensitive
to
1. Name the part of the eye that:
a. controls the size of the pupil
lens and cornea on
the retina of the eye,
ainly around the edge
• Rodslight.
dim
are m
b. connects the eye to the brain. which contains light-
they are sensitive 2. The eye works in a similar way to a camera. Copy and complete the sensitive cells.
Cones are mainly found in
the centre of the retina and
• to bright light and colour.
table below to compare the eye and the camera. • The retina sends a
Camera signal to the brain.
Cambridge Lower
You can find out more about
light-detecting cells in your Hole to let the light in • The camera has an
Secondary Complete Biology Student
Book. aperture like the pupil
Where the image is formed
of the eye, and film or
3. Describe one way in which the eye is not like a camera. a sensor like the retina.
The eye and colour types of
Your eyes can detect different
colours of light because of three
cones in your retina.
150
 Light

Review A If you mix red and green light you get cyan
6. Look at the diagram of a ray of light being
reflected. 8. Here are some statements about measuring
the
TWS angle of refraction in a glass block.

7.12 light.
B If you look at a white light through a green and
j A Put the glass block on a piece of white
paper

--
A and draw around the glass block.
blue filter you will see only black.
B Join the two rays with a straight line to
C If you mix all three colours of light you get B show
1. Choose words from this list to match each [1]
C the ray inside the block.
black.
definition below.
mirror C Remove the glass block, mark a point on
4. Here are some diagrams showing reflection. C one
non-luminous inverted opaque transparent edge of the block, and draw a line at 90° to the
luminous upright translucent Which pictures correctly show how light is
[1] lamp edge at that point (the normal).
reflected from a mirror?
[1]
a. gives out light D Mark dots on the paper along the line where
[1] a. Which line, A, B, or C, is the incident ray? the ray goes on both sides of the block.
b. does not allow light to travel through it [1]
b. Which line, A, B, or C, is the reflected ray? E Replace the block on the piece of paper and
c. upside down (describing an image [1]
[1] shine a ray of light at the block at the point
of an object) B c c. Which line, A, B, or C, is the normal? [1]
A where the normal meets the edge of the block.
[1]
d. you can see through it d. What can you say about the angle between F Remove the block and use a ruler to draw
A and B, and the angle between B and C? [1] lines
[1] for both of the rays outside the block.
e. does not give out light
7. Sometimes prisms are used instead of mirrors to
2. Copy and complete the sentences using the
G Use a protractor to measure the angle of
reflect light, for example in binoculars.
words from the list. You may need to use some incidence and the angle of refraction.
words more than once. D E F
/1 a. Write the letters in order to show the correct
prism
reflected transmitted absorbed transparent order for the statements. The first and the last
translucent opaque refracted statements are in the correct place. [1]
5. This diagram shows what a fish sees from below
a. When light is
_ _ from a mirror the water. prism
b. Describe one way in which this method
[1] ensures that the measurements of the angles
you see an image.
b. Light is _ _ _ by objects that air
TWS are as accurate as possible. [1]
[1] light ray A 9. Jamila is in the front row watching an actor
are opaque. on
surface B a stage. She notices that the stage lights change
c. If you hold up a piece of white cloth you

_ _
can see light coming through it, but you
cannot see through it. It is described as
, not [2]
water a. State the angle of incidence at A.
b. Describe what happens to the ray at A.
[1]

[1]
the appearance of the actor’s clothes. This is what
she sees:

• In red light his trousers look black and his shirt

looks red.
d. You see non-luminous objects because light is c. State the angle of incidence at B. [1]
off them into your eyes. [1] d. Describe what happens to the ray at B.
• In green light his trousers look green and his
a. Write down the scientific name for light [1] shirt looks black.
e. Wood and concrete are examples of materials changing direction as it goes from air
that are [1]
into water. [1]
e. Write down what you can tell about the value
of the critical angle for the material from
• In blue light his trousers look black and his
shirt looks blue.
f. Water and glass are examples of materials that b. Explain why the light changes direction.
[2] which the prism is made. [1]
[1] a. What colour are his trousers? [1]
are f. Write down what would happen if the critical
c. Explain how it is possible for the fish to see b. What colour is his shirt? [1]
3. The primary colours of light are red, green, the bottom of the lake as well as the water’s angle were different from your answer to e. [1]
[1] [2]
and blue. surface and the bank above the water.
Which of these statements is correct?
 Magnetism
Why are some materials magnetic?
The properties of magnets
8.1 Magic rocks
You can think of a magnetic materia! as being made up of tots
regions called domains. Each domain behaves like a tiny bar
When a magnetic material is not magnetised, the domains are
of very small
magnet. t i
A long time ago the Ancient Greeks
discovered that a rock that they called
pointing in
lots of different directions. If you magnetise the material by putting it
near a t I t
Objectives lodestone attracted small pieces of iron. magnet or stroking it with a magnet, the domains line up.
The material has domains do not line up
Lodestone is an iron-containing mineral been magnetised.
• Describe the properties of that is naturally magnetic. The Ancient t t t
magnets
Greeks had discovered magnetism. Magnetising and demagnetising
*3
t t 1 tA t
Magnetising
• Know which materials are
magnetic
A magnetic force is a non-contact force -
A The first rocks that attract Iron and steel are magnetised by being close to a magnet.
lodestone exerted a force on the pieces of iron were found in Magnesia domains line up
• Use a model toofexplain iron even when they were not touching. in Greece. • Iron is easy to magnetise, but if you remove the magnet the iron is no
the behaviour magnetic longer magnetised.
Attraction and repulsion • Steel is harder to magnetise than iron, but it stays magnetised when you
A
materials
Every magnet has a north pole and a south pole. The
poles of magnets remove the magnet.
attract or repel each other. A steel needle will be slightly magnetised in a magnetic field. To
make
a stronger magnet you can stroke the needle with a
Like poles repel Unlike poles attract magnet repeatedly
in the same direction. A piece of iron or steel magnetised in this way
• The north pole of a magnet repels • The north pole of a magnet
permanent magnet.
is a needle
the north pole of another magnet. attracts the south pole of A You can magnetise a
The south pole of a magnet repels another magnet. Demagnetising magnetic material by
• stroking it with a magnet.
the south pole of another magnet. You cannot turn a permanent magnet off. You can demagnetise
it by:
• heating it up to a high temperature steel pins iron nails

• hitting it with a hammer. magnet

removed

Magnetic materials i
Some materials are attracted to magnets. These are called 1. Sort the list below into materials that are magnetic and
materials
magnetic materials. that are not magnetic.
elements.
• Iron, cobalt, and nickel are all magnetic materials that are
magnetic.
brass steel iron copper wool wood nickel cotton A Steel stays magnetic, but
iron does not.
the alloys or oxides of these elements are also
• Some oflearn 2. You pick up some nails from a pile and find that they
appear to stick
A Magnetic levitation happens You will more about alloys in your Cambridge Lower Secondary together. Are they made out of iron or steel? Explain your
answer.
when poles repel. Complete Chemistry Student book. 3. The two magnets in the picture are attracted to each
other.
Steel is magnetic because it contains mainly iron. Lodestone, or
magnetite,
A B1— Ac D • Iron, cobalt, steel, and
contains iron oxide, which is also magnetic. nickel are all magnetic
a. If A is a south pole, write down what poles B, C, and D materials that are
very small are.
If The strip on credit cards is made of a plastic that contains lots of b. Describe what will happen in the two experiments shown
below. attracted to magnets.
are used to
iron pieces that behave like tiny magnets. These iron pieces
store information on the card.
experiment 1 :
A B
experiment 2: • For magnets, like poles
D C B A C D repel and unlike poles
it will not be
A piece of magnetic material is attracted to a magnet, but 4. Use the idea of domains to explain why: attract.
repelled by it. a. if you break a magnet in two you get two magnets, each
with a
• You can make a
magnet by stroking
• Magnetic materials do not attract or repel each other. north and south pole
a magnetic material
A The black strip on a credit b. you can demagnetise a permanent magnet by heating it.
card is magnetic. • Only two magnets will repel each other. with a magnet.

154 155
 Magnetism

‘Seeing’ magnetic field patterns with a plotting compass

Magnetic fields A plotting compass is a very small compass. If you put it near a bar magnet,

8.2 its needle will line up with the magnetic field of the magnet. You can use a
plotting compass to see the shape of the field around a bar magnet.
We can show the pattern around a bar magnet by drawing magnetic field
;v lines to show where the plotting compass lined up. The lines are not the
Objectives __ *T; field, but they show us the general shape of the field. A A plotting compass is a
t I
• Define ‘magnetic field’ • The spacing of the lines indicates the strength of the field. The field is very small compass used to
investigate magnetic fields.
stronger where the lines are closer together.
how you can find
• Describe
the shape of a magnetic
4 Adishofferrofluidwithtwo • The arrows on the lines show the direction of the force. Magnetic field
magnets underneath. lines are drawn from the north pole to the south pole. When scientists
small
field around a bar magnet had to decide how to show magnetic fields, they agreed that arrows compasses
that makes beautiful patterns
Ferrofluid is a special magnetic fluid would point towards the south pole.
/
when it is near a magnet. But why does it move? Magnetic field lines are just a representation of the field. There is a field all i
magnet around the magnet, including the region above and below it.
What is a magnetic field?
the
If you put a steel pin near a magnet, Attracting and repelling
the pin
pin will move. The magnet attracts i paper clip When you bring two magnets together,
because it is exerting a force on it.
their magnetic fields interact. The field s mt— !
where of one magnet exerts a force on the
The region around the magnet thread
is called
magnetic materials experience a force other. Magnets attract or repel.
moves
the magnetic field. The ferrofluid Another way to think about the effect of
A The paper clip is in
the
because it is in a magnetic field. magnets is that the magnets move so as
magnetic field of the
to straighten the magnetic field lines.
s
magnet.

MSBSSy-
m *
ssxtssx. How can we ‘see’ a magnetic
field? A The field lines between attracting
and repelling magnets.
Iron filings are very small
flakes of iron.
• they are in a magnetic field.
They become magnetised when
•
m $1
il They •
line up, just like paper clips, to show us the shape of
the magnetic field.
magnets or
< Mna
We cannot see the magnetic
5 magnetic materials.
field, only the effect of the field on

- field patterns around two magnets.

You can investigate the magnetic • A region where
mmm
1. Define ‘magnetic field’.

m
2. Write down where the magnetic field of a bar magnet is the magnetic materials
strongest. Explain how you know. experience a force is

Wtmmm
A Iron filings show the shape
2S
3. Look at the pictures on page 156 of iron filings around two magnets
repelling each other and two magnets attracting each other.
a. Describe what would happen if you put a small steel ball at the
•
called a magnetic field.
You can find the shape
of a magnetic field
of a magnetic field around a neutral point. using iron filings or
magnet. These two magnets are
A These two magnets are A
attracting each other.
b. Explain your answer. plotting compasses.
repelling each other. 4. A student says that he has made a magnetic field with some iron • Magnetic fields exert
At this point the magnetic fields of the filings. Write down what you would say to him. forces on each other.
Point X is called the neutral point.
two magnets cancel out.

156
 Magnetism

c
Electromagnets • Most cores are made of iron.
8.3 Bar magnets are fun to play with, but they
have a fixed strength. A magnet with a
• The core becomes magnetised by the magnetic field of the coil.
• This makes the electromagnet much stronger.
• The iron core does not remain magnetised when you turn the
strength that you can vary is far more useful.
electromagnet off.
Objectives You can make a magnet that you can switch The strength of an electromagnet \
on and off using a coil of wire and a battery. It The strength of an electromagnet depends on: "V
• Describe how to make
is called an electromagnet.
an electromagnet • the number of turns, or loops, on the coil - more turns will make a
ly stronger electromagnet
• Describe how to change
strength of an
A single wire makes a field...
• the current¬ more current will make a stronger electromagnet
the
When an electric current flows through a wire,
electromagnet
a magnetic field is produced around the wire.
• the type of core - using a magnetic material in the core will make a
stronger electromagnet.
compasses show the magnetic Electromagnets can move
• Plotting
field around the wire.
The current flowing in the wire depends on the power supply
and the type
A

iron or steel in a scrapyard.

of wire that is used in the electromagnet.
current carrying
1 wire • The magnetic field lines around a single
A An electromagnet in the
piece of wire are circles. top of this toy keeps a Permanent magnets and electromagnets
• The magnetic field gets weaker as metal Earth hovering Electromagnets are more useful than permanent magnets.
I you getfurther away from the wire. below it.
• You can turn an electromagnet on and off.
... and a loop makes it stronger • An electromagnet can be much stronger than a permanent magnet.
through it.
You can make a circular loop of wire and pass a current
The magnetic field lines at the centre are straight.
i circular coil A Electromagnets can lift a
carrying current Electromagnets are very useful. They can move large pieces of iron or train off its track to reduce
A Plotting compasses show the steel in a factory, or cars in a scrapyard. When the current is friction.
shape of the field. turned off,
the electromagnet drops the car.
Doctors can use a small electromagnet to remove iron or steel
splinters
from people’s eyes.
current-carrying wire
• A current flowing
through a wire produces
7 -
magnetic 5“ d
— 1 x a magnetic field.
S' field lines • An electromagnet is
1. Describe what would happen to the magnetic field
a coil of wire usually
A coil makes it stronger still around a single wrapped around an
piece of wire if the direction of the current was
You can make a coiled cylinder from lots of loops of wire. reversed. iron core.
2. Most electromagnets have a core.
• An electric current in the coil produces a magnetic
... shape
, ,. , , , ,
field.
a. Explain why the core is usually made of iron. • You can switch an
coil of insulated wire iron nail to the field around a bar magnet. electromagnet on
| • The field has a similar
the
b. Describe what would happen if the core was made of
steel and off by turning the
fTTTj7TJT/T]Tr\\ • The switch is needed to turn the solenoid (coil) on and off because instead.
<Z7*rtr-rrr*xr jirv
magnetic field is only produced when a current is flowing in the
wire. 3. Describe how you could use an electromagnet current on and off.

concentrates the magnetic field inside the loops.

to sort a mixture of
iron and copper pieces into two separate piles of iron and • The magnetic
T • Coiling the wire copper. field around an
field is much stronger than for a single loop on its own.
' The 4. A student says that an electromagnet is
stronger when it has an iron electromagnet is
battery core because the electric current flows through the iron as
A coil of wire wound onto a core of magnetic material
is well as similar to that around
the wire. Is this correct? Describe what you would say to the
t T an electromagnet. student. a bar magnet.

158 159
 Magnetism
Science Electric bells
in context Using electromagnets Some doorbells contain an electromagnet. rl'K bell-switch
-Is] clam
amp, -springy

8.4 When a visitor presses the bell-switch, the circuit is complete. iron core metal
Switching off
X-rays can damage your cells if you
are exposed to them for too long.
Radiographers, who operate X-ray
U %
• A current passes through the coil and the iron core is magnetised.
• The iron armature is attracted to the core and the hammer hits the gong,
making a sound.
coil

i '
strip
■iron
armature

Objectives machines, should not be near the • This breaks the circuit at X so the iron core is no longer
A
contact
1
magnetised. screw
machines when they are on. • The armature springs back and completes the circuit. gong hammer
• Describe some uses of
electromagnets The machine uses a high-voltage •The sequence starts again so the bell keeps ringing for
ij
as long as the
circuit. The radiographer turns it visitor presses the bell. A An electric bell circuit.
• Explain why electromagnets
on and off using a relay instead Unlike in the relay, the armature moves backwards and
are used instead of A Some machines are switched on using forwards
of a normal on/off switch. while the switch is pressed.
permanent magnets a relay.

Relays Using magnets in medicine

a circuit that could be A magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanner
A relay uses a small current in one circuit to switch on contains very strong
magnets. These produce a very intense magnetic
dangerous. field that interacts with
the hydrogen in the water molecules in your body.
You can make a simple relay with a reed switch.
This is made of two pieces
them. If you wind a MRI scans are safe and painless, and produce images
of magnetic material (called reeds) with a gap between that are much more
through it, the two reeds detailed than X-rays. Doctors can use them to see structures
coil of wire around the outside and pass a current inside the body
If the reeds are part of that X-rays don’t show, without having to cut the patient
reed switch are magnetised. They attract each other and touch. open, and to see
when they touch. how an organ works in normal conditions. Unfortunately,
another circuit, then current will flow in the second circuit MRI scanners are
Xcircuit 1 circuit 2
_ A relay is often used to turn on the starter motor in
a car. The starter motor
very expensive, and the patient has to lie very still in a
small space.
high current. The
works from the car battery, which produces a dangerously
current.
magnetic1 09 relay circuit that the driver switches on has only a small
1

ill
reeds
When the driver turns the key:
A Ifyou close the switch in
circuit1 the lamp in circuit 2 A current flows in the coil of wire.
A
will come on.
•
• A magnetic field is produced.
low-current circuit • This magnetises the iron armature. • A relay is a type of
switched by ignition key switch that can be
• The armature is attracted towards the contacts.
contacts f used in a low-current
• When the contacts close, they complete the starter motor A An MRI image. circuit to turn on a
high-current circuit' iron armature A MRI scanners are noisy and cramped.
with car battery circuit. high-voltage or high-
coil of wire • The car starts.
dangerous if the driver had
current circuit.
A A starter motor. The current in the starter motor circuit could be 1. Describe a situation in which you might need • Fire doors use
to switch it on directly. Using a relay is much safer.
to use a relay rather electromagnets to

r
than a normal switch.
2. Look at the diagrams of the relay and the close automatically.
doorbell.
Fire doors a. Explain why the doorbell circuit is called a
‘make-and-break’ circuit.
• by An electric bell works
a fire spreading. continually making
In big buildings, fire doors are important to stop b. Describe how the doorbell circuit is different
from the relay circuit. and breaking a circuit.
in the coil of an electromagnet on the wall. c. Write down what the two circuits have in common.
• Ifthereisnofire, acurrent flowsattracted to the electromagnet. 3. In magnetic levitation, trains are held above
a track using
• MRI scanners use
• A piece of iron on the door isthat people can pass easily. electromagnets. Explain why permanent magnets are not used. magnets to take

Electromagnetic catch on
• This holds the door open so the circuit is broken.
4. List two pros and two cons of MRI scanners. pictures of organs in
the body.
A
a fire door. • When the fire alarm is triggered, door closes.
• The current in the coil of the electromagnet stops and the
160 161
 Magnetism
Thinking
and working Risk, variables, and tables: Controlling variables
Aanjay and Citra decide that they will change the
scientifically Investigating electromagnets number of turns on the
electromagnet. Their dependent variable is the number of paper
clips that
the electromagnet picks up. They write down how
they will control the
Electromagnet investigation other variables.

8.5 Aanjay and Citra made an electromagnet

by winding insulated wire around an iron
They could have listed the values of the
control variables instead. We are goliA.0 to c-hauge the uumber of turves, ow the colt aud
nail. When they turn the current on, the wire
Objectives produces a'magnetic field that magnetises • type of core = iron kw.ensu.re the uunÿber of paper clips, we wilt teeep the type of
the nail. • voltage of the battery = 6 V core, the voltage of the battery, aud the
type of wire the sat-we.
• Describe the difference • type of wire = copper Here Is the table for our results.
They are experimenting with metal paperclips.
between dependent and In both plans it is clear which variable is
independent variables the independent variable, which variable Number T-ype voltage of Type Number of
could find out what 'wfe is the dependent variable, and how the of tum«s \ of core battery/v erf wire paper dips
M■ / of paper clips tells \ f We
• Describe how to show
stron9 the J ( dips the electromagnet JO
affects bow many paper Q
Pj other variables will be controlled during 5
■ us
you have controlled
■
iron,
that copper
I »> ■ \\ electromagnet is. J V the investigation. o
variables in an investigation l trow, & copper

o
There are lots of other things that could ±5 trow,
• Write an appropriate copper
change while the students are doing their 0.0
assessment for an

0
trow,
risk & copper
investigation. However, they only need
investigation as¬ tro w, copper
to control them if they will affect the
30 trow,
strength of the electromagnet. £> oopper

Risk assessment
wire gets hot. She writes a
f We need to mate sure \ Citra tries the electromagnet and realises that the
l that we onl'f change one risk assessment. A risk assessment says what can
cause injury or damage,
J
and how to reduce the chance of that happening.

current on for
The. wire can hot and burn our shin. We will onl'f turn the
1. Describe the two things that you should
include in a risk assessment.

P•
2. Eshe is investigating the link between the
short periods of time. extension of an elastic band
and the force that she applies. She changes the force and
measures the
extension. Suggest a risk assessment for this investigation.
What are the variables? 3. A group of students plan to investigate
how high a ball bounces on
change
Aanjay and Citra think about the things that they could different surfaces. This is part of their plan.
they think of first:
(independent variables). This is the list of variables that a. Which is the independent variable?
b. Which is the dependent variable?
• the number of turns on the electromagnet c. Describe one way
• the type of core wire. in which their plan • A risk assessment lists
c
<T • the current in the
They know that the current inthe wire depends on the voltage and the type
could be improved.
d. Draw the table of
We are going to change the surface and
measure the height of the bounce.
what could go wrong
and how you will
We are going to beep everything else the reduce the chance that
of wire. This is their final list of variables: results that you
would need for this same. it does.
• the number of turns on the electromagnet investigation. We will use a tennis ball each time and • You must clearly
Ye*, we need to say how
we have controlled all
• the type of core drop it from the same height. state how you have

the other variables • the type of wire controlled other

• the voltage of the power supply or battery. variables.

162
 Magnetism
Review 4. Copy and complete these sentences. You
may 7. Explain what is meant by:
10. Which of these statements are true?
There
need to use the same word or phrase more than a. a permanent magnet may be more than one.

8.6 once.
a. We can draw
lines to show the pattern of the
b. a magnetic material
c. a magnetic field
[1]
[1]
[1]
A You can make a magnetic material
into a
magnet by stroking it with another magnet.
[1]

d. magnetic field lines B You cannot change the strength of

magnetic around a bar magnet. [2] [1] an
1. For each of these statements about electromagnet.
materials, write ‘true’ or ‘false’. e. an electromagnet.
b. If there are lots of lines dose together, that [1]
a. Magnetic materials will attract other magnetic means that the _ 8. A student has watched a teacher use an
electric bell.
C The magnetic field of a
current-carrying wire
gets stronger as you move away from it.
is very This

____
materials.
happens near the _ of the
rl'k bell-switch D You can demagnetise a magnet by
hitting it
b. Magnetic materials will be attracted to [3] ■{ [damp, -springy with a hammer.
magnet.
magnets. iron core metal
E You can pick up cars with an electromagnet
c. All magnets have a north and a south strip
c. Magnetic materials will be repelled by magnets. [1] ■ iron but not with a permanent magnet.
d. Magnetic materials will repel other magnetic field
coil armature
11. A student wants make the core of an
materials. [4] 5. Icha wants to investigate the magnetic
around two magnets. contact electromagnet from a metal that will be
2. You have a small piece of each of the materials lI

0
screw magnetised while there is a current in the
a. Name two methods that she could use hammer
listed below. Which of them would be picked up gong wire of the electromagnet, but will not stay
to find out about the shapes of the magnetised when the current is switched off.
by a magnet? [2]
magnetic fields. a. Describe what happens to the coil of wire
A nickel E zinc a. Choose the correct metal or metals that
She puts two magnets on the table so that they when the switch is closed. [1] could be used from the list below.
B steel F cobalt [1]
are repelling. b. Describe what happens to the coil when
the iron or steel copper iron
C iron G magnesium circuit is broken.
x [1] copper or iron
[1] steel
D copper magnet 1 magnet 2 c. Describe and explain what would happen b. Explain why the other metals would not
if the core was made of steel, not iron.
3. A student is playing with two magnets on the b. X is the neutral point. Describe what is [1] be suitable. [2]
desk. She puts a blue magnet on the desk and meant by ‘neutral point’.
[1] 9. Abasi wants to make an electromagnet. 12. Ikenna is going to investigate how the type of
brings a green magnet near to it. When she does
this the blue magnet moves. c. Deduce which magnet is stronger. Explain a. Describe how he could make a simple core affects the strength of an electromagnet.
[2]
your answer. electromagnet using a piece of wire, a nail, a. Name the independent variable. [1]
A N s c r»*i d. Apart from the methods in part a, describe a
a battery, and a switch. [2] b. Name the dependent variable. [1]
method that you could use to find the position b. He wants the electromagnet to be strong.
B [[1] c. Name a variable that must be controlled. [1]
of the neutral point. Describe two things he could do to increase
[Hi is no the strength of the electromagnet. d. He has a choice of small paper clips, large
6. Here is a diagram of a compass when there [2]
paper clips, or iron filings to measure the
magnet near it and when it is near the end of a c. He and his friends make four different
S N| strength of the electromagnet. Which should
l±J D
bar magnet. electromagnets.
he choose? Explain your answer.
Put electromagnets A, B, C and D in order of [i]
a. For each diagram, write down

©
up fvj/5 e. Draw a table for Ikenna’s results.
the direction in which the
magnet will move, using the
blue

words up, down, left, or right.

left-*
--
down
► right

[4] A compass with no

magnet near it
B compass near the end
of a bar magnet
strength, starting with the weakest. Write the
letters in the correct order.
A 50 turns, low current, copper core
[11

b. There is one direction that you have not used B 100 turns, high current, iron core
to answer part a. Draw a diagram of two Explain what is happening to the needle
[2] C 50 turns, low current, iron core
magnets to show how you could make the in each picture.
[1] D 100 turns, low current, iron core
blue magnet move in that direction. [3]

165
164
 Energy
Changes in the world’s energy needs
The world’s energy needs
600

1
150 years ago most people in the world were using ■ modern biofuels
500
» other renewables
primary energy sources that they could cut down or solar
Will there be enough energy for humans in the dig up, like wood or coal. wind
future? To answer this we need to know what £ 400
■
hydropower
nuclear
energy resources we have and how we use them. The chart on the right shows how the world’s
Objectives Primary and secondary
energy sources
IBB energy needs have been met in the last 150 years. It
shows the energy in exajoules (EJ). One exajoule is
one million, million, million joules.
J[ 300
I5
S 200
» gas
oil
coal
* traditional biomass
• Describe the difference
It is useful to divide energy resources into
between renewable There has been a huge increase in the 100
and non-renewable primary energy sources (or resources) like coal use of non-renewable energy sources like coal, oil,
A The Earth has limited
l energy sources and secondary energy sources like electricity. gas, and uranium (nuclear), but the use of biomass 0 4-
energy resources. 1800 1850 1900 1950
the ground, 20002019

...
Some primary sources can be found in such as wood has stayed roughly the same. The use
• Describe the ways humans
use energy resources such as coal, oil, gas, or uranium. Other sources like
wind, water, of renewable sources like wind and water is still
A Primary energy sources used throughout the world.

and biomass are in the environment around us. 10000

_ 'i_
very small (the bands at the top).
• Describe how the world’s by:
9000 ■ 2009
Primary sources are converted into secondary sources

J.,
energy needs have This chart shows predictions for the demand for 8000 . «2030
electricity electricity in 2030. A kWh is another unit of energy. 7000
changed and are likely to • power stations, which generatesuch S f- 6000
change in the future • refineries, which produce fuels as petrol (gasoline) from oil. 1kWh = 3 600 000 J M51S 5000

1 2-
-o 4000
Primary energy Secondary
Primary energy sources Both charts show secondary data. 3000 world average in 2030
converters sources/carriers The data were not collected by you in a I 2000
power stations electricity laboratory, but collected and displayed 1000
coal
I (e.g. coal) fuels such as petrol/ by other people. Data you collect yourself
o
UK Russia Middle China Brazil India Indonesia Africa
oil and natural gas

% generators gasoline are primary data. East

sunlight A Predicted demand for electricity by some regions
(e.g. wind) hydrogen gas
uranium and countries of the world.
solar cells
wind
refineries
water (tides, downhill flow) (to produce petrol/ 1. There are primary and secondary energy
gasoline) sources.
biofuel (wood, waste) a. Explain the difference.
geothermal (using thermal hydrogen gas b. Write down whether petrol (gas or gasoline) is a
primary or a
• Primary energy
sources are coal, oil,
energy from under the ground) j production secondary source. Explain why.
gas, and uranium.
c. Write down whether oil is a primary or a secondary

We use a lot of energy to cool Renewable and non-renewable energy sources Explain why.
source. • Secondary energy
A
2. Describe the difference between a renewable and sources are electricity
uranium will run
ourselves down... Some primary energy sources such as coal, oil, gas, and a non-renewable and fuels such as
during our lifetime. source of energy.
out. They are non-renewable. We cannot get more 3. Look at the graph of global energy supply. petrol/gasoline and
such as wood, are renewable. We can grow more trees if
we
a. Write down which energy source was used the hydrogen.
Other sources,
. Hj need more wood. Some people think that renewable resources
can be used most in 1900.
b. Write down which energy source was used the most in
2000.
• Non-renewable
replace it soon. resources will run out,
again, but that is not correct. ‘Renewable’ means you can c. By how much has energy supply increased between
1900 and but renewables will not.
2000? Choose from these options: it doubled, it trebled,
3I Uses of energy resources times bigger.
it is ten • The demand for
The main uses of primary and secondary energy resources are: 4. Look at the electricity demand chart. Write
primary energy
down which country sources needed to
(e.g. using petrol in cars) or countries will double or more than double their
• transportationusing to run machinery) electricity between 2009 and 2030.
demand for generate electricity is
• industry (e.g. electricity increasing rapidly.
... or to heat ourselves up. using electrical devices in the home (e.g. using
A
• heating andtocooling,
run air conditioning units).
electricity
166 167
 Energy
Generating electricity Inducing a bigger voltage
9.2 What do we mean when we say that ‘electricity is
that to make a component work in a circuit we need
generated’? We know
a voltage. Generating
Bulan’s friend Utari says that she has worked out how to make
reading on the voltmeter bigger. Utari is correct. To make the
voltage bigger, she can:
the
induced
is possible. f reading will be bigger
electricity means producing a voltage so that a current V 1 t L/
Objectives • move the magnet (or the coil) faster if '/ou move the
magnet faster
Inside a generator • use a coil with an iron core
•
•
Describe how
generators work
Explain the difference
between a simple
You saw in Chapter 8: Magnetism
on page 158 that when a current
flows in a wire it produces a
ma gnetic field around the wire.
• use more turns on the coil
• use a stronger magnet.
A simple generator
m
wonder how Simple generators, like dynamos, usually contain a coil of
generator and a generator There is a link between electricity ( wire and a magnet
N. electricity is produced in a ] that spins when you turn the handle. The moving magnet
induces a voltage.
in a power station and magnetism. power station. J
Bulan takes a coil of wire and
connects it to a voltmeter.
coil
If she moves the magnet
towards the coil there is \— JMJWJ
a positive reading on the
magnet not moving voltmeter. moving ▲ You can generate electricity by winding a handle. A Spinning a magnet
A
near
lamp

a
If she holds the magnet still
the reading on the voltmeter
magnet
<2ÿ Power station generators
coil lights a lamp.

is zero. voltmeter The generators inside a power station are very, very big. They
use
<2>
voltmeter
moving electromagnets instead of permanent magnets. This is
electromagnets can produce a much stronger magnetic field than a
because
If she moves the magnet
[WWWf
permanent magnet, so the induced voltage will
▲ Either the magnet or the |] be bigger.
coil has to move to induce a away from the coil there is
moving
voltage. a negative reading on the magnet
voltmeter. — <©—
voltmeter
I The ability to generate electricity has had a huge impact on human society.
A Generators in a power station.

in the coil of wire.

We say that a voltage has been produced or induced
component,
If you replace the voltmeter with a lamp or other circuit 1. Describe what is meant by an ‘induced voltage’.
a current will flow in the circuit. 2. Utari moves a magnet into her coil of wire with
the north pole first.
the magnet still This induces a voltage, and the voltmeter reading is positive.
Bulan tries the experiment again but this time she holds she moves the magnet into the coil with the south pole first.
Then
• When a magnet moves
magnet. She sees
and moves the coil of wire towards and away from the down the type of voltage produced.
Write near a coil of wire, ora
the same thing happening on the voltmeter. 3. Many people use battery-powered lights on their bicycles.
coil of wire moves near
reading is positive. You can a magnet, a voltage is
• If she moves the magnet towards the coil the use a dynamo (a little generator) instead. As you pedal,
the wheel induced.
• If she moves it away from the coil the reading is negative. moves the dynamo, which powers the lights.
She realises that to induce a voltage you need
movement, but it does not a. What is one disadvantage of using a bicycle dynamo
instead of a
• Large-scale
generators are made
matter whether the magnet is moving or the coil
is moving. battery-powered light?
using very large
b. What is one advantage of using a bicycle dynamo instead
of a coils and powerful
battery-powered light?
electromagnets.

168 169
n You can find out more about pollution in your Cambridge Lower Secondary
Energy

Non-renewable resources: Complete Chemistry Student Book.

9.3 Fossil fuels

does
Most of the energy wasted in generating electricity heats the surroundings.
You could say that a power station is better at heating than generating
electricity. Some power stations transfer hot water to nearby homes and
Why are fossil fuels called ‘fossils’? How factories.
Objectives that make them non-renewable?
trees die and are
We depend on fossil fuels but
they will run out, m ' How were fossil fuels formed? buried by mud and sand... - over millions of years.., ... become coal
• Describe how fossil fuels
were formed
and this may be a problem in the future. Fossil fuels formed from plants and animals
pressure
►
that lived millions of years ago.
• Explain how a fossil-fuel Uses of fossil fuels Coal is made from fossilised trees, and oil is
power station works The main uses of fossil fuels are: made from fossilised
(all three are used, A Oil is a fossil fuel.
• Describe uses of fossil fuels • generating electricitygas) sea creatures.
but mainly coal and
petrol and other fuels) Scientists are developing new ways to find t

■
• transportation (oil is used to produce
• heating (all three can be burned to heat

Fossil-fuel power stations

The stored energy in fossil fuels
houses).

can be used to generate electricity.

fossil fuels underground. They can only make
an estimate of the amount of coal, oil, and
gas there is in the world, and the effects of
burning it.
sea creatures die and are
thermal energy from beneath
Earth's surface

buried by mud and sand... ... over millions of years

ressu
......
►
become oil and gas

power station works. Oil- and

j I t t The diagram below shows how a coal-fired
gas-fired power stations work in the same
way. (§U
The impact of electricity generation
chimney on the environment is one of the
biggest challenges that we face.

A
m
Gas is a fossil fuel.
steam
generator
Societies rely heavily on a ready
supply of electricity to industries
and homes. However, the serious
t
thermal energy from beneath
Earth's surface
electricity to
effects of climate change are
Fossil fuels take millions of
homes and becoming obvious. years to form.
I L-i-i— J1- factories

■liHi" boilerÿ cooling

system
• In a fossil-fuel power
station the fuel is burnt
to turn water into
steam.
cooling water
river or reservoir
1. Copy and complete these sentences. • Steam turns the
A Coal is a fossil fuel. In the power station the coal, oil,
or gas is burned to turn water into steam. turbine, which turns a
• a giant fan spun by the steam.
When fuel is burned in a power station the energy is transferred to generator to generate
• The steam drives a turbine, which is like turn into .. This drives a , electricity.
a voltage.
• The turbine is connected to the generator to produce which drives a generator to produce electricity.
the condenser.
• Burning fossil fuels
• The steam is turned back to water in 2. Explain why coal, oil, and gas are called fossil fuels. produces carbon
and disadvantages. 3. Explain why fossil-fuel power stations are built near rivers or the sea. dioxide and pollution.
Fossil fuel power stations have advantages
Advantages
Disadvantages 4. Explain why you might want to build a coal power station even • Coal, oil, and gas are
though it produces pollution and carbon dioxide. the remains of plants
electricity produced constantly produces carbon dioxide 5. Describe one similarity in the formation of coal and of oil. Describe and animals that lived
very reliable
contributes to climate change one difference. millions of years ago.

fossil fuels readily available produces pollution

170
 ▼ Energy
Using energy from the Earth
Renewable resources: Solar
9.4 and geothermal
Geothermal energy, from the Earth, is mainly used for:
• heating homes and water using heat pumps turbine
1
,steam

This is the Mithapur solar power station. There are over 100 000 solar cells
• generating electricity by pumping water underground to heat it. water
generator

Objectives covering 0.4 square kilometres. India has about 300 sunny days a year and Geothermal power reservoir 1 U
could generate all the electricity it needs using solar cells. The rocks beneath Earth’s surface are very hot. You can find out
more about the structure of the Earth in your Cambridge Lower
• Describe how the energy
from the Sun can be used to Using energy from the Sun Secondary Complete Chemistry Student Book. If you drill down
generate electricity into the Earth the temperature rises by about 25°C for every
We mainly use energy from the Sun,
or solar energy, for: kilometre down. In a geothermal power station:
• Explain how energy from
• you pump water into pipes deep underground
be used to
the Earth can • heating homes and water heating
• the water is converted into steam
generate electricity
• generating
solar cells.
electricity using
• the steam drives a turbine, which drives a generator.
cold water heated
to produce steam

Advantages Disadvantages

IÿWI
Solar cells
Solar cells generating electricity renewable - will not run out expensive to build
A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, A

converts the energy of light directly

from solar energy. |
does not produce greenhouse greenhouse gases released
gases while running | during building
into a voltage. Unlike a generator, a
solar cell has no moving parts. Heat pumps
a small voltage.
• Each solar cell on its own producesto produce a big voltage.
Some people use the thermal energy from the Earth to heat
their houses in the winter, or cool them down in the summer,
• Lots of solar cells are connected by using a heat pump.
• The efficiency of solar cells has increased from 5% in the 1970s to more
than 30% today.
cells can produce the same voltage.
• It pumps water through pipes in the ground. A Pipes are buried deep in the rock below
• This means that now fewer solar and disadvantages of solar cells.
• In the winter the water gains a little thermal energy, which this geothermal power station in Olkaria,
The table lists some advantages can be transferred to heat the house. Kenya.
For some objects like this
A
satellite, solar is the only Advantages Disadvantages
• In the summer the ground is cooler than the house,
so the same system can be used to cool the house.
source of energy. can be used in individual houses/ don’t work at night
small devices with low power
needs _
i— hot water
out can be used in remote locations expensive to produce 1. Describe the difference between a solar (photovoltaic) cell and a • Solar energy can
be used to produce
can work on cloudy days greenhouse gases made solar hot water panel.
pipe inside the storage electricity directly
during production 2. Explain why you need to connect lots of solar cells together.
panel is painted tank using solar cells.
renewable - will not run out 3. Estimate how many times more efficient a modern solar cell is than
dull black
\
>

an early version from the 1970s. • Energy from the Sun or

water Earth can also be used
insulation 4. Look at the coal-fired power station on page 170. Compare it
in Solar water heating with to heat water.
the geothermal power station above. Describe one similarity and
Solar water heating uses solar panels instead of solar cells. • Energy from deep
one difference between the two power stations.
The heater consists of pipes inside a glass-topped panel. inside the Earth can be
; glass-covered box • 5. The power output of the Mithapur solar power station is about 25
MW. used to turn water into
■/
• The pipes are painted black and are usually made of copper. The power output of the Olkaria II power station is about 100 MW.
steam. The steam can
cull black
surface
• Cold water from a tank flows through the pipes. Calculate the approximate number of solar power stations that would turn a turbine, which

Energy from the Sun can heat water.

• The water is heated by the Sun. produce the same power as the Olkaria II geothermal power station.
can drive a generator.
A
• Hot water flows back to the tank.
 ▼ Energy

Renewable resources: Tidal power

9.5 Water and wind

The largest tidal power station in the world is the
tidal power station in South Korea. A sea wall
Sihwa Lake
contains ten large
underwater turbines. This is sometimes called a ‘barrage’. As
i

People have harnessed water and the wind to power machines

for the tide comes in the turbines spin and they drive
generators to
f
Objective thousands of years. Windmills and water mills were used to
pump water generate electricity. They spin again when the
tide goes out. Tidal ¥
generate electricity.
and grind flour. Now we mainly use water and wind to power is a bit like hydroelectric power.
• Describe how wind, waves, • There are tides every day so a tidal power station can produce
tides and water behind Hydroelectricity electricity for about 10 hours each day.
Hydroelectricity is another method of generating electricity that does
dams can be used to not
A tidalpower station.
hydroelectric power • They can affect the environment. For example fish cannot swim A
generate electricity use fossil fuels. The photo shows Indonesia’s largest upriver to breed.
station, Cirata, 100 km south-east of Jakarta.
• Tidal barrages are very expensive to build.
• A river fills up a big reservoir behind a dam. • As with hydroelectricity and wave power, greenhouse gases are
flow down pipes
• Gates are opened to allow water from the reservoir to produced when barrages are constructed but not when
they run.
inside the dam.
• The water in the pipes turns the turbines. electricity. Wind
• The turbines drive generators to produce A wind turbine is a large windmill that is used to
generate electricity. Although
Advantages Disadvantages it is called a wind turbine it contains a turbine and a
generator.
Groups of
wind turbines make wind farms. A wind turbine can
A A hydroelectric power
|
produces electricity on expensive to build
about 2 MW.
produce a power of
station: the dam is 125 m tall. demand
renewable - will not run greenhouse gases made The Tamil Nadu wind farm in India produces just under
6000 MW from its
out during building collections of wind turbines. blade
electricity to homes and factories dam
reservoir

_
sluice
gate
does not produce needs a suitable place,
greenhouse gases while usually with mountains
runningÿ and lakes
• The output of a wind turbine is not always predictable because the wind
does not always blow.
- generator

generator expensive to connect to • Some people like the way that wind turbines look, but others do not.
✓ houses _ • They can be noisy and can kill birds.
turbine dam flooding valleys can • They can be expensive to build if they are offshore (in the sea). ' j tower
-

displace people and affect

the environment A A wind turbine.
i
Wave power
The waves
Wave power is generated with a chamber on the shoreline.
forces air
force water up and down inside it. The motion of the water
backwards and forwards through a turbine, which makes a generator • Water in lakes, wind,
spin to generate electricity. waves, and tides can
air forced
through turbine
Wave power does not produce a constant supply of
• 1. Write down two similarities and two generate electricity.
electricity. differences between tidal power • These are all renewable.
and hydroelectric power.
• The chamber needs to be very strong to resist storms. 2. Are wind power and wave power ‘free’? Explain your • Moving air or water
answer. is used to turn a
wave • You need a suitable site to build the chamber. a. Describe the main advantages and disadvantages
of wind po wer. turbine, which drives a
b. Describe the main advantages and disadvantages
of generator.
water rises hydroelectric power.
and falls in 3. Do any of the methods of generating electricity • There are advantages
chamber above produce and disadvantages to
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide? Explain your
A wave power station.
answer. all of these methods.
 Energy

Renewable resources: Advantages Disadvantages

9.6 Biofuels and bioplastics

can be used to generate electricity
in remote locations
produce carbon dioxide when
they burn, which can contribute to
climate change
All methods of generating
electricity have risks or
Plastics made of oil are thrown away in huge ! fuels can be obtained from waste more expensive than fossil fuels consequences for humans
Objectives amounts, and plants could be the solution. products and forthe environment.
Imagine a plastic container that will decompose *• do not produce pollution when This includes renewable
need a lot of land to grow crops for
• Describe how we use and not pollute the environment! they burn some fuels energy sources.
plants to make plastics

• Describe how we use

make fuels
plants to
Fuels made from plants are also a possible solution
to the problem of running out of fossil fuels. m fossil fuel power stations can be
converted to use biofuels
most cars are not designed to run
only on biofuels

What is a biofuel? What is a bioplastic?

Plant and animal material are called biomass. Plastic waste, such as cups and bags, does not break down
;
iM \
easily. Bioplastics
Some biomass, such as wood, can be used as a are made from starch. Starch can be broken down
by decomposers, so
biofuel. A biofuel is a fuel from living things, such bioplastics are biodegradable. You learned about decomposers
in your
waste. These fuels have been A plastic fork will Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Biology Student Book.
I as trees, or animal
A
not decompose fora
I used for thousands of years.
The Sun is the source of the energy in biofuels.
thousandyears.
M /ÿ*

|
| • Plants use sunlight to make glucose by photosynthesis. They turn
some iil
into starch and cellulose.
of the glucose
of energy.
I • Starch is a complex carbohydrate that plants use as a store
them survive
Soybeans are used to make • They often store starch in their roots and stems to help
A
difficult conditions. They also store some starch in seeds
and other cells. A These drinking glasses are A This packaging and A These cups are made This bag is made from
biodiesel. made from maize starch.
A
them. these utensils are from polylactic acid,
• All plants have cellulose in their cell walls to help support obtained from plant
starch.
made from starch.
There are different types of biofuel. carbohyhdrates.
m • Wood is one of the most common biofuels a What are the problems with biofuels and bioplastics?
used throughout the world for thousands of At first glance biofuels and bioplastics look like the
solution to a lot of
years. problems with resources and pollution. However,
producing biofuels and
bioplastic needs land to grow plants, where food could be grown
• Biodiesel is a biofuel made from plant oils. instead.
• Bioethanol is a biofuel made from sugar. You might think that using biofuels and bioplastics
does not contribute to
• Biogas is a biofuel that can be piped from L climate change. However, carbon dioxide is still released when
machinery is
landfill (rubbish) sites, or other sites where used to farm the crops, when biofuels are burnt, and when bioplastics
biomass is decomposing. are manufactured.
A Sugar beet is used All sources of energy have a cost. The energy
A Gas produced
waste is biogas.
from • Biofuels are fuels made
to make bioethanol. from biomass, which
from biofuels is not free. You need to buy a furnace is plant and animal
to burn the fuel and a generator to material or waste.
generate electricity. Some people build biogas
digesters, which use waste material from plants and
animals to produce gas 1. Define ‘biofuel’ and ‘bioplastic’. • Biofuels include wood,
disadvantages of biofuels bioethanol, biodiesel,
that can be burned. Some of the advantages and 2 Explain why biodiesel is a renewable fuel.
and biogas.
are listed in the table. 3 Write down two similarities and two
differences between biofuels
and fossil fuels. • Bioplastics are made
4 Suggest why most plastic cups are not
from starch instead
made of bioplastic. of oil.

176
 Review e. Give one advantage of
using bioplastics
over plastics from oil.
[11
T Give the letter or letters of the sources that are:

a. renewable resources [1]

8. Look at the list of energy sources in question 5.
Here is a list of definitions, advantages, and
disadvantages. For each one write down which
Energy

bioplastics b. non-renewable resources [1] energy source(s) each statement applies to. You
f. Suggest and explain whether [2] may need to use the same source twice.
contribute to climate change. c. things that you burn to produce steam [1]
cells. She has seen a. It uses water stored behind dams. [1]
the 4. A student is investigating solar d. things from underground [1]
1. Sort the following energy
resources into
on the roofs of their
[3] fws that people use solar cells b. It contributes to climate change by
correct columns in the table. houses to generate electricity.
She wonders how e. things that involve water. [1] producing carbon dioxide. [1]
solar cells clouds affect the output of the cell.
electricity coal oil power station One of them is the odd one out. c. Building it can cause damage to the
wood petrol water refineries
f. Which one, and why? [2] environment from flooding. [1]
Primary Secondary
Primary

Pi
d. It is unreliable because it depends on the
energy energy sources/carriers Bench
6. Are these statements about generating
Solar cell electricity true or false? weather. [i]
sources converters lamp
Voltmeter a. If you hold a magnet near a coil of wire a e. It produces electricity on demand or
voltage will be induced. [1] all the time. [1]

m
2. Explain what is meant
by:
11. Here are some secondary data about solar
a. photosynthesis
[1]
o'
* b. You move a magnet out of a coil and the
cells, showing the area of the cells, the power
induced voltage is positive, so when
[1] produced, the energy produced per year, and
b. fossil fuel you move it in it will also be positive. [1]
[1] the mass of carbon dioxide that would be saved
c. hydroelectricity below a lamp
c. It doesn’t matter whether you move because you are not burning fossil fuels when
[1] She puts a solar cell on the desk the coil or move the magnet to induce you use the cells.
puts thin
d. solar cell. and connects it to a voltmeter. She a voltage. [1]
top of it to see
3. Here is the graph showing
the changes in the layers of clear plastic film on Area | Power
J Energy | Mass of
solar cell is
world’s energy consumption over two centuries. whether the voltage output of the 7. Draw a diagram of a fossil fuel power station. (m2)
(kW) produced carbon
affected by them. Label each of the following. per year I dioxide saved
600 ■

500
■ modern biofuels
■ other renewables
1
a. State the question that she
is investigating. [1] a. the turbine [i] (kWh) I per year (kg)
solar 10 1 2000 500

Jj 400
■ wind
hydropower / b. Draw a table that she could
use for her
[3]
b. the generator [1]
20 2 4000 1000
§ ■ nuclear results. c. the steam [1] 30 3 6000 1500
J. 300 :sr
■ coal c. State and explain the type of graph that she d. the burning fuel [1]
40 4 8000 2000
l
s 200
■ traditional biomass M could draw.
[2]
a. Calculate the area of solar cells needed to
e. the water. [1]
power a 2 kW kettle. [1]
100 5. Here is a list of energy sources.
Write down which of the items from
G gas b. A family wants to save 7000 kWh per year.
1950 20002019 A coal your diagram:
300 1850 1900 Calculate the area of solar cells needed. [1]
B sunlight
H tidal
used as
a. Name the main fuel that is [11
f. you would also find in a geothermal
c. Calculate how much carbon dioxide you
‘traditional biomass’. I biomass power station [1]
C oil would save if you used 25 m2 of solar cells
b. Use the graph to predict the
total world hydroelectricity j waves g. are also needed to generate electricity on your roof. [1]
[1] D
exajoules.
energy consumption in 2030 in K electricity
using the wind. [1]
d. Do you think that the energy produced as
[2] E uranium
shown in the table is the maximum or the
c. Name two ‘modern biofuels’. L geothermal
F wind minimum energy that you would get? [2]
also be
d. Material used for biofuels can
for bioplastics. Give one use
of Explain your answer.
used [1]
a bioplastic.
179

178
 T The images that we have of the Milky Way disc are models
The Earth in space

Galaxies - they are

m
10.1 The Voyager1 and Voyager 2 space
probes were launched from Earth
not photographs that anyone could take from

our galaxy.
inside it using a camera.
Scientists have used observations with telescopes to work out
the shape of

in 1977. In 1979, Voyager1passed The hazy white band in the sky is the concentration of stars
that we see
Jupiter. Since then, they have both when we look along the disc. When we look in other

.
Objectives
Describe what is in a galaxy
passed through the Kuiper belt - the
rocks and dus( beyond Neptllne and
_
beyond the edge of the Solar System.
as many stars.

Other galaxies
directions there aren’t

• Describe what is in the

Voyager1has now travelled further
Not everything that you see in the night sky is a star in the
Milky Way. Some
Universe of the bright, fuzzy objects are other galaxies beyond the Sun
than anything else made by humans, Milky Way.
A Several images taken by Voyager
1
and is about 23 billion kilometres
were combined to give this picture • One of the most spectacular galaxies is the Andromeda
galaxy.
away from us. Both Voyagers will • Andromeda is the nearest spiral galaxy to our own.
of the surface of Jupiter andits
spend over lOOOOyears travelling
through the Oort cloud of objects
moon Europa casting a shadow. • You can also see two of our other neighbouring galaxies,
the Large and
Small Magellanic Clouds.
weakly held by the gravity of the distant • Not all galaxies are spiral.
Milky Way galaxy.
Sun. When they exit that, they will still be inside the
You need a telescope to see the galaxies in any detail.
With the naked eye
they look like fuzzy discs.
What is a galaxy? A We are on a planet in a solar
system located on a spiral
A galaxy consists of
The Universe arm of the Milky Way galaxy.
• stars - usually thousands of millions of them The Universe is everything
planetary systems - astronomers think that most stars
• planetary systems that exists. All the stars,
have planets, moons, comets,
dust and gas - from stars that have exploded, or left
• stellarfrom asteroids, meteors, and
over the formation of the Universe. everything else make up
in
Our galaxy is just one of thousands of millions of galaxies the Universe, including you!
the Universe. Some people ask what is
A The Sombrero galaxy is one of thousands outside the Universe. This is
of millions of galaxies in the Universe. not a question that science
Our galaxy
The word ‘galaxy’ comes from the Greek word for ‘milky’. If you
can answer because there
may be no ‘outside’. We A The Triangulum galaxy is a spiral
galaxy
(Sgjjÿ
look at the night sky from a dark place, you will see a band of don’t know how large the 2. Tmillion light years from Earth.
stars. These are stars in our galaxy, the Milky Way. Universe is or whether it is even infinite, but we do know that we
• Our Solar System is
can see for surrounded by gas and
13.7 billion light years in all directions.
• The nearest star to our Sun is Proxima Centauri. It has a dust in the Kuiper belt

»
diameter seven times smaller than our Sun’s diameter. and Oort cloud.
• There is at least one exoplanet orbiting Proxima Centauri, • A galaxy consists
making it our nearest solar system. 1. Imagine you are in a spacecraft moving away from of stars, planetary
the Earth. You

_
are reach the orbit of Neptune. Copy and complete these systems, stellar dust,
Our Solar System and the Proxima Centauri solar system sentences. and gas.
At the edge of the Solar System I enter the
part of the Milky Way galaxy.
Most of the stars that you can see are stars in the Milky
Way. Beyond that I will be in the _ • There are thousands of

The Milky Way is the hazy white band

• Astronomers think our Sun and the other stars in our galaxy , where we think some comets come from. If I carried on, millions of stars in
A
through the centre of the sky. • I would travel out of our , which is called the Milky Way.
a galaxy.
are all orbiting a huge black hole at the centre. 2. Describe the difference between a solar system • There are thousands of
• The Milky Way is a spiral galaxy. It is shaped with curved 3. Explain why it is not possible to count all the
and a galaxy. millions of galaxies in
stars in the Milky Way.
arms making a disc with a bulge in the middle. the Universe.

180 181
 Asteroids The Earth in spacg

10.2 In 2017, for the first time, an

object from interstellar space Asteroid, meteor, comet: what’s the
come

was detected in our Solar System. It can be hard to difference?

remember the differences between
Objectives At first astronomers thought it was seen in the sky. objects that can be
a comet. Then they classified it as
• Describe asteroids an asteroid. What are asteroids, Object
Definition
• Describe how and where do they come from? ’Oumuamua is an unusually shaped Asteroid A large piece of rock
orbiting the Sun Smaller than a planet,
asteroids form asteroid that passed through our
Solar System. larger than a meteoroid
What is an asteroid? Meteoroid A smaller piece of rock
• Describe evidence for
asteroid impacts on
celestial bodies
An asteroid is rock that orbits the Sun. It is smaller than a planet, but some
are large enough to be called a ‘minor planet’. Meteor A smaller piece of rock
that has
broken off from an asteroid or
that has
lm in diameter or
comet smaller
lm in diameter or
_
entered the Earth’s atmosphere
• Asteroids can range in size from less than 10 m to over 500 km in diameter. Meteorite A meteor that reaches the smaller
• Most asteroids are irregularly shaped, although some are nearly not burnt up in the
ground (is 1m in diameter
or
spherical. atmosphere) smaller
Comet
• The total mass of all the asteroids in our Solar System is less than the An object made of ice and
dust
orbiting the Sun that has a tail when
about 10 km in
mass of the Moon.
diameter
• More than 100 asteroids also have moons! it gets close to the Sun
The word ‘asteroid’ means ‘star-like shape’. The person Meteorites are sometimes found on the
ground. These are fragments
who named them over 200 years ago did not know what meteoroids that have mostly vaporised of
they were, but could see them using a telescope. in the atmosphere.

How do asteroids form? S3

Asteroids are left-over debris from the formation of the
Solar System. As you learned in Chapter 5: r, r

m
• The Solar System formed when gravity pulled dust
and gas together about 4.6 billion years ago.
• The pieces of rock that were left over are what we
call asteroids.
• Jupiter’s gravity may have broken up some smaller
planets into pieces of rock that became asteroids.
f
A Part of a 500kg meteorite made
rock that landedin Chelyabinsk,
of A ...and a 37g meteorite made
of iron andnickel foundin
Asteroids have many shapes and sizes. Russia, in 2013...
A We now know that most stars have a planetary Arizona, USA.
system, just like the Sun. Those systems probably have
asteroids for the same reason that there are asteroids in
(3ÿ
our Solar System.
1. Copy and complete • Asteroids are
these questions: irregularly shaped
Where are the asteroids? An asteroid is a piece of
that orbits the_ pieces of rock, mostly

__
-
In our Solar System there are over a million asteroids.
Most of them are located in the asteroid belt between
Mars and Jupiter, but some are in the same orbit as
Asteroids usually have
orbit between
2. Explain how asteroids
—
and _ shapes. Most asteroids are in an in orbit between Mars
and Jupiter.
formed. • Asteroids are pieces
larger planets, such as Jupiter. 3. Explain why the Moon of rock left over from
is not an asteroid, even
4. Explain why asteroids though it is made of rock.
I Some are in orbits that bring them close to Earth. are not stars. the formation of the
Astronomers watch these carefully in order to give a Solar System.
The position of the asteroid belt (not to scale). warning if one of them might hit the Earth.

182

I
183
 T The Earth in space
Why is there a magnetic field around the Earth?
Magnetic Earth crust

10.3
The Earth behaves as if there is a huge bar magnet mantle
inside it. The magnetic
field pattern is like that of a bar magnet. If a compass outer core
is north. It works needle points north,
A compass is useful if you want to know which way then the south pole of the Earth’s magnet must be in
the north! This means
inner core
because there is a magnetic field around the Earth. Why is
there a magnetic that you draw the arrows on the Earth’s magnetic field AA
lines pointing from
field, and what would happen if there was no magnetic field? the magnetic south pole to the magnetic north pole.
Objectives There is no bar magnet inside the Earth, and scientists
think that the outer
7
core of the Earth is made of iron that can move. This produces
• Explain what a field like a current flowing in a wire. Scientists are not sure
a magnetic
compass does why the
magnetic north pole moves as it does.
The outer core is like an
• Describe the Earth’s There is evidence that the Earth’s magnetic field has
A
electromagnet
magnetic field ‘flipped’ in the past so
that the magnetic north and south poles changed places.
This happened
• Explain why the Earth has 780 000 years ago, and may happen again in the future.
a magnetic field
Why is the Earth’s magnetic field important?
If the Earth did not have a magnetic field then there
would be no life on
▲ The red end of the compass needle points north. Earth. The magnetic field protects the Earth. The Sun emits
radiation in the
direction of the Earth. This is called the solar wind. It is not the sort of
What is the shape of the Earth’s magnetic field? that you feel when air moves around you. It is made of
wind
electrically charged
line up in the
If you suspend a magneton a piece of cotton, the magnet will particles that can damage or kill cells, so living organisms
would die.
compass needle
same direction each time. This direction is north-south. A The Earth’s magnetic field deflects the solar wind so
and lines up
points north because the needle is a small magnet. It swings not reach the surface of the Earth.
most of it does
a force on
with the Earth’s magnetic field. The Earth’s magnetic field exerts
it. Not all of the solar wind is deflected. Some of it can
reach the
atmosphere at the north and south poles. This produces an
• Compass needles actually
to the Earth’s
magnetic
aurora -
dramatic lights in the sky called the northern and southern lights. A Most of the solar wind is deflected
by the Earth’s magnetic field.
point north pole
magnetic pole. , geographic

| People have used • This is notthe same place ' 1 : /North Pole
r;

compasses to navigate as the Earth’s geographic

since ancient times. North Pole, which is at the i
‘top’ of the Earth’s axis of
Without compasses a lot
of the exploration of the rotation. x
world would have been a • The magnetic north pole is
• The Earth behaves as
lot more difficult, or taken in Canada, about 400 km
a lot longer. away from the geographic geographies"ÿ/7 A The southern lights seen from Antarctica. if it has a bar magnet
South Pole l inside it.
North Pole.
Scientists have also
• The magnetic north pole
Earth's axis magnetic • Compasses point north
learned that some birds south pole because the needle is
is moving at about 30 km a 1. Explain why a compass needle moves.
and insects rely on the a magnet that lines up
year from Canada towards A The Earth’s magnetic field. 2. Describe the shape of the Earth’s magnetic
field. with the field.
Earth’s magnetic field to Russia. 3. A student uses a magnet that can rotate in
three dimensions.
navigate.
• The compass needle moves in two directions, because the Earth’s She notices that it points diagonally downwards. • Scientists think that
the Earth’s magnetic
magnetic field can have a ‘dip’ as well. a. Suggest why.
b. Suggest where she would have to go to see the field is produced by
needle point moving currents of
directly downwards. Explain your answer.
iron in the Earth’s core.

184 185
 The Earth in space 1
Review 4. a. Give the name of the force
that pulled together
asteroids, [l]
d. A compass needle shows north by
lining up with the Earth’s magnetic
9. An astronomer uses a telescope to look at some
astronomical objects.
stellar dust and gas to produce

10.4 b. Match each object in the table

the
below with
correct definition by giving the letters
and the numbers.
[4]
field. What would happen if you were
trying to use a compass near a large
piece of lodestone? [1]
a. Space probes have been sent to investigate
the planets of the Solar System. They have
gathered information about the surface, the
atmosphere, the gravitational field strength,
using the 7. An astronomer uses a telescope to look at some
1. Copy and complete these
sentences
A Asteroid 1 A smaller piece of rock astronomical objects. and the magnetic field strength.
the words
words below. You may need to use that has entered the This table shows the strength of the planets’
a. Suggest which of the objects is an
once, more than once or not at alt. Earth’s atmosphere
asteroid. [1] gravitational fields and magnetic fields
millions billions gas rock planetary B Meteoroid 2 A large piece of rock compared with those of the Earth.
galactic orbiting the Sun
Planet Made I Gravitational | Relative magnetic
3 A piece of rock that
a. A galaxy contains stellar dust
_ , stars, and
C Meteor
reaches the ground I
of... field strength j field strength
and [2] (is not burnt up in the Mercury Rock 0.37 0.006
systems. atmosphere) Venus Rock 0.89 0
[1]
b. A galaxy contains.
of stars.
D Meteorite 4 A smaller piece of rock Earth Rock 1.00 1.0
that has broken off from Mars Rock 0.37 0
c. The Universe contains- an asteroid or comet
of galaxies.
U1 Jupiter Gas 2.31 19519

5
C
[1] 5. The Earth has a magnetic
field. Give an Saturn
2. Give the letters of the true statements.
Gas 0.90 578
explanation for the origin of this magnetic [2] Uranus Gas 0.87 48
A Galaxies contain stars. field.
Neptune Gas 1.10 27
B Stars contain galaxies. 6. The Earth has a magnetic
field shaped as if it had
a bar magnet through its centre. i. Suggest a link between what the planet
C Our galaxy is called Andromeda. is made of and the magnetic field
D Our galaxy is a spiral galaxy. strength. [1]

system. b. Explain your answer to part a. ii. Suggest a possible reason for the link in
3. Here is a diagram of the solar
[1]
part i using what you know about the
4 c. Give the names of the two planets that
probable cause of the Earth’s magnetic
are likely to be either side of the
field and about particle theory.
location of the asteroid. [2]
[Hint: remember what you learned
8. Here is a list of astronomical objects. about electromagnets.) [2]
A an asteroid in our Solar System b. A student wishes to investigate the link
5
1 2 3
B the Andromeda galaxy TWS between gravitational field strength and
[11 magnetic field strength.
a. Give the number of the asteroid
belt. C a planet around a star called Proxima Centauri
i. Suggest and explain which type of graph
b. Give one similarity between an
D a star in our galaxy called Pegasi they should plot. [2]
HI with a
asteroid and a planet. a. Copy the diagram of the Earth E Jupiter. ii. Explain why it would be difficult to plot
an bar magnet at the centre and label the points for magnetic field strength. [1]
c. Give one difference between [1] a. Give the letters of two things that were
HI the poles of the imaginary magnet. made from the same gas and dust.
asteroid and a planet. [11
[1] iii. Do you expect to see a link between
other b. Explain your choice of labels. b. Give the letters of objects that are the magnetic and gravitational field
d. Give one reason to expect that
solar systems in our galaxy have field lines. [1] roughly spherical. HI tws strength? Explain your answer. [2]
c. Add arrows to the magnetic
asteroids. HI c. Space probes have observed auroras on other
c. Give the letters of objects that were
made from gas and dust. [i] planets. Suggest and explain which ones. [2]
187
186
 Stage 8 review
Review 4. The first person to stand on the Moon took 3
days a. Give the letters for two reflected rays [1] The mechanic presses the handle and the
to get to the Moon from the Earth. The distance to
b. Give the letters for two refracted rays. [1] oil pushes the large piston up. The valves
Stage 8 the Moon is 384400 km.
a. Calculate the average speed of the
c. The incident ray E is brighterthan ray A. Why? [1]
let more oil in so that he can pump the
handle again.
spacecraft. [2]
d. Explain why you can see the colour of the
large piston
1. Look at this distance-time graph for a cyclist. b. Explain why the speed that you have clothes that you are wearing when you I ram
calculated is the average time. [1] look in the mirror.
20 T & 12]
3. -p handle
& 15 E
Here is the distance-time graph for the first e. Explain why it is harder to see colour in the
,F
1 10 D
lOseconds of the launch. reflection of a window at night. [2]
- more oil
i— pivot
4 8 12 16 7. Rani has three painted rods. One is a magnet,
§ one
time (s) is copper, and one is iron.
b. Calculate the speed for each of the sections of I The first rod (rod A) was attracted to the both
the graph A-F. [6] small piston
time poles of the magnet. The second rod (rod B) was
[1]
c. Explain why the graph is not very realistic. attracted to the north pole but repelled from valves
c. Describe what is happening to the rocket the south pole. If she turned the rod around the
2. A cyclist is cycling at a steady speed. during this time. [1] opposite thing happened. The third rod (rod C)
a. Name two drag forces acting on the cyclist. [2] d. Describe how you can tell that from the
did not move at all.
c. Describe what would happen if you used air
distance-time graph. [1]
b. Compare the drag forces acting on her with a. Identify the rods. [1] instead of oil. [1]
the forward force that she applies through the The Moon has been hit by lots of asteroids. b. Explain how Rani can make an electromagnet
[2] d. The area of the large cylinder is 100 cm2, and
pedals. Explain your answer.
e. Write down where you find most asteroids in with some wire and a battery. [1] the area of the small piston is 5 cm2. Calculate
[1]
She crouches forward and makes herself more the Solar System. c. Which rod, if any, could she use for the the pressure you will need in the oil to raise
streamlined, but continues to pedal with the electromagnet? Explain your answer. the car. [2]
5. The speed of light is 300 000 km/s. [2]
same force.
e. Calculate the force the mechanic needs to
a. Calculate how far light travels in lOseconds. [2] d. Describe what Rani will notice if she moves
c. Describe what will happen to her speed. a compass around the magnetic rod and her apply to the small piston to produce that
Explain your answer. [4] b. Write down how far 10 light seconds is. [1] pressure.
electromagnet. Explain your answer. [2] [2]
3. A fisherman uses a nylon fishing line to catch a fish c. Explain why you do not need to do a e. Describe three differences between the To make the job easier the handle is part
and pull it out of the water. calculation for part b of this question. [1] of a lever.
electromagnet used in a scrapyard and an
a. The original length of the line is 60 cm. When d. Put these speeds in order from fastest electromagnet you use in class. [3]
the fish is on the line and out of the water it is to slowest: [1]
[1] 8. A car weighs 20000 N and the area of each tyre
62 cm. Calculate the extension. in a0
A the speed of light in glass contact with the ground is 300cm2.
b. He notices that the fish feels a lot heavier when pivot
B the speed of light in air a. Calculate the pressure that the car exerts on
he has taken the fish out of the water than it did
in the ground.
when it was in the water. Explain why. C the speed of sound. [2]
b. If you pumped up the tyres so that there is less
c. The fisherman uses the line to catch a second 6. Here is a diagram incident ray 4-glass area in contact with the ground, how would
fish with half the mass of the first one. What will showing a ray of light E the pressure change? Explain your answer. [2] f. Describe what is meant by a lever.
happen to the extension? Choose from these that is hitting a piece of ru
options: Hi glass in a window. B A mechanic needs to lift the car up. Here is a g. You worked out the force that needs
It will halve. It will stay the same. C F diagram of a hydraulic pump. You can put a car to be applied to the piston in part f.
A
It will double. on the ram and use the handle to lift the car. What force does the mechanic need
D
d. Write down one assumption that you have to apply to the handle? [2]
made in working out the answer to part c. [1]

188 189
-m
11.1 Floating and sinking
Icebergs can have a mass of more than
T If you are swimming, it is much easier to float
in salt water than in a
swimming pool. This is because salt water is denser than
the swimming pool. Liquids have different
densities.
the water in
Forces

100 OOOtonnes, which is the same as over Liquid Density of liquid (g/cm3)
50000 cars. How can they float? Pure water 1.0
Objective Salt water 1.2
“
Why do some things sink and
• Explain why some things Petrol/gasoline
some things float? 0.7
float and some things sink Bromine
Floating metal buoys mark out the 3.12
in water A massive iceberg floats.
deep-water channel for boats coming
A
Mercury 13.6
into harbour, so that they don’t hit
Floating and forces A Humans float very well in
underwater sand or rocks. salt water like the Dead Sea.
Another way of thinking about why something floats or
• The channel markers float because ;!
the upthrust with the weight. You learned about
sinks is to compare
they are less dense than the water. upthrust on page 109. The
object floats if the upthrust is equal to the weight.
• The rocks stay on the bottom because
they are denser than the water. gfpvj it .
with the particle model.
We can explain upthrust

<db
i Vv

An object will float on a liquid if it has

• Particles in liquids and gases collide with solid objects.
a density that is less than that of the
• Particles in the air collide with a floating object from above.
• Particles in the water collide with a floating object from below.
liquid. We calculate density using this
equation: A Channel markers made of iron
• The force exerted on the object depends on the difference between the hsi?
forces due to the particles.
mass can float. Molecules in liquid water.
density = • The particles in a dense liquid will exert a bigger force than those in a less A

volume dense liquid, because they are more massive.

A coconut has a mass of 400 g and a volume of 500
cm3.
Ice and water
400 g
density of coconut = Ice is made of water, so how can it float? When
500 cm3 water freezes, the water
molecules form a solid structure that takes up more space
= 0.8 g/cm3 than the water.
The ice is less dense than the water. This is unusual -
A A coconut floats. most solids are denser A Molecules in ice.
coconut is less than
The density of water is 1.0 g/cm3. The density of the than their liquids.
that, so it floats.
Imagine what would happen if you had a ball
with exactly the same volume
as a coconut but with twice the mass. The density
of the ball would be twice
that of the coconut, and it would sink. 1. Explain why a person floats in a
swimming pool in terms of density.
wood always floats. It is not 2. An object has a mass of 100 g and a nUfjllf
Some people think that rocks always sink and volume of 90 cm3.
or sink. a. Calculate its density. *
always easy to predict whether something will float • An object will float on
b. Write down whether it would float or
•Pumice is a volcanic rock that floats - water if it is less dense
sink in water. Explain your answer.
its density is about 0.3 g/cm3. than water.
3. The diagram shows what happens in a
•Ironwood is a type of wood that
submarine when it dives below the • Objects float because
sinks - its density is 1.3 g/cm3. liquids exert a force
surface of the water.
a. Explain why it is able to dive. s*A I vJU on them, called

mmi
) upthrust.
\ b. Suggest and explain what happens
when the submarine needs to return • Collisions of liquid and
gas particles produce
to the surface.
A Pumice is a rock that floats, upthrust.
but sandstone sinks... A ... and ironwood sinks.

190 191
 Forces
Science Al-Biruni used the equation for calculating density to work
in context Using ideas about density of the gemstones.
out the density

„ . mass

11.2 For thousands of years people

have prized jewellery. They made
necklaces and rings from metals
enSltV~ volume
The table shows the densities that he worked out for
some minerals.

&
T

such as gold that they found in Mineral

streams, and gemstones such as
AlIBiruni>s measured density (g/cm3) Modern value for density (g/cm3)
Objectives quartz 2.58 2.58
red rubies and green emeralds. But
quartz and glass could be mistaken |ruby 4.01 4.4
• Describe how ideas about for gemstones. How could people pearl 2.7 2.7
density have been used
tell whether they were real? j5« As well as measuring density, Al-Biruni built on
the work of earlier scientists
• Describe how scientists
worked in the past and
how they work now
Identifying gemstones
Gemstones are minerals found ■
tPC by classifying gemstones according to:
• their colour
in the Earth that have distinctive Are these gemstones or glass?
• whether white light splits into a spectrum when it goes through the gem
colours.
A
• their hardness
• their crystal shape.
Over 1000 years ago Al-Biruni was born
One of the most important things about Al-Biruni’s
in a country that is now a region of density measurements
was their precision (see pages 94-95). It was not until
Uzbekistan. He was a Muslim scientist over 700 years later
/ and mathematician who wrote
that scientists in Europe made measurements of density
with the same
level of precision.
/ books on a wide range of topics from
• \9 astronomy to geography.
i Modern science
\ JA He was very interested in geology Scientists and jewellers can still use Al-Biruni’s technique to
work out the
and minerals, and he knew that density of an object to help to identify it.
7/» Py'\\ people needed to be able to identify Today there are also other techniques for identifying gemstones.
/ ij 1
I gemstones correctly. A Quartz and rough diamond can be can find the refractive index of a gemstone,
“
Scientists
»1 1 1/ or measure how well it
1
hard to tell apart conducts electricity. You learned about refractive index in A Today most research is
•J Quartz is the most common Chapter 7: Light published by teams of
mineral on Earth. on page 137.
A Al-Biruni investigated scientists.
of
many topics. • People could make a lot of money by pretending that a lump Al-Biruni had many research areas, building on the ideas of other
scientists.
quartz was diamond. He designed new techniques to make more
accurate measurem
diamond just ents. He
It isn’t easy to tell the difference between quartz and
...

• worked alone. Today scientists usually specialise in one

area of science,
often with a team of people. They share their ideas in publications
by looking at them.
that are
He read all over the world and build on each other’s ideas.
Al-Biruni wondered if he could identify stones by their density. • Density can be used to
not have
'V knew how to measure their masses, but the stones did identify materials.
shapes. Finding their volume was more difficult. He
designed
regular
accurately, as shown in
• the past most
In
a flask with a side arm to measure the volume 1. Explain why scientists worked
Al-Biruni wanted to find a method to measure the
[
— flask the diagram. This was his method. density of gemstones.
alone.
side arm
• Fill the flask until water overflows through the side arm
into a beaker 2. Scientists work in lots of different ways. • Today most science
is done by teams of
stone
• Empty the beaker and replace it under the side arm. a. Describe one way in which Al-Biruni’s method of working was people.
beaker
• Lower the stone into the flask.
Measure the volume of the water that overflows into
the beaker.
similar to the way scientists work today.
• Today, as in the past,
• b. Describe one way in which it was different.
3. Suggest why scientists did not improve on the scientists build on
precision of Al-Biruni’s the work of other
A Al Biruni’s equipment. measurements for hundreds of years.
scientists.
 Review b. Explain which solid materials would float in: 6. You are planning an investigation.
Which
Forces

TWS of these things do you not do as part of

11.3 i. water

ii. mercury, which has a density of

13.6 g/cm3.
[l]

[1]
the planning?
A Decide on a question to investigate.
[l]

B Work out how to take precise and

1. A student wants to find the density of a
brick. He
3. A fish can move up and down in the water. accurate measurements.
measures the sides of the brick. It has a sac inside it called a swim bladder.
C Write down what you found out.
If the fish fills the sac with oxygen from its
[2]
gills it will float upwards. Explain why. D Decide which measurements to
make.
-■ swim bladder allows
fish to float or sink TWS E Describe how to work safely.
7. A thermometer designed in 1666 and
now known
10 cm as a Galileo thermometer uses changes in
density
with temperature. As the temperature drops,
small glass bulbs containing different amounts
20 cm of air and liquid move upwards in another
liquid.
Which of the statements about the way that
4. Suggest why.
[1] [2]
a. Calculate the volume of the brick. W TWS scientists work today is not correct?
A Scientists share their ideas and scientific
b. He measures the mass of the brick and finds that
it is 2.4kg. Calculate the density of the brick.
[2] evidence in publications that others read.
the
B Scientists use creative ideas to interpret
c. Water has a density of 1g/cm3. Explain
why the brick does not float on water.
[1] evidence that they collect in experiments.
C It is unusual for scientists to read about the
2. The table below lists the densities of some materials.
work of other scientists. v.
Material Density in g/cm3
0.001
D It is possible to make measurements that ■H 'm

*
are more precise and accurate using new
t
Ice 0.9 TWS technology. m
7.9
Iron 5. Mercury is a liquid metal with a density of
Plastic 1.4 13.6 g/cm3. Water has a density of 1.0 g/cm3.
Wood 0.7 a. Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3.
Water 1.0

a. Write down which of these statements is true.

i. Will it float or sink in mercury?
ii. In water?
[1]
wr
i. 10cm3 of iron has a smaller mass than
10 cm3 of wood.
[i]
b. Silver has a density of 10.5 g/cm3.
A
-
A Galileo thermometer when it is
i. Will it float or sink in mercury? warm (left), and when it is cold.
ii. 2 cm3 of ice has a bigger mass than 1cm3 [1]
[1] ii. In water?
of water.
c. Wood has a density of 0.8 g/cm3
iii.1cm3 of plastic has a bigger mass than
[1]
100 cm3 of air. i. Will it float or sink in mercury?
iv. 5 cm3 of plastic has a smaller mass [1]
ii. In water?
[1]
than 1cm3 of iron.

194 195
 Energy
You cannot say that the individual particles in a solid,
Hot and cold liquid, or gas get hotter.

12.1 Each particle can only move or vibrate faster. The temperature
of a solid is a

4
property of the solid, not of the individual atoms or particles
that make it.
A scorpion is a cold-blooded
animal, and the person holding it
is warm-blooded. You cannot tell f=\ 1
Objectives the temperature of the scorpion
or the person by looking at them.
• Descibe the difference
between heat and
This image of the scorpion is taken
with a special camera. It produces
$* >
temperature

• Define heat dissipation

a thermal image that shows the
differences in temperature.
A thermal image shows that
the scorpion is colder than the
person holding it.
(g)particles
«?>
o tv
T i
2
What is the difference vibrating
particles
moving
particles
between energy and temperature? moving

=f
*
Particle arrangements in solids, liquids, and gases.
The temperature tells us how hot or cold something is. We use
thermometer to measure temperature. A liquid inside a very
a
narrow glass The energy needed to raise the temperature of an object depend T f
tube expands when it is heated. • the mass of the object - greater mass means more particles, so more
son: t-
** m
Energy is transferred from
energy is needed the water to the ice, so the
/ • Thermometers used to be made with liquid mercury.
• Mercury is poisonous, so now the liquid in thermometers
is alcohol. • the type of material of the object - if the particles are more massive, more ice melts and the water
energy is needed cools.
• Digital thermometers do not use a liquid - instead they use a sensor to
measure the temperature directly. • the temperature rise needed - a bigger temperature rise means more
energy is needed.
S We measure temperature in degrees Celsius (°C).
How do things cool down?
A liquid and a digital • Human bodytemperature
temperature is 37 °C.
Energy is always transferred from a hot object to a cold object.
thermometer.
• The coldestin 1983. ever recorded on Earth was -89.2 °C, in cold object in contact with a hot object the temperature
If you put a
Antarctica of the cold object
temperature ever recorded was 56.7°C in Death Valley, will increase, and the temperature of the hot object will decrease.
• The hottest
1913. has been transferred. This is called dissipation.
Energy
USA in
transfer If you put a hot pan in cold water the water gets hotter.
Heating a substance such as water causes its temperature to rise. We Energy is transferred
temperature are from the pan to the water. Eventually the pan and the water
energy produced from burning fuel to the water. Energy, and have the same
temperature. The water and the pan are in thermal equilibrium.
S’
a
not the same. • Temperature is a
A cup of warm water and a swimming pool can have
exactly the same measure of how
• temperature. hot something is,
pool
• There is much more energy in the thermal store of the swimming measured in degrees
than there is in the thermal store of the cup of water. 1. Describe the difference between temperature Celsius.
and energy.
• Thermometers are
S) Energy depends on the amount of material, but temperature
does not.
• 2. Copy and complete these sentences.
used to measure
What happens when you heat materials? thing happens when you heat a _
When you heat a liquid, the particles in it move
-
. When you heat a
The same
•
temperature.
When you heat a solid,

--
solid,
The process of heating changes the motion of particles. If you heat a the particles just vibrate more. Dissipation is when energy
moves liquid, or gas, the
The water is at the same from a __
the particles in the solid vibrate more. In liquids and gases the particles
A to a region.
temperature. to the particles move faster
move faster. The temperature has increased. Temperature is related 3. Explain why it takes more energy to heat 1kg of
cold water than or vibrate more.
average speed of the particles. 0.5 kg of cold water to the same temperature.
4. Explain why it takes longer to boil a kettle of water
than to warm the
• Energy is dissipated
when it moves from a
same kettle of water to a lower temperature.
hot to a cold region.

196

I
 T
Energy
‘Wasted’ doesn’t mean that the energy is ‘lost’, just that it is
Conservation of energy not the energy

12.2 Energy is a bit like money

that we want.
Energy that is transferred by heating is not always wasted
we cook food we want it to get hot, but the air around the
energy. When
pan heats up as
Jamal goes out with four coins in his pocket, and
m
well, which is not useful.
uses three of them to buy some food. How many
Objectives coins are left in his pocket? Energy conservation and efficiency
• Write down the law of • He does not need to look in his pocket to know Some light bulbs transfer most of the energy into light. We
say that they are

50
conservation of energy that he has one coin left. rv\ efficient. This is the energy transfer diagram for an energy-efficient
light
• If he getsthathome and no longer has a coin, he C: bulb. Less of the energy transferred to the light bulb is
wasted.
• Apply ideas about knows he must have lost it.
energy conservation and
dissipation to different • He will not find more than one coin in his pocket. 100J
situations Coins cannot appear or disappear. Energy is like

4
transferred 75 J transferred
the coins.
This is called the law of conservation of energy.
electrically
l by light

A The energy-efficient light

bulb on the left does not
This law says that energy cannot be created or
energy get as hot as the normal
destroyed. It can be transferred in a process. If you know how much 25 J heating
light bulb.
you have at the start of a process, then you must have
this same amount of the
surroundings
! energy at the end. This law is one of the most important
laws in science.
A The energy transfer diagram for an energy efficient light bulb.
IS This law allowed scientists to work out how energy is stored
and
less energy The efficiency of a machine or device tells you how much of the
transferred.If they found a process in which there seemed to be that you put in is transferred as useful energy. If a lot of the
energy
A Energy is conserved if you at the end than there was at the beginning, then
they knew there must be energy that you
put in is wasted, then the machine is not very efficient.
consider the surroundings another type of energy involved. Most energy that is
and the buildings together. wasted is dissipated.
Useful and wasted energy
light, and it
What happens when you turn on a light? The light bulb emits
also gets warmer.
• The useful energy is 100 J 20 J
1. a. State the law of conservation of energy.
b. Compare energy conservation and energy dissipation.
• The law of
conservation of energy
transferred by the light. transferred transferred 2. Copy and complete these sentences using the words says that energy
We can think of the energy
electrically by light below.
• wasted useful thermal cannot be created
heating the surroundings as
wasted energy. A machine is more efficient if it transfers more _energy
or destroyed, only

• Energy that is dissipated is

80 J than _ energy. A lot of the wasted energy in a machine transferred or stored.
usually wasted energy.
heating the
surroundings
moving parts is transferred as energy due to friction.
with
• In all processes
you have the same
3. Write down the useful energy and the wasted
Suppose only 20 J of the 100 J of energy in these items: amount of energy at
A This diagram show what happens a. hairdryer
energy transferred to the light bulb every second in one type of light b. television
the end as you had at
is then transferred as light. Most of bulb. the beginning.
c. kettle.
the energy is wasted. 4. Describe what you would notice if you stood next to an
energy-
• In all processes some
In alt processes some energy is wasted.
energy is dissipated,
efficient light bulb compared with a normal light bulb.
usually heating the
5. Explain why more efficient electrical devices save you
• A car engine hasbetween
moving parts.
moving parts.
money. surroundings.
• There is friction
makes those parts get warm.
• The frictiondissipated - it is transferred to the surroundings,
• Energy is
which heat up. All the energy heating the surroundings is wasted.

198 199
 Energy
How do metals conduct?
Energy transfer: Conduction
12.3 Neela wants to light a Bunsen
The diagram shows a piece of metal being heated
at one end. The metal atoms on the left are
vibrating a lot and the atoms on the right are not
burner. She takes a piece of wood, vibrating very much. The left end of the bar is hot
called a splint, and lights it from and the right end of the bar is cold, so energy is
Objectives the teacher’s Bunsen burner. She transferred from the left to the right. Electrons also
energy
carries the splint back to
• Know the names of some carefully transfer energy in metals. heat here
conductors and insulators her Bunsen burner and lights it.
Thesp[int 's on fire at one end, but Do liquids and gases conduct energy?
• Explain why
feel warmer
some
than
materials
others _
Sÿe can without burning her
hand. This is because the energy
_
from the flame is not transferred easily
A Only one end of the splint is hot.
Liquids like water are poor conductors of energy
compared with metals.
You can see this if you heat one end of a test tube of
water. An ice cube held
down by a weight will not melt, even if the water at the top is boiling.
I down the splint to her hand.

VA
weight —
A diver wears a wetsuit to dive in cold water.
A
I What is the difference between conductors and insulators? • Inside the wetsuit a small amount of water forms a thin layer between
Some solids conduct
I Energy is transferred through a solid by conduction. the diver’s skin and the thick elastic suit. ice cube— —'
| energy better than others. • water is not free to flow away.
The

• Metals, like copper, are very good thermal conductors. • Energy is not easily transferred from the diver to the sea water so the
are often made of copper because it quickly conducts the diver does not feel cold.
• Cooking pans food in the pan.
energy to the
A The ice cube will not melt.
are insulators. This
Many n0"-metals are P°°r conductors of energy. They
Energy transfers very slowly is transferred
A
does not mean that theY do not conduct at a"> but that energy Air is a good insulator if it is trapped and cannot move.
through a special material
very slowly through them.
called aerogel. • Clothing, for example padded jackets, and bedding can be made
• Materials such as paper, cloth, wood, and plastic are all insulators. from materials that trap air. i
• You stir hot food with wooden spoons so you do not burn
yourself. • Gases, like air, do not transfer energy easily because their particles
are far apart.
Why do some objects feel hot and others feel cold?
covered A vacuum is an even better insulator. Scientists designed
Bicycle handlebars are made of metal but the ends are often two panes of glass and a near vacuum between the panes.
windows with
in plastic. Neela touches the metal of her handlebars, and
then This ‘double
glazing’ helps insulate houses, and reduce fuel bills.
the plastic.
Plastic conducts heat less
• Energy is transferred
A
• Neela thinks the metal is colder than the plastic. through a solid
well than metal. Our skin detects the transfer of energy rather than
• by conduction.
/'The metal is
the temperature.
transferred 1. a. Describe the difference between a conductor • Metals are good
( cold but the plastic ) • When Neela puts her hand on the metal, energy is quickly and an insulator. conductors of energy,
b. Give an example of a conductor and an insulator.
away from her hand to the metal. She says it feels cold. but plastic and wood

6
2. Describe what would happen if you heated water in a
• When Neela puts her hand on the plastic, energy is not transferred saucepan are poor conductors;
She says made of a material that is not a good conductor of energy.
quickly away from her hand because the plastic is an insulator. 3. Some divers use drysuits rather than wetsuits.
they are insulators.
They wear clothing
it feels warm.
underneath that traps a layer of air between their skin and the suit. • Liquids and gases
• The plastic is at the same temperature as the metal. that are not free to
a. Explain how a drysuit keeps a diver warm.
energy move around are poor
If you touch something hotter than your skin, it feels warm because b. Which keeps a diver warmer, a wetsuit or drysuit?
Explain your conductors of energy.
moves from the object to your hand. answer.
4. A student says that her blanket keeps her warm
because it traps
• Objects feel cold when
they conduct energy
heat. What would you say to her?
away from your skin.

200
 Energy

1 Where do convection
Energy transfer: Convection
r

12.4 If there is a fire in a house,

survivors. This is because
firefighters may crawl along the floor
there is less smoke near the floor than
to look for
higher up.
currents form?
The atmosphere is heated by the Sun, and
also by the warm land beneath it. The land
heats up more quickly than the air or
warm
sea breeze
)✓
cool

Why is that? the oceans.

Objectives Sea breezes
• Describe how energy is If you live near the coast you might notice
transferred by convection that a breeze comes off the sea during the
day, but changes direction at night. We can
• Describe how convection
in everyday explain this using convection.
cool warm
currents form land breeze
situations During the day:

• The air just above the ground gets hot. ▲ The breeze by the sea or
• This hotter air expands and rises just like the hot water in a pan. ocean changes direction at
In a fire the cleanest air is clcserta
the floor due to convection. • The rising air is replaced with cooler air from above the sea. night
A
• The breeze comes off the sea onto the land.
What is convection? During the night:
saucepan of water, all of the water gets
When you heat the bottom of a
the bottom part. The liquid in the pan is free to move so • The ground cools much more quickly than the sea.
warm, not just
▲ Convection currents form in energy is transferred by convection. • Now the air above the sea is warmer and rises.
the water as it is heated. by the flame. Energy is transferred
through • This pulls cooler air from above the ground to replace it, so the breeze
The bottom of the pan is heated because comes off the land.
the water at the bottom of the pan by conduction. This is
the pan to
the bottom of the pan is solid. Atmospheric currents

with the Convection also happens on a bigger scale. The Sun heats the Earth more
• The waterof inthecontact
pan gets warmer. at the equator than it does nearer the poles. The air near the equator rises
bottom ▲ Birds ofprey use thermals
in the warmer
and is replaced by cooler air. This causes the air in the atmosphere to move.
• The molecules
are moving faster than
Weather patterns across the world are affected.
caused by convection to
climb high and look for prey.
water
the molecules in the cooler Thermals
water above. You might see birds using the convection currents produced when the Sun
• The molecules in the warmer

W'<
heats the ground. Convection currents in the air are called thermals.
water move further apart. • When a gas or liquid
• The warmer water becomes gets hot it expands and
less dense. becomes less dense.
a pan 1. Describe the difference between conduction and £|
• The warmer water rises A Energy transferred through convection. S' • The less dense gas
(floats up). of liquid. or liquid rises and is
• Cooler, denser water moves down
2. Explain what ‘hot air rises’ means, in terms of the -\ replaced by cooler gas
particles in a gas. \ a
to take its place. or liquid.
3. This diagram of the Earth shows a convection
circulating up and down. The circulation • This sets up a convection
Eventually all the water in the pan is Convection current in the atmosphere (not to scale).
is called a convection current. equator current.
of water that is set up in this way a. Draw a clockwise or anticlockwise arrow to
and gases that are free to move. • A convection current
currents can happen in all liquids show the direction of the convection current.
in the atmosphere is
firefighters crawl
In a fire the hot smoky air
expands and rises. That is why b. Explain your answer.
called a thermal.
on the floor.

U
203

202
■ Energy

What is the greenhouse effect?

Energy transfer: Radiation
the Sun emitd

12.5
When radiation from the Sun reaches the Earth: radiation J infrared

When you go outside your

eyes
detect light. What can your
skin r • About 50% of the radiation is reflected by the Earth’s
atmosphere.
• The rest of the radiation gets through and is absorbed by the
radiation reflected
by atmosphere
/ infrared radiation
re-emitted back to Earth
detect that your eyes cannot? land and oceans.
Objectives ✓
• The Earth itself emits infrared outwards, and some of that is \/ 27
radiation
is 'ic What is radiation? reflected back in by the atmosphere. radiation fromreflected by V
• Describe how energy
L
\ Sun absorbed Earth’s surface
There are several sorts of
radiation, • The rest is transmitted out into space.
transferred byradiation
\
JL
feel
but the sort that your skin can The temperature of the Earth depends on the balance between
Your skin can feel warmed
by
• Describe the differences is thermal radiation, or infrared A the radiation that is absorbed and the radiation that is emitted.
between conduction, radiation (or infrared). This the Sun. If more is absorbed than is emitted, then the temperature will
convection, and radiation radiation is like light: increase.
radiation the Earth.
• Use ideas aboutgreenhouse • Ittravels from the Sun to The atmosphere contains greenhouse gases.
: Radio waves
to explain the It travels as a wave.
• transmitted, and absorbed. • Greenhouse gases include carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapour.
effect
• It can be reflected, • These gases absorb infrared and then emit it again.
of radiation that they emit depends on microwaves I
All objects emit radiation. The type
a torch bulb can get hot
enough to give • Some is re-emitted back towards Earth instead of out into space. red
The wire inside • This is the greenhouse effect.
their temperature. orange
out infrared and light. You
will only ever emit infrared radiation. yellow
infrared
Without an atmosphere the Earth would be very, very hot in the daytime,
from conduction and very, very cold at night. However, the concentration of greenhouse green MM'
• How is radiation different
l

and convection?
gases is increasing, and this is raising the average global temperature and blue
jultraviolet
and convection. Both methods causing climate change. Climate change is altering the weather, melting the indigo
Energy can be transferred by conduction violet
icecaps, and affecting how easy it is to grow food.
ir to travel through.
need a material for the energy
i. The electromagnetic spectrum
material to transfer energy. 'gamma
% Infrared radiation does not need a Light and infrared are just two of the types of radiation emitted by the Sun. (rays
through space.
infrared reach the Earth from the Sun by travelling
Light and They are two waves in the electromagnetic spectrum. Light and infrared The visible spectrum
We say it is a vacuum.
A

A Humans emit infrared There is no material in space. are parts of the electromagnetic spectrum just like blue and green are two on the left is part of the I
radiation.
Light can be.
emitted by hot objects
Infrared can be...
emitted by hot objects
_ colours of the light spectrum.
All the waves of the electromagnetic spectrum can travel through a vacuum,
electromagnetic spectrum
on the right.

reflected well by shiny surfaces and they all travel at the same speed in a vacuum. They have different uses.
.Thermometer to reflected well by shiny surfaces Some are more dangerous than others.
\ measure water absorbed by objects and your skin • All objects emit thermal
nperature at
tern 11 absorbed by objects and your retina
inter’vals as it cools k detected by a thermal imaging radiation. They emit
detected by a camera camera light iftheyarehot.
transmitted through a vacuum as • Radiation, including
transmitted through a vacuum as a wave
light and infrared, is
a wave 1. Name some gases that produce the greenhouse effect. emitted by the Sun.
more infrared than light, shiny surfaces. 2. Look at the picture of the person taken with a thermal imaging camera. • Radiation does not
Dull, dark surfaces tend to absorb a. Explain why this image is different from the image that we would
Dark surfaces also emit more
infrared than light surfaces. need a medium - it can
see with our eyes. travel in a vacuum.
Some examples of infrared
radiation in everyday life are: b. Explain why the person does not emit visible light. • The atmosphere
The dark surface emits more they stop running.
infrared radiation than the runners use foil wraps to keep warm after 3. Describe a situation in which the temperature of the Earth would reflects radiation like
silver surface.
• Marathon
houses stay cooler in the summer.
go down. glass in a greenhouse.
• Pale-colouredclothes will dry first on a washing line.
• Dark or black
205

204
 T
Energy
Average height

12.6 Cooling by evaporation = (1.1 +1.2 + 1.5 + 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.2 + 1.1 + 1.4 + 0.9 + 1.5) 10
= 1.14 m
/
1.2 m

Objectives
• Explain why liquids cool
How do you keep cool? Your body produces sweat
to help to keep your body from getting too hot.
You can feel the same cooling effect if you wet your
hands and leave them to dry.
How does evaporation remove energy from ft
If the two tallest children leave the group, the average
be smaller.
Average height
= (1.1 +1.2 + 0.8 + 0.7 + 1.2 + 1.1 + 1.4 + 0.9) / 8
= 1.05 m
height will

It li
lift
when they evaporate your body?
Removing tall children has reduced the average height.
• Describe some uses of
What is evaporation?
cooling byevaporation Where is this cooling effect used?
If you leave a dish of water out, Cooling animals
molecules at the surface with A Sweating removes 1.2m 1.1 m 1.4m 0.9 m
high sp<eed escape from the it will evaporate - dry up. We can romyour Your body uses cooling by evaporation. When you get
liquid - evaporation
molecules with medium think about the particles inside a liquid Droplets of sweat, which is mainly water, form on the
very hot you sweat. D
back t0 mov'n§ around in every direction. surface of your skin.
\ theTiquid wate? The water evaporates as energy is transferred from your
There is not very much space between the particles and You feel cooler because energy is being transferred away
skin to the water.
they move over each other. Each particle is attracted to the from your body.
particles around it. Dogs pant to help them cool down. Water evaporates from their
tongues.
free Elephants use water on their skin to cool down.
When particles are travelling fast enough they can break
and move into the air. The liquid evaporates. Evaporative coolers and refrigerators
A Evaporation keeps animals
Some people use evaporative coolers instead of air

-----
conditioning to cool.
Why does evaporation produce cooling? cool their house. In an evaporative cooler a fan draws
warm air over water
molecules with lower
energy remain in the
liquid water
\
You can explain evaporative cooling using ideas about
Their average speed depends on the temperature of the
particles.
liquid.
water. Energy is transferred to the water. It evaporates, and
cools down. The cooled air circulates around the house.
the air > cooled air

• higher.
• At a higher temperature the average speed will be
The particles do not all move at exactly the same speed:
some travel
• faster, some slower.
hot dry air fan
For thousands of years people have used water to cool
The particles are colliding with each other, and energy is
transferred in their
1.5 m • those collisions.
homes. Before air conditioning they used fans and water. In
enough to be ancient Egypt people hung wet mats over the open doorway
1.2 m
• A few of the particles at the surface will be travelling fast and used fans to cool down the air in the room. A Evaporation cools air.

liRn •
•
•
•
able to escape.
When fast-moving particles escape, the average speed of the
left behind is slower.
A smaller average speed means the liquid is cooler -
cooled it.
The cooler liquid absorbs energy from the air and more particles
Eventually all the particles escape. The liquid has evaporated.
around the liquid has cooled.
particles

evaporation has

The
escape.
air
In a refrigerator a special liquid called a refrigerant

works in the same way.

is pumped around
tubes at the back. Energy from inside the refrigerator evaporates
refrigerant. This cools down the inside of the refrigerator. Air
the
conditioning
• Liquids evaporate

•
when faster particles
escape.
The average speed (the
temperature) of the
particles is decreased.
1. Describe the difference between the particles that
A model for evaporative cooling
escape
liquid evaporates, and the particles that are left behind.
when a • Evaporative coolers
1.2 m 1.1 m 1.4 m 0.9 m +5 m transfer energy from
You can think of it like this. Imagine a group of 10 children. 2. Explain why your hands feel cool if they get wet.
A group of10 children and air to a liquid to cool
A
To calculate the average height we add up all the heights
and divide by 10. 3. Explain why water evaporates faster if the air
around it is warmer.
their heights in metres. the room.
4. Modern evaporative coolers need a supply of
electricity to work. • Animals use liquids on
Why?
their skin to coot down.

206 207
 Energy
Review When you burn coal, you transfer energy from 8. A student has left his drink outside in the Sun.
a. Explain how energy is transferred through
a chemical/thermal store to a chemical/

12.7
a double-glazed window from a hot room
[5]
thermal store. to the cold air outside. [3]
5. A student puts two thermometers on the desk b. State and explain how the rate of energy
underneath a lamp. She covers the bulb of one transfer would change if you removed the air
1. Copy and complete these sentences. thermometer with black paper and the other with from the gap. [3]
a. You measure _ in degrees Celsius. [1]
aluminium foil.
11. Here is an experiment to demonstrate
a. Writedown which thermometer will
b. You measure _ _ in joules. [1] convection.
show the higher temperature after
half an hour. [1] a. Explain why the can of soft drink is warmer
c. A bath will have -energy
than it would be if it was inside the house. [1]
than a cup of warm water at the same b. Explain why. [1]
temperature. [1] The student decides to use the Sun to cool down purple cube
6. There is a hot drink on the table. a can of drink on a hot day. He covers the can of •A
2. The amount of energy that you need to raise the
drink with a clay pot and pours water over the
temperature of something does not just depend
on the size of the temperature rise.
pot. He keeps pouring water over it for a few t
Bunsen burner heats here
minutes. When he takes the can out it is cooler
a. Name two other things the temperature than before. a. Describe what will happen to the purple
rise depends on. [11
i
( colour during heating. [3]
7 b. Explain why the can is cooler. [2]
b. Put these in order from the smallest to the b. Explain why the purple colour forms a
HI c. Explain why he has to keep pouring
largest amount of energy required. convection current.
a. Explain how conduction changes the water over the pot. [1] [3]
A The energy needed to raise the temperature temperature of the tea. [1] c. Describe where convection currents are
9. Explain why:
of 1kg of water by 20 °C formed in everyday life.
b. Explain how convection changes the a. Houses are painted white in hot countries. [1]
[1]
B The energy needed to raise the temperature temperature of the tea. [1] 12. a. Explain why there are no convection I
of 2 kg of water by 20 °C b. You can’t find people in burning buildings currents in solids.
I
c. Explain how radiation changes the with a thermal imaging camera.
[1]
C The energy needed to raise the temperature [1] [2]
temperature of the tea. b. If you stand near a fire on a cold night
of 1kg of water by 10 °C 10. Some double-glazing systems trap air between you feel warm even though the air is cold. I
d. Explain why putting a lid on top of the two panes of glass.
[1] Explain why.
3. Explain why: cup would keep the tea hotter for longer. [1]
[i] panes of glass c. Write down one similarity between light
a. Saucepans are usually made of metal. 7. You are cooking a pizza. You place your pizza
and infrared radiation.
b. Black clothes dry quicker than white on a metal tray at room temperature and put [1]
air
clothes if they are drying in the Sun. [i] it in the oven. When the pizza is cooked you
remove the tray from the oven. Eventually it
c. A hot air balloon rises. [l] reaches room temperature again.
d. A bird fluffs up its feathers if it is cold. [i] Describe and explain in detail what happens to
the motion of the particles in the metal tray. [6]
4. Copy and complete the sentences below,
choosing the correct bold words.

The law of conservation of energy says that

energy cannot be created/dissipated or
destroyed/transferred.

208 209
 Sound

What is loudness?
Loudness and amplitude
13.1 Imagine a string attached to a wall. You can
make a wave in it by moving your hand up and o
Anil sings a note into a microphone while he looks at the oscilloscope
Then he sings the same note, only louder. This is what he sees.
screen.

down. Your friend takes a picture of the wave /

so that the wave is frozen in time. How can

Objectives
you describe the wave that you have made?
• Define wavelength, What are the properties of waves?
amplitude, and frequency small large
We can describe waves using three properties amplitude amplitude
• Describe whatsound
affects the that all waves have: amplitude, wavelength,
loudness of a and frequency. A Some sounds are
very loud. A A soft sound. A A loud sound.
one point on
• Draw and interpret • Wavelength is the distanceonfrom
the next wave.
waveforms showing a wave to the same point A soft sound has a smalt amplitude. A loud sound has a large
amplitude.
For example, the distance from the top of one wave to the top of the
differences in amplitude next
wave is one wavelength. What happens when you amplify a sound?
• Amplitude is the distance from the centre of the wave to the highest or You might hear people say that sound ‘dies away’. They think that
the sound
lowest point. wave gets ‘weaker’ as it travels. The sound spreads out as it This microphone is
travels away A
wavelength j from the source. Some energy is transferred to the medium that the sound connected to an amplifier.
is
travelling through - energy is dissipated, so the sound becomes softer.
y> amplitude
Singers cannot sing loud enough for everyone in a big concert hall
to
hear well. They use a microphone connected to an amplifier to make
their voice louder. An amplifier increases the amplitude of the
electrical
signal produced by the sound wave, so that when it is broadcast through
loudspeaker it sounds louder.
a • Waves have
wavelength, amplitude,
The diagram does not show the frequency. If you count how many waves go and frequency.
past in 1second, that is the frequency.
higher • Wavelength is the
pressure distance from one peak
lower
to the next.
1 pressure
1. Copy and complete this sentence. • Amplitude is the
A __ _ sound has a larger amplitude than a _ distance from the
sound.
centre to the top of
You can look at a sound wave on a screen using an
a wave.
2. Sunil says that the amplitude of a wave is the distance from
compressions rarefactions Air molecules move Sound wave moves
the
centre to the top of a wave. Write a different definition of amplitude.
• Frequency is the
backwards and forwards. this way. number of waves per
3. Which of these distances is one wavelength on a sound
wave? second.
A A sound wave is a pressure wave. A the distance from a compression to a rarefaction
Using an oscilloscope B the distance from a compression to the next compression • An oscilloscope

A A A A A To ‘see’ what sound waves are like we can attach a microphone to C the distance from a rarefaction to the next rarefaction
connected to a
microphone can
\v/ V/
\
' an oscilloscope. 4. Is the wave on the rope on the previous page a longitudinal
wave or a display a sound wave
v v/ v \V • The microphone producesthe
\ / transverse wave? Explain your answer.
an electrical signal that represents the sound. on a screen.
5. The picture of the sound wave on the oscilloscope screen is
• The signal
is displayed on screen. a
transverse wave. Sound waves are longitudinal waves. Describe what • The loudness of a
pressure varies with time. sound depends on the
The signal from a • The image on the screen shows howupthe is being shown on the screen.
amplitude.
the line on the screen goes the particles are close together, and
A
microphone. • Where
where it goes down they are far apart.

210
 ▼
Sound

What is ultrasound?
Pitch and frequency Ultrasound is sound with a frequency higher than 20 000 Hz, which is

13.2 High and low

The oud is a stringed instrument
that produces a range of notes,
some high-
outside the audible range of humans. We cannot hear sounds of this
frequency, or make sounds so high-pitched, but other animals can.

are some sounds high-pitched

and
pitched and some low-pitched. Why Whatcaiÿtheiÿnimals hear

r SI
some low pitched?

y
Species Audible range (Hz)
Objectives
Describe what affects the What does the pitch of a sound
depend on? 2000-110 000
A
mrv
• the number of times it vibrates
every 45-8000
w

_
pitch of a sound The pitch of a string depends on / '
chicken 125-2000
second - its frequency. cow 23-35 000
• Draw and interpret (Hz).
waveformsshowing
differences in frequency
• Frequency is measured in hertz low-pitched sounds
dog 67-45 000
sounds have a high frequency and dolphin 100-100 000
• High-pitchedfrequency. elephant 16-12 000
have a low
guinea pig
kilohertz (kHz): 1kHz - 1000 Hz. 54-50 000
• High frequencies are measured in Lhorse _ _ 55-33500
jTiouse 1000-91000
rat 200-76 00(L _
i whale 1000-123 000 ...1
Animals can have very different audible ranges to humans.
Some animals can make and detect ultrasound, but humans cannot. Some
animals, like grasshoppers, make sounds that they cannot hear.
-W'
A high-pitched sound has a
A low-pitched sound has a
A
A
high frequency.
low frequency
1. Copy and complete the sentences.
a short wavelength.
Ouds have been played for • A high-frequency sound has The pitch of a sound depends on the _ of the sound.
sound has a long wavelength.
A
thousands of years. • A low-frequency A high-pitched sound will have waves that have a • Higher notes have a
Changing the frequency (and
wavelength) of a sound wave does not have wavelength. higher frequency.

the same effect as changing the

amplitude. The amplitude determines
how
low-
2. Aditya plays a note on a guitar. The note has a frequency of 512 Hz. • The range of
scream, or frequencies that you
may be high-pitched, like a
loud the sound is. Loud sounds Write down the number of times a second that the string vibrates.
can hear is the audible
pitched, like an earthquake. 3. Sort these frequencies into those that are sound and those that range.
are ultrasound.
What can you hear? • Different animals
you are listening to a range of 4500 Hz 100 000 Hz 30000 Hz 30 Hz 1500 Hz have different audible
When you listen to speech or music
Young people can hear a much 4. Sketch the oscilloscope trace for a: ranges.
frequencies, from very high to very low.
larger range of frequencies than
older people can. a. low-pitched, loud sound
b. high-pitched, soft sound.
• Your audible range (the
20 Hz range of frequencies
Humans have an audible
range (range of hearing) from about
• 5. a. Name the animal in the table above with the biggest range
of hearing.
you can hear) gets
to 20000 Hz. smaller as you get
frequencies.
A younger person has a older they find it harder to hear very high b. Name the animals that can hear ultrasound. older.
A
bigger audible range.
• As people get
may be able to hear only up to about
• By the time you are 30 you
14000 Hz.
 Y Sound 1
Science The decibel scale is not like a ruler. Every increase of 10 dB increases the
in context Hearing, decibels, and risk intensity 10 times. A 50 dB sound is 100 times as intense as a 30 dB sound.

• The nadaswaram is an Indian musical instrument that is so loud it is

13.3 What is noise?
n •
usually played outside.
The vuvuzela is a horn used at football matches in South Africa. It can

% i
emit noise of 120 dB.

A %> •
7 The loudest possible continuous sound has a loudness of 194 dB.
Objectives ■■ ■
Explosions, earthquakes, or meteor impacts can produce much louder it*
Name the unit of sound
• intensity, or loudness mm. sounds, but they do not last for long.
A One of the world’s loudest
musical instruments.
some of the risks
What can damage your hearing?
• Describe
of loud sounds and how to Loud sounds can damage your hearing. Sudden loud sounds can burst your
'4 eardrum. However, the risk depends not only on the number of decibels but
reduce the risks ... but not to others.
M/e like listening to some sounds...
A
A also on the length of time you are exposed to the sound.
Most people can hear very quiet sounds
Our ears are very sensitive to sounds. When scientists talk about the risk of an activity, they consider:
hear sounds like music and the voices
and also very, very loud ones. We like to
of our family or friends. Sounds that we
do not want to hear are called noise. • the probability that something bad will happen
• the consequence if it did. Some activities have serious consequences,
like an aeroplane crashing, but a very low probability of happening.
Sound levels
with a sound-level meter on a scale
The intensity of a sound is measured We often take risks when the consequences do not seem serious. Listening
a high intensity is louder.
called the decibel (dB) scale. A sound with to music or going to concerts may not seem risky, but there is a probability
that your hearing will be damaged by loud music. That probability gets
Activity What this sounds like bigger the longer you listen to the music.
Sound
A Ear defenders can
level (dB)
cannot be heard How do you reduce the risk? reduce risk.
0 threshold of hearing
soft whisper can just be heard There are three main ways of reducing the risk from noise if you cannot
10
20 very quiet
change the sound level:
Heaves rustling
30
• shielding - putting something between the source of the sound and your
40
50
talking quietly up to quiet
ears, such as ear defenders (5ÿ233233ÿ
normal speech • increasing the distance - moving away from the source of the sound
60
70 noisy street difficult to hear • reducing the time that you spend near the source of the sound. • Sound levels
someone talking are measured in
People can use decibel meters to help to reduce their risk. decibels (dB).
traffic at a junction annoying
80
90 truck can damage hearing • Loud sounds can
after 8 hours per day
damage your hearing
chainsaw
r. v
overtime.
can damage hearing
100 taking off 500 m away after 2 hours per day
1. a. Writedown what ‘dB’ stands for.
• You can reduce the risk
of damage by making
110 nearby thunder can damage hearing b. Write down how much louder a 40 dB sound is than a 30 dB sound. the sound quieter,
vuvuzela or after 1.5 hours per day

m
120 2. Jamal likes to listen to music with earphones. Write down two things shielding your ears,
nadaswaram
painful he could do to reduce the risk of damage to his hearing. reducing the time
130 road drill
3. a. Suggest two jobs for which people should wear ear defenders. you are exposed, or
140 jet engine 100 m away loudest recommended
level with ear protection b. One reason why truck drivers should not drive for long periods is moving away from
that they may get tired and fall asleep. Suggest another reason. the sound.
194 I loudest sound that it is
| possible to make _
 Sound
If you pluck the string of a guitar
Adding up and cancelling out

m
you hear a note. If you strike a

13.4 Some people have ‘perfect pitch’. They can

tell you which note you are playing on a .
I
tuning fork and hold it near the
string you will hear a loud note if
the string is in tune.

Objectives
musical instrument just by listening.
Most people cannot. The people who
make sure that musical instruments are in
If it is not in tune, then the two waves
will interfere. There will be times
when the waves add up, and times
I
tune use the interaction of sound waves to p _ when they cancel out. The tuner
• Describe whatinteract
happens
hears loud and soft sound. They
when waves work out whether the correct note is being A 0 musicalinstrument
adjust the string until they hear a A Tuning forks of different lengths
played. How do they do that? make different notes.
• Sketchadding
waveforms of loud note that does not change.
waves up and What happens when waves interact?
This is called If you travel or work in a noisy place it can be helpful
cancelling out When waves interact, they can add together or cancel out. to be able to block
out the noise. You can do that with
interference. noise-cancelling headphones. The
headphones produce a sound that cancels out the noise.
it is
• If the waves add up to produce a bigger wave, we say that
constructive interference. Sound waves created Noise created
say that it is
• If the waves cancel out to produce a smaller or no wave, we
by headphone speaker
£ I by external source

era0
destructive interference. £ § Electronics
time/ * V time
I I
+ +
background sound
flipped background sound ft's )»
constructive interference destructive interference 'Speaker I

A Waves add up or cancel out. 1

£
Constructive interference Destructive interference is time/ = silence

The waves are in step The waves are out of step f

All the peaks are in the same Peaks of one wave and troughs of the ► Some headphones background sound and
other are in the same place produce sounds that flipped sound superposed,
place
cancel out noise. producing cancellation
The total sound will be louder The total sound will be quieter/silence i

microphone For two waves to be in step and interfere constructively, • Waves that interact
the difference in position of the two waves will be zero or a (interfere) can add
whole number of wavelengths. 1. Copy and complete the sentences by choosing the together or cancel out.
6 wavelengths correct word or
speaker 1 If the waves are out of step by half a wavelength, they will words in bold: • If they add, then the
When waves are in step/out of step they will add up. This is total sound is louder.

I cancel out.
In destructive interference the waves need to have
exactly
the same amplitude to cancel out completely. You do not
it will sound louder/softer. The waves need to have
called
constructive/destructive interference. If you listen to the sound
exactly the
• they cancel out,
If
then the total sound
is quieter or there is
8 wavelengths same amplitude/magnitude and frequency/speed to
usually get silence. If the amplitude of one wave is bigger cancel out silence.
completely.
than the other, then the sound will be quieter. • use interference
We
2. Draw two waveforms that will cancel out
completely when in noise-cancelling
speaker 2 How is the interference of sound useful? they interact.
headphones and
People who tune pianos and guitars use the interference of 3. Explain why some noise-cancelling headphones
need a microphone to tune musical
SOU nd to work out whether strings or keys are
playing the as well as a loudspeaker.
instruments
A Interference between sounds from two speakers. correct note.

216

I
 Sound
Review 4. a. Write down the audible range 7. Rani used a sound-level meter to survey the
9. For each statement about ultrasound, write
of a human. HI noise at different places and times during the day. ‘true’

13.5 b. Complete this sentence by choosing the

correct word in bold:
Here are her results.
or ‘false’.
a. Ultrasound can be used to see an
unborn baby. [1]
1. For each of the quantities listed below write the
All animals have different/the same
Place
I Noise level (dB)
b. Ultrasound is sound with a frequency
audible ranges. [1] by the road on the way to 70
letter of the definition and the unit. You need to school greater than 2000 Hz. [1]
use one letter twice. 5. Look at the arrows on the diagram below. Copy c. Ultrasound is very-high-frequency sound.
sitting in a classroom 50 [1]
a. The wavelength of a wave
the table and tick the correct columns to show
whether each arrow shows the wavelength, the playing with friends 60 d. Ultrasound cannot be heard by humans. [1]
b. The frequency of a wave amplitude, or neither. trafficon the way home 80 10.a. Describe what is necessary for two waves to:
c. The amplitude of a wave reading a book 40
i. add up [1]
a. Describe what ‘dB’ means. [1]
A The number of waves per second.
ii. cancel out. [1]
A b. Write down which sound is loudest. [1]
B The distance from the middle to the top of B
b. A microwave oven has a turntable to
a wave. D
c. Rani’s brother likes to listen to very loud
E- rotate the food through places where
music on his headphones. Describe two
C The distance from the top of one wave to microwaves superpose. Suggest what
C things that he could he do to reduce the
the next. will happen if the turntable breaks. U]
risk of damaging his hearing. [2]
D hertz 11. A singer produces sounds that vary in pitch and
8. A teacher uses an oscilloscope to display some
[3] loudness. Suggest and explain in detail what her
E metres sound waves. The sounds shown are either loud
vocal chords do to produce different types of
or soft, and either high or low pitched. Match each
2. A tuning fork produces this wave on an
Arrow! Wavelength 1 Amplitude Neither
number to a letter in the pictures below.
sound wave. [3]
oscilloscope screen. A
12. A student wants to investigate this question:
B
1 a low-pitched A
fws ‘How does the loudness of a sound change with
C the distance from a speaker?’
loud sound
D
a. Write down the independent variable. [1]
E
2 a high-pitched B b. Write down the dependent variable.
F [1]
[6] soft sound
c. Write down one control variable. [1]
6. A boy is whistling a note that has a frequency of d. Suggest why it might be difficult for the
a. Draw the wave you would see if the 1500 Hz.
[1] TWS student to carry out this investigation.
sound was louder. [1]
a. Explain what ‘a frequency of 1500 Hz’ 3 a low-pitched C
b. Draw the wave you would see if the means. [1] soft sound
[1]
sound had a higher pitch.
b. Describe what would change about the
3. a. A note has a frequency of 400 Hz. State how sound he would hear if he whistled
many sound waves pass a point per second. [1] at 2000 Hz. [1] 4 a high- D
pitched loud
b. Another wave has a frequency that is half that sound
of the wave in part a. Choose the number of
waves per second for this wave.
[1] [4]
100 200 400 800

218 219
i
 Electricity
How do you measure current in parallel circuits?
Current in series and
14.1 parallel circuits
Neela decided to measure the current in the branches
of a parallel circuit.
She connected up a circuit with a battery, lamps,
— (A)-
<A S> 1 FF
When you turn off a light in one room of a house the others
will stay on. How —
does that circuit work?
ammeters, and switches. She connected an ammeter
in each branch of the circuit, and another ammeter I
Objectives
• Describe the difference What is a series circuit?
near the battery. Cp A Think ofparallel circuits like
this.
between a series and a The current will only
A circuit with a single loop is called a series circuit. I connected up rri'f circuit and measured the current in each of the
branches
off with a
parallel circuit flow if it is a complete circuit. You can turn the lamp on and and next to the battery. The current in each branch was 0.4 A. The current
next
switch, because an open switch is a break in the circuit. to the battery was 0.& A.
• Describe what happens to
current in a parallel circuit In a series circuit with several lamps: A;
Neela wondered what would happen if she added another lamp in parallel.
• Describe how to measure • You cannot turn the lamps on and off separately.
current in series and I
This time the current near the battery was 1.2-A, but the current in each
parallel circuits • The lamps are either all on or all off. A; branch was still 0.4 A. A Car headlights are
• Describe the effect on the • A switch in the circuit will turn them all on, or turn connected in parallel.
current of adding cells and them all off.
lamps in series and parallel
Number of lamps in Reading A2 Reading A3 I Reading A. Reading At
|f one lamp brea|<S) or ‘blows’, then all the lamps the circuit
HS>
"5 <ÿ>
#
As
circuits go out. 1
measure the current at different points in a
0.4 0.4 &
You can use an ammeter to 2 0.4 0.4 0.8
the reading on each
series circuit. The current in Ai; A2, and A3 is the same, so 3

(ÿ) (y
circuit. 0.4 0.4 0.4
the ammeters is the same. Current is not used up in an electric
1.2
of
As you add more branches, the current in each branch stays the
same.
The total current increases. You could increase the current in each
(y
What is a parallel circuit? branch,
and the total current, by increasing the number of cells.
Neela makes a series circuit with a battery, one lamp, and a switch.
that uses the
Then she adds another loop containing a lamp and a switch You can think of the current splitting when it gets to a junction
of two or
same battery as in the first circuit. Here are pictures of some
circuits that more branches. • The current in a series
circuit is the same
she made.
everywhere.
In a series circuit there is only one loop. In a parallel
circuit there is more
A This is a parallel circuit... each loop. • A parallel circuit
than one loop. The cell or battery pushes the current around contains more than one
two loops.
Neela made a parallel circuit when she made the circuit with branch.
1. Copy and complete these sentences.
W • The different loops of the circuit are sometimes called branches. a. An ammeter measures the _ flowing per _ • Each loop (or branch) is
independent.
b. A _ _ current means
• Parallel circuits are sometimes called branching circuits. that more- is flowing • Components in a
<g) — • In a series circuit, if one lamp breaks then all the lamps go off.
per second.
c. If a bulb breaks in a series circuit the current will be
parallel circuit can
be turned on and off
• In a parallel circuit, if one lamp breaks then the others still work.
2. Explain why you only need one switch in a series
circuit. independently.
— • The switch in each branch of the circuit controls the lamps in
that
3. A student connects up an ammeter in a circuit with
a lamp and a cell.
The reading is 0.5 A. She moves the ammeter to the other side of • The current near the
. . . and so is this. branch. battery is equal to the
A the lamp.
sum of the currents in
lamp can be turned on and off independently. This is how
lights in a. What will the ammeter read now? Explain your answer.
Each all the branches.
b. She then connects another lamp in parallel with the first.
your house are connected. Describe • The current splits when
what happens to the total current in the circuit.
it gets to a junction.

220
 f
Electricity
You can use the factory model (page 65) to
Voltage in series and
14.2 parallel circuits
help you to work out what
is happening.
• A factory supplies two shops.
6 boxes

Objectives
New batteries in a torch make the lamp brighter.

What makes the lamps brighter?

• Each lorry loads 6 boxes at the factory. This
is like the 6 V of the battery.
r*
e ®
0©

In a circuit, the force needed to make charges move - the ‘push’

- is • The lorry delivers 3 boxes to each shop. The boxes
„No
• Describe what is meant provided by the battery.
lorry has 3 fewer boxes after delivering to ® boxe
©
by voltage each shop. Each lamp has a voltage of 3 V.
The size of the force depends on the voltage. The voltage also tells us ffl ffl
'J
3 boxes 3 boxes

• Describe how to measure

voltage in series and
about the energy that is transferred to the charge by the battery. Voltage
is The voltages across the components add up to
the voltage of the battery.
dropped off l dropped off

sometimes called potential difference.

parallel circuits If the components in the circuit are not the same, then the voltage A The factory model for a

• Describe the effect on the • If the voltage is bigger, the push is bigger. them will be different.
s across
series circuit.
voltage of adding cells and charge will pass a point in each second, so the current will
• Morebigger.
lamps in series and parallel be What happens to voltage in a parallel circuit?
circuits • More energy will be transferred to the components in the circuit. In a parallel circuit the voltage across each lamp is the same.
• Lamps will be brighter and buzzers will be louder. • Each branch is connected directly to the battery.
• The voltage across each component is the same as the voltage across 6v;(v v) 6V &T(V)6V
Measuring voltage the battery.
Voltage is measured in volts (V) using a voltmeter. The circuit symbol for a
voltmeter is: -(v)- • Each component is independent of the other components.
Voltmeters We could add more lamps in parallel and the reading on the Measuring voltages in a
You use a voltmeter to measure the voltage across a component. voltmeters A
would still be the same. parallel circuit.
are connected to each side of a component, not in series like ammeters.
0 v
• A voltmeterbyconnected across the battery tells you the energy supplied to
If the voltages are all the same, what is the effect of adding
When you add more and more lamps in parallel, the battery is
more lamps?
the charge the battery. drained faster.
across a component tells you the energy supplied
• A voltmeter connected
to the component.
by the charge
1. a. Describe the difference between current and voltage.
A A voltmeter is connected The energy stored in the battery is transferred to the components by b. Compare how voltmeters are connected in a circuit with how • Voltage tells you the
across a component. energy transferred to
the current. ammeters are connected.
or by a charge.
2. Calculate the number of 1.5 V cells that provide a voltage of
What happens to voltage in a series circuit? 3. Explain why the voltages across components in a series circuit
9 V. • Voltage is measured
charges
add in volts (V) using a
You can think of a battery in terms of ‘lifting up’ charges. When the up to the voltage across the battery.
voltmeter.
go through the components they ‘fall back down’. 4. Dilip connects up a series circuit with a lamp and a buzzer.
: voltage of the battery is 6 V.
The • The voltages across
A circuit contains two lamps and a battery. The voltage of a battery is 6
V.
components in a series
a. If the voltage across the lamp is2V, calculate the voltage
across circuit add up to the
• Each lamp
whenthe
emits light
current flows.
Charges ‘fall’
through
C*Tÿ) the buzzer.
b. Compare the current through the lamp with the current through
voltage of the battery.
V
components.
the buzzer. • The voltage across
• Half of the energy from the
cell is transferred in each
A battery ‘lifts
charges up’. A voltmeter
c. Dilip now connects the lamp and buzzer in parallel. Explain
why
each branch of a
parallel circuit is the
measures the you do not have to calculate the voltage. I
lamp, so the reading on
A The voltage of this cell is
1.5 V. each voltmeter is 3 V.
size of the drop.

I 5. A student says that the circuit drains the battery

is used up. What would you say to him?
because the charge
same, and is equal
to the voltage of the
battery.
A Measuring voltages in a series circuit.
■ Electricity
Nihal decides to calculate the resistance of each component. He sees that
Resistance I

14.3
the voltage of the battery is 6 V.

It is not possible to predict

whether a battery will produce voltage (V) voltage (V)
resistance of the lamp =
a large or a small current in a current (A)
resistance of buzzer =
current (A)
Objectives circuit just from the battery. It (*V (*V Th& buzx&r has a bigger \
depends on the components in f
0.5 A O.i A \. resistance so the currentJ
• Describe how resistance the circuit.
- izn u> n smallerÿ*/
5
=
affects current
Calculate resistance What is resistance?
* The current in a circuit depends on the
Each component such as a lamp
A
components. What are the circuit symbols for resistors?
• Know the circuit symbols provides a resistance to the flow
for fixed and variable
resistors
of charge.
Think about the rope model of a circuit
(page 64). If two people hold the
to the rope’s movement.
The symbols for two different types of resistor are shown below.
Circuit A Circuit B
l I
LI
I
J l O
rope instead of one, there is more resistance
You can adjust the light level
than one lamp, so less charge flows
Two lamps provide more resistance with the variable resistor on
per second.
JL JL the right.
fixed variable '
He measures a current of 0.5 A.
Nihal connects a circuit with one lamp. resistor resistor
He replaces the lamp with a buzzer.
V rope model can help you The current is less than it was when
the Our understanding of
A A
to understand resistance. In circuit A the resistance of the resistor does not change. voltage, current, and
lamp was in the circuit.
resistance along with
to the In circuit B the resistance of the resistor changes. As the resistance increases
The buzzer provides more resistance other technologies has
the lamp will get dimmer. This is how a dimmer switch works.
flow of charge. The current is less. enabled us to develop
LJMZ / I wonder wbj the current is\ I
rope a sophisticated electronic
This is like someone squeezing the T7T
/\ JI
different? Tnere is onl'j one systems such as phones,
bit harder.
' ' ’ ** \component in the circuit/
computers, and the
K How do you calculate resistance?
- Internet.

In the rope model, the speed of

the rope depends on:
1. A student measures the current in a circuit with a variable resistor.
how hard the ‘battery’ person is
pulling the rope (the voltage)
A
• (the resistance).
Describe what she must do to the variable resistor to increase the
‘component’ person is squeezing the rope current in the circuit.
0.1 A • how hard the
It depends on the 2. Calculate the resistance of a resistorthat carries a current of 0.25 A
A NihaTs circuit. Thecurrent in a circuit is like the
speed of the rope. • If the resistance
is measured in ohms, which has when there is a voltage of 12 V across it.
voltage and the resistance. Resistance 3. A parallel circuit has a motor and a buzzer connected across the
increases the current
the symbol Q. decreases (if the voltage
sections, of same battery. The current through the battery is 1.5 A, and through
resistor, in electron flow voltage (V) is kept the same)
a circuit the buzzer is 0.4 A.
current (A) =
resistance (Q) a. Deduce the current through the motor. • resistance (Q)

resistance of a component using

the b. Suggest which of the two components has the bigger resistance. __ voltage (V)
This means that you can calculate the c. The battery has a voltage of 6 V. current (A)
vibrating atoms
electrons current and the voltage. voltage (V)
Flowing charge has to get resistance (Q) -
Justify your answer to part b with two calculations.
4. Explain why adding an additional branch to a parallel circuit reduces
• Both fixed and variable
A
current (A) resistors can be used in
past obstacles that offer the overall resistance of the circuit. circuits.
resistance: vibrating atoms
slow electrons down.

224
■
Planning investigative work: preliminary work
Thinking
Planning investigations: The students need to work out which type of wire to
voltage Current for
and working
Current for
use, which thickness of wire, and which voltage to
resistance of a wire of wire (A)
(V) ±o CM. ± M. of wire (A)
scientifically use. They do some preliminary work to help them ±.5
and decide how to do the experiment safely, and how to
Chetana, Dipali, and Lakshima
have been learning about current get a good range of results.
3.0
component

14.4 voltage. Their teacher explained

depends on the voltage of the
If the voltage stays the
that the current flowing in a
battery and the resistance of the
same, then increasing the resistance
component.
will make the
They use secondary sources to find the most suitable
wire. They try out different voltages for different
&.o

lengths of wire. They notice that the wire gets very hot for high voltages, so
A Students recorded their
preliminary work in this
current smaller. they choose a lower voltage of 1.5 V. table.
Objectives
of a wire?
What affects the resistance Planning investigative work: choosing equipment
• Make decisions about when Asking questions The students use a digital ammeter to measure the current in the wire.
to use primary data

• Describe howto plan an

Chetana has noticed that the filaments
experiments are made of very thin
wire.
of the lamps that they use in
their
The ammeter will measure the current to the nearest 0.1 A.
They decide to change the length using clips to connect to different
HH variable
power
that it
investigation that it is curled up and thinks positions on the wire. They will use a ruler to measure the length of wire
Dipali looks at a filament. She notices
supply

must be very long.

between the clips. They can measure the length to the nearest 1.0 mm.
0

ft
filament is made of.
Lakshima wonders what the Planning investigative work: assessing hazards and controlling risk v
in their investigation: The students know that the wire can get very hot. They put the wire on a
The students list the variables
heatproof mat and do not leave the battery connected for very long.

• the Length of the wire Obtaining and considering evidence

• the thi-c.few.ess of the wire The students collect evidence by measuring the current for different
• the aterial that the wire is. m.ade of
M. lengths of wire. They repeat each experiment three times to make their wire
A Chetana
1 wonder how
1he resistance of the
. the voltage of the battery.
Lakshima
results more reliable. Before calculating any averages they discard any A This circuit can be used to
A anomalous results. measure the current through
wire depends on the
to test, you need to the wire.
thinness of the wire. When you are choosing ideas data. I wonder how the They plot a graph to try to find a pattern in their results. This will help them
be tested by collecting
make sure they can the
resistance of the wire make a conclusion about the link between the current and the length of
involve variables that depends on the material that the wire.
Alt these questions other
control the the wire is made of. ,
students can change. They can their
link between
variables so that the data show the the wire.
of
chosen variable and the resistance
to different
might wonder if some bulbs look brighter than others
A student easily
is an interesting question, but not one that you can 1. List two measuring instruments the students will need.
people. This
2. Look at Chetana’s question about the thickness of the wire. She
(S|J2J5E2EÿJ

©
collect data to test.
They will: decides to carry out an investigation to answer this question.
investigate the length of the wire.
The students dec.ideto a. Identify the variables she should change, measure, and control. Planning an investigation
through different lengths of wire b. Describe a difficulty she might have in this investigation.
• measure the current that flows may involve:

use the current and voltage

to calculate resistance
3. Describe the safety issues in the investigation into length of wire. • identifying variables
• made of, and
4. Lakshima completes an investigation into her question about the • doing preliminary
keep the thickness of the wire,
the material that the wire is material of the wire. work
•
the voltage of the battery the
same. a. What would be the difference between Lakshima’s graph and • choosing equipment
A
Twonder how the Chetana’s graph? Explain your answer. • assessing hazards and
f resistance- of the viire b. Draw a table that Lakshima could use to collect her data. controlling risk.
V depends on the length of
N. the wire.

226
 r
Electricity

The table below shows how much power, or energy per second, each type of
Extension lamp needs to produce different light levels.
Energy and power
14.5 The Kovalam lighthouse in
Kerala,
India, has a very bright light at the
top
Light
intensity
(lumens)
Power of
incandescent
light bulb (W)
[
Power of CFL
(energy-saving
lamp) (W)
Power of LED
lamp (W)

of a tall cylindrical tower. The light 800 60 15 10

Objectives flashes 4 times every minute and
can
be seen nearly 40 km away. Ships
use 1800 100 25 18 >r I
• Describe the difference
the light to navigate to the harbour
at 2800 150 45 26
between energy and power
Kovalam. The light from a lighthouse has • LEDs produce a lot of light for their size.
• Calculate power
A
to be seen from a long distance.
• LEDs can be made small enough to sew into your clothes. V '1
What is power? is much, • Doctors use the intense light in cancer treatments.
others. The lamp in the lighthouse • LEDs were used in the London and Rio de Janeiro Olympics to make
Some lamps are brighter than
much brighter than the lamps used
in torches or in houses or offices.
lamp.
spectacular patterns inside the Olympic stadium. * L<
energy from the mains supply to the
An electric current transfers How do you pay for electricity?
per
energy per second. It emits more light
A bright lamp transfers more When people pay their electricity bill they pay for fuel to be burned to produce
second than a dim lamp. a current to transfer energy. The amount of energy transferred depends on A Cancer treatment with LEDs.
is called the power
The rate at which energy is transferred
• power is measured in watts (W) or kilowatts (kW). the power of the appliances and how long they are used for.

• = 1000W. We can rearrange the equation for power like this:

• lkW Energy (J) = power (W) x time (s)
How do you calculate power? •>
li
1l
You can calculate power using
an equation:
People transfer lots and lots of joules of energy each month. So, instead, the

energy transferred (J)

energy is measured in a different unit, the kilowatt-hour (kWh).
Energy (kWh) = power (kW) x time (h)
-'M
Power (W) =
time taken (s) For example, if you use a 10 W (0.01kW) LED for 10 hours in one month,
lamp transfers 24 000 J of energy
each minute.
The lighthouse energy transferred = 0.01 kW x 10 h = 0.1 kWh A LEDs are used to make
lamp
energy more slowly than the lighthouse impressive light displays.
The lamp in a torch transfers of To produce the same amount of light using a filament light bulb you would
so the power is much less. The
torch lamp transfers energy at a rate need to use a 60 W light bulb. You would pay for 0.6 kWh instead. Using
120 J each minute. new light bulbs can save a lot of money. LEDs are a lot more expensive to
to convert the time to seconds. purchase than filament or CFL light bulbs, but they do last a long time.
To calculate the power you have
For the torch:
For the lighthouse:
_120J_ = 2W
Power = 24M± = 400W Power =
60s
60s 1. Calculate the number of watts in 2kW.
2. A CFL transfers 1200 J of energy each minute. Calculate its power. • Power is the energy
\1 /
A lighthouse lamp is 200 times
more powerful than a torch lamp.
3. Look at the table and the calculations above for the energy cost of transferred per second.
/ How do light bulbs differ?
using an LED and a filament bulb for 10 hours each month.
a. Calculate how much energy in kWh you would need for a CFL lamp
• Power is measured
in watts (W) or
la For over 100 years light bulbs
have been widely used.
thin
to produce the same amount of light. kilowatts (kW).
Filament (or incandescent) lamps
contain a piece of wire that is very b. The electricity company charges 10 rupees per kWh. Calculate how • Energy (J)
• much it would cost to use each lamp for 10 hours each month. = power (W) x time (s)
Top: CFL lamp; middle: LED and glows when it gets hot.
A
energy-saving lamps first c. Calculate the money you would save each month if you used an • LEDs have a wide
lamp; bottom: filament • Compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) are
LED instead of a filament bulb. range of uses.
lamp. sold in 1981.
very efficient.
• Light-emitting diode (LED) lamps are
229
228
■

Review
3. A student uses four bulbs and a battery pack to
f a. Are the lamps connected in series, parallel, 7. A student wires up a circuit to measure the
Electricity

or both? Explain your answer.

14.6 make a circuit. He puts a box over the circuit so [2] current through a buzzer and a lamp. He
the connections cannot be seen. b. Which ammeter will show the lowest reading? connects a voltmeter to measure the voltage
Explain your answer. across the buzzer.
bulb [2]
C bulb He draws the circuit in his notebook.
[2] A c. Describe the link between the readings on the
1. a. Draw a circuit diagram for the circuit below. bulbn three ammeters. [1]
D& bulb ,
B Mi d. Which lamp will be brightest? Explain
your answer. [2]
e. Describe what would happen to the other
Y
lamps if: A
X
Another student unscrews each bulb in turn and i. lamp X broke [1]
Y
watches the effect on the other three bulbs. ii. lamp Y broke V
[1]

X If you take this ... this is what happens iii. lamp Z broke. [1]
bulb out...
5. A circuit contains a 6 V cell and two lamps
b. State whether this is a series or a A Bulbs B, C, and D go out. connected in series. a. List the things that are wrong with this
parallel circuit. [1] B Bulb C goes out, bulbs A and circuit diagram.
c. Copy and complete the table to show what
D stay on. _ a. Draw a circuit diagram showing how you
would connect a voltmeter to measure the b. Draw the correct circuit diagram.
[2]

[2]
would happen when you press the switches. [3] C Bulb B goes out, bulbs A and voltage across each bulb. [1]
D stay on. _ _ 8. A student connects one bulb, an ammeter, and a
Switches closed Bulbs lit b. Both bulbs are identical. Write down the cell in series. He connects a voltmeter across the
D Bulbs A, B, and Cstay on._ reading on each voltmeter.
X
[1] bulb. The current through the bulb is 0.4 A. The
a. Draw a diagram to show how the bulbs must c. Explain your answer to part b. voltage across the bulb is 3 V.
Y [3] [1]
be connected.
a. Explain what is meant by current. [1]
X and Y 6. A student is planning how to collect some data to
b. Name the bulb or bulbs that will be the
[2] answer this question: b. Explain what is meant by voltage. [1]
d. Describe how you could measure the current brightest. Explain your answer.
flowing in each bulb. [1] ‘Which circuit component has the biggest c. Calculate the resistance of the lamp. [2]
c. Name the bulb or bulbs that will be the resistance?’
2. Look at the sentences below. Name the dimmest. Explain your answer. [2] d. The lamp transfers 72J in one minute.
circuit component or type of circuit that each He writes down his ideas, but they are not in the Calculate the power.
4. Here is a circuit diagram. All the lamps are right order. Put the statements in the right order
sentence describes.
the same. using the letters. 9. A circuit contains two lamps and a cell. They are
[1]
a. This is the energy source for an electric circuit. connected in series.

b. In this circuit all the components are in

a single loop.
[1]

[i]
A, A;
A

B
| experiment is safe._
| Think about how I can make sure that the

Connect up the circuit and measure the

a. Describe and explain what happens to the
brightness of the lamps if another lamp is
added in series. [2]
current through each component.
c. This enables you to turn a component on b. Describe how the brightness would change if
[1] z C Select equipment so that I can measure the lamps were connected in parallel, not in
or off.
the current. series. Explain your answer.
d. In this circuit all the components can be
turned on or off independently. [1]
*<$> D Do some preliminary work to find the best
c. Describe how the brightness would change if
[2]

Y
voltage to use.
another cell is added to both the series
TWS E Write the results in a table. and the parallel circuits. [i]

230

I
■
r The Earth in space

Extension A timeline for the Universe

The origin of the Universe
15.1 An astronomer looks at galaxies in the night sky. She
are all moving away from the Earth. You might think that
works out that they
the Earth is
case.
/

special, or that it is the centre of the Universe, but that is not the
Objectives Big Bang Earth cooled Oldest Animals with First land Humans exist
remaining rock shells
The Big Bang 13,700 million 4200 million
plants
„ 3600 million
• GivethetheUniverse
approximate age
Every galaxy is moving away from every other galaxy.
Astronomers found 630 million 550 million 0.5 million
of

• Describe the Big Bang

evidence for this movement in the 1920s, when they used
measure how fast galaxies are moving. They also measured
telescopes to
how far away
IBIG BANG
t t
years ago
t 4L
i
L.I
theory of the Universe, and they are. The further away they were, the faster they were moving. •i.'.v

J J
evidence for it

• Comparehave
the time that
humans lived on
Earth with the age of
Scientists used the evidence from their observations to
develop an
explanation called the Big Bang. It is an idea that explains observations
predicts what might happen in the future.
and
5000 million
Solar System formed
I
3900 million
First life
I
3000 million
Multicellular
200 million
Dinosaurs exist
66 million
J
Dinosaurs died out
The Big Bang theory says: organisms
the Earth
• The Universe began about 14 billion years ago.
The whole Universe expanded from something smaller than
an atom 38
and hotter than anything we can imagine.
In a fraction of a second the Universe grew to the size
of a galaxy, and it
has continued to expand ever since. Sometimes it is easier to picture the timescale with an analogy.
making
• As it expanded, it cooled, and energy changed into particles,
atoms and molecules of hydrogen and helium. • If the Universe started 24 hours ago, then the Earth would have formed
9 hours ago.
• Eventually there were stars, planets, moons, and galaxies, and the
Universe we see today. • Human
The first animals would have appeared about an hour ago.
• beings would have existed for less than the time that it takes to
blink your eyes.
6000 °C -250 °C -27<rc_—
10 billion °C The end of the Universe
* i
No one knows what will happen to the Universe. • Scientists think that
the Universe began
•ItIt may
*
may expand forever.
m Ic with a Big Bang about
P • expand, and the expansion could get faster.
14 billion years ago.
11
D

"o • Gravity may pull it back in again. • Some evidence for the
A An astronomer using a
E i • It may expand to a certain size and stay that way. Big Bang is that all the
telescope in an observatory. To know what is going to happen we would need to be
able to measure the galaxies are moving
300 000 years 1 billion years 12-15 billion mass of all the objects in the Universe. away from each other.
0 1 second
Age of the Universe
years
This is not possible with the technology that we have at the
moment. • Earth has existed for
a fraction of the time
over
A The Big Bang theory explains how the modern universe was formed that the Universe
billions ofyears. has existed.
1. a. Write down the age of the Universe.

The galaxies are moving away from us because the space in

between all b. Write down the age of the Solar System. • Humans have existed
fora tiny fraction of
the 2. Why is it difficult to predict what will happen to the
galaxies is expanding. There is nothing special about our galaxy, Universe? the time that the Earth
still appear that all 3. Could humans have seen a dinosaur? Explain your
Milky Way. If we lived in the Andromeda galaxy it would answer. has existed.
away from us.
the other galaxies, including the Milky Way, were moving

232

I
 1
The Earth in space

What effect does an asteroid impact have?

Collisions, asteroids, and
-NOW- | Approx, time
If the asteroid is very large there will be enough dust to block out light from years ago

15.2 mass extinctions I

the Sun. The material that ends up in the Earth’s atmosphere can change
climate, and cause mass extinctions.
Mass extinction 5:
50-70% species lost
Dinosaurs died out
65 million

About 66 million years ago a huge asteroid The climate depends on the balance between the energy that reaches the

Objectives hit the Earth. Scientists think that this Earth from the Sun, and the energy that the Earth radiates into space.
impact contributed to the extinction
of the
If radiation from the Sun is blocked, then the temperature of the Earth
• Describe evidence for dinosaurs. Has this happened before?
asteroid collisions
M \ would fall very quickly. This is called an impact winter. If the Sun was
blocked out for a long time, then plants that rely on photosynthesis and Mass extinction 4:
How do we know there have animals that eat the plants would die. An impact winter that continued for 50% marine invertebrates lost
205 million
• Describe some been asteroid impacts? over a year would make it difficult for humans to survive.
80% land quadrupeds lost
consequences of asteroid Mass extinction 3:
Asteroids can be pulled out of their orbit in A An asteroid impact 80-95% marine species lost
collisions Their happened at the time the An event that causes a large percentage (75%-90%) of all species to 251 million
the asteroid belt by Jupiter’s gravity. dinosaurs died out. disappear in a relatively short time is called a mass extinction event.
new direction may take them on a collision Scientists think that these events happen on average approximately every
course with the Earth. You learned about 25 million years.
asteroids and meteorites on page 183. Mass extinction 2:
have collided with objects in The most famous was the event that probably killed off most of the dinosaurs
There is evidence that very many asteroids
70% species lost 360-75
ri
at the Moon You see jt covered in when an asteroid about 9 km in diameter hit the Earth. million
the Solar sYstem in the Past lf y°u look
There are millions of craters of pieces of rock in the past. The
A
craters. The Moon has been hit by lots However, most mass extinction events are thought to result from climate
on the Moon. are still visible.
conditions on the Moon mean that the craters change due to volcanic emissions or changes to the Earth’s oceans. Mass extinction 1:
60% species lost
440 million
on Earth?
What is the evidence for asteroid impacts How often do significant asteroid impacts happen?
■
-
More than 100 tons of dust hits the Earth every day, but it gets burned up
R ► Meteor Crater in ORIGINS OF LIFE 13500 million
Sc Arizona, USA, was in the atmosphere. I years ago
formed when a ... hits the Earth
piece of iron 40m W'
''
•
- An object the size of...
every...
... and produces...
A There have been five mass
extinction events in Earth’s
in diameter hit
’BbrtBp a car (5 m)
a football field (100 m)
year
5000 years
a fireball
a large crater, significant
history.

damage, tsunami
The crater produced by the
The Lonar crater in India is There are some visible craters on the Earth. half (400 m) the tallest 100 000 years climate change, impact
A
now a lake. asteroid that may have caused the extinction
of the dinosaurs is deep off the building in the world winter, possible mass • Craters and meteorites
until 1978. show that asteroids
coast of Mexico, and was not discovered extinction
have hit Earth in
the Earth? the past.
What happens when an asteroid hits
An asteroid with a diameter of 50 m
can make a crater over a kilometre wide. • Small asteroid impacts
can cause small craters
can be vaporised. This sends
On impact, the ground and the asteroid and fireballs.
ash, and gas. If the asteroid hits the
v material into the air in the form of dust, 1. Describe the two main effects of large asteroid impacts. • Large asteroid impacts
ocean it can cause a tsunami. 2. Explain why craters are easily seen on the Moon but not on Earth. can make craters,

*
A m The effect of the impact depends what the
asteroid is made of, and what it hits. 3. Suggest whether there are any objects in the Solar System that do
not have craters.
throw material into
the atmosphere, and
A large, metallic asteroid hitting soft
rock will make a large crater. 4. Suggest why it is difficult to know the exact cause of a mass cause climate change
A Some craters, like this one extinction event. and mass extinction.
in Canada, are only visible
from space.

234
 I
The Earth in space
Scientists have no direct evidence that the core of the Earth is
Collisions and the Moon light rock

15.3 When you look up in the night sky you can usually see the Moon.
there when the Earth formed. How did it get there?
It was not
made of iron. They think that it is made of iron because:

• it would account for the density of the Earth (if the core is made
of rock then the density would be too low)
Oy © a large planet
collides with a
small one
• the Earth has a magnetic field around, so it is likely that some heavy iron
MOON metal element is moving in the core.
Objectives EARTh

w
Distance from the Earth to the Moon
all the iron ends
240,000 Miles Other theories for the formation of the Moon up in the large
• Describe the giant- for the Co-formation theory
planet - Earth
impact hypothesis A jhe Earth and Moon to scale. In one version of the co-formation theory, the Moon was
formation of the Moon formed
alongside the Earth by gravity pulling together dust and gas. In
• Describe some ofagainst
the What is the ‘giant-impact’ hypothesis? another version, two objects the size of Mars collided, and the
object
evidence for and Most astronomers think that the Moon was formed when a giant Earth and Moon formed from them. the light rock thrown

•
the hypothesis
Describe the evidence for
other theories
smashed into the Earth.
Earth hacj formed by about 4.54 billion years ago from the gas and dust
from the formation of the Sun. In addition, various objects had hit the
were
Earth
made
left Evidence for this theory
• The Moon has a similar
Evidence against this theory
I* The Moon is less dense than the j
Q) ) up by the impact
forms the Moon

later and been absorbed into it. Other objects, including planets, composition to the Earth. Earth. A Did the molten iron
Theia from the leftover gas and dust too. • The Moon would be in orbit at its • The Moon does not seem to have cores merge?
present location. a heavy core.
• Gravity pulled together dust and gas.
“ES 4 • The dust contained iron that had been made in other stars. Capture theory
%
• The iron formed the central core of the objects that formed.
i down on the surface of the young Earth and probably kept
In the capture theory the Moon formed elsewhere in the Solar System. V
• Debris rainedmolten for a long time.
Earth’s gravity captured the Moon as it was passing by.
Impact IrV the surface
The giant-impact hypothesis says that the Moon formed at some time Evidence for this theory Evidence against this theory A Some astronomers think
before 4 billion years ago. • The Moon is less dense than the • Objects that are captured are not that the two Martian moons
P's
(Phobos and Deimos) are
the size of Mars called Theia collided with the Earth. Earth. usually spherical.
r A • An object collision heated the Earth and Theia.
• The energy of thecores • The orbits of objects captured captured asteroids.

• The molten irontoday. of the two objects merged to form the core that this way do not align. j
the Earth has
The Moon
and Earth • The lighter rock was thrown out into orbit and formed the Moon. • The giant-impact
the surfaces of both the Earth and the Moon
ft • After the Moon formed,
cooled toproduce a crust.
There have been other theories about how the Moon formed. We are
still not completely sure that the giant impact hypothesis is correct.
hypothesis says that
an object called Theia
are some Theories change overtime. The co-formation and capture theories have collided with a young
Astronomers can make predictions based on this hypothesis. Here
been around for a long time. Earth.
Theia collides with the Earth, of the predictions and some of the evidence for and against them.
A
• The iron cores of the
objects merged and
Evidence
Prediction the lighter rock formed
The Earth should have an iron core. Evidence suggests it does. the Moon.
1. Describe one piece of evidence that supports the giant-impact
Some of the material of the Moon should be the The material brought back from the Moon by the Apollo
hypothesis, and one that does not support it. • A lot of evidence

same as the Earth, and some should be different astronauts suggests that there is very little difference supports the
2. Suggest why most scientists don’t believe the other theories that
because it came from Theia. between the composition of the Earth and the Moon. hypothesis, but not alt.
have been proposed.
The Moon should orbit the Earth at a distance It does orbit at that distance. 3. Suggest why astronomers might think that Mars’s two
moons are
• There are other
theories, with less
we can predict from models. _ captured asteroids.
evidence.
The Moon’s orbit should align with the Earth. The orbits of the Earth and Moon do align.

236 237
 f The Earth in space
How is a stellar nursery formed?
The lifecycle of stars
15.4 When we look into the night sky we are
looking back in time. The light from some
Stars that are much bigger than our Sun are called
massive stars. A massive star will turn into a red
supergiant, explode to form a supernova, and then
Massive star
Rea supergiant
Supernova
f
Black hole
X-ray
emission
x
form a neutron star or a black hole.
of the objects has taken millions or billions
Objectives of years to reach us. Some of the stars we Massive stars eventually become supernovae. These
i Neutron star P ilsar
are seeing are very young, and others have are some of the most energetic explosions in the

• Describe what a nebula is reached the end of their life cycle. Universe. Elements that are heavier than iron in the
Periodic Table are made in supernova explosions.
% Stellar
nursery

Our Sun is like this

• Describe how stars form

What is a nebula? The remnants of the star are flung out into the universe
and die
A nebula is a cloud of dust and gas. to form nebulae. These nebulae can produce new stars Low-mass star ™—
Planetary
' White Black
In some nebulae gravity pulls the gas and planets, like our Sun and our planet Earth. Red giant nebula dwarf

together to make a star. These are called

A The Eagle Nebula is a stellar You are made of stardust. A Life cycles of different types of stars.
stellar nurseries. nursery.

When does a star shine?

! Betelgeuse
Our Sun has a life cycle, as an animal does. Like all stars, it is born and Bellatrix

it will die. '

from a cloud of gas and dust. i

• The Sun was born the gas together to form a main-sequence star,
• Gravity pulledis now. Orion
like our star
red planetary
. Mintaka

giant nebula Alnjtak ) Alnifam

now gradual warming _ m
A The Orion Nebula looks beautiful
« •• through a large telescope.

▲
*
birth 2 3

The life cycle of our Sun.

4 5
billions of
6
years
7
(approx.)
8 9 10
not to scale
11

Nuclear fusion reactions produce the energy that makes the Sun shine.
In nuclear fusion, hydrogen atoms fuse to make helium, and energy is
12
white dwarf
13 14

A
Saiph
i*
M42
Orion
Nebula

Rigel

The Orion Nebula can be seen with the naked eye.

Eridanus

• Stars have two different

possible life cycles
I

released. Helium then fuses to make other elements. Elements up to iron depending on their mass.
in the Periodic Table are made in stars like our Sun. The temperatures and • Low-mass stars like our
pressures needed for nuclear fusion are found in the centre of stars. Sun have a life cycle that
ends up as a white dwarf,
The Sun has enough fuel to shine like this for another 5 billion years. 1. Match the words to their definitions:
then a black dwarf.
Eventually all of the hydrogen will be used up and it will go through the
final stages of its life.
A Nebula 1 The type of star our Sun is now • Massive stars end up as
B Nuclear fusion 2 Cloud ofdust and gas black holes or neutron
grow to become a red giant and will swallow up Mercury, Venus,
• It willpossibly C Main sequence 3 The process that produces energy in stars stars.
and Earth as well. D Red giant 4 What our Sun will become in about 5 • Both types of stars produce
• The outer layers will be thrown out into space to form clouds of gas
called a planetary nebula. (A planetary nebula has nothing to do with
billion years __
__ nebulae, which can go on
to form new stars.
The Ring Nebula is a planets. Astronomers thought they looked like planets.) 2. Describe one similarity and one difference between the life cycle of
A
planetary nebula, not a • Heavy elements are
• The centre will shrink and become a hot white dwarf, and then cool a low-mass and a massive star.
only made in supernova
stellar nursery. 3. Suggest why gold is more precious than diamond.
down to become an invisible black dwarf star. explosions.

238 239
 I
1
The Earth in space
Review 5. You can use primary and secondary data to 8. A student wants to investigate impact craters. a. Give the letter or letters of the statements
fws develop explanations in science.
15.5 a. Describe the difference between
primary and secondary data. [1]
They get a deep tray and fill it with flour.

When they drop a marble onto the tray it makes

a crater.
that are true.

giant-impact theory over other theories.

tl]
b. Give the letter of a statement that supports the
[1]
1. a. Describe one piece of evidence that there b. An astronomer uses some data from a science c. Describe an alternative theory for the
have been asteroid impacts on Earth. [l] book to develop an explanation about the formation of the Moon. [2]
location of the Moon’s orbit. Are the data marble
b. Explain why scientists might disagree about primary or secondary data? [1] d. Explain why the theory you have described
the evidence. [1] has not overtaken the giant-impact theory. [1]
c. A student uses a table of numbers that they flour
2. Give the letter of the correct statement. [l] 10. A student is trying to explain the timeline for
found in a magazine to find out about the
number of moons around all the planets. the formation of the Universe.
A The size of an impact crater does not depend
Are the data primary or secondary data? [1] They use the idea of condensing the length of
on the type of ground an asteroid hits.
Before After time that the Universe has been in existence to
B The size of an impact crater does not depend d. A teacher uses a telescope to make some one year.
on the type of material of the asteroid. observations of the craters on the Moon. a. Complete this sentence for a hypothesis about
Are the data primary or secondary data? [1] a. Copy the table and add the following
forming craters that they could test.
C A bigger crater will be formed if the asteroid events at the correct time. [2]
hits softer rock. e. Which type of data are likely to be more Craters are formed because the
TWS
reliable? Explain your answer. [2] of the falling marble is transferred to dinosaurs became extinct
D The Earth has only been hit by a few asteroids. Milky Way formed Earth formed
the flour, which makes the flour move. [1]
6. Put these in order of age from youngest
3. Which of the following is a piece of evidence to oldest. [3] Date Event
[1] fws b. Complete this sentence for a question that ;
for the giant-impact hypothesis? they could investigate. January 1
A the Sun C the Earth Big Bang
A The Moon is orbiting the Earth at the _ May
B the Universe D the Moon I wonder how changing the that
expected distance. Early September Sun formed
I drop the marble from affects the
B People have landed on the Moon. 7. An asteroid hit the remote Tunguska region of the crater. [2] Middle September
of Russia in 1908, producing a fireball that December 7th Dinosaurs lived
C There is no atmosphere on the Moon. c. Name the independent variable. [1]
flattened 80 million trees. No one was hurt. December 30th
D The Moon has less gravity than the Earth. d. Name the dependent variable. [l] December 31st 9.25pm Humans walk
upright _
4. Put these statements in order to describe e. Name one control variable. [1]
the giant-impact hypothesis. [5] b. Described what happened to the
f- Describe and explain the type of graph
m TWS temperature of the Universe over time. [1]
A The lighter rock was thrown out into orbit. that they could plot. [2]
c. The Universe has been expanding for about I
B After the Moon formed the surfaces of Moon 7. Here are some statements that would provide
14 billion years. Suggest the maximum
and Earth cooled to produce crusts. evidence for different theories for how the Moon distance, in light years, that the most
was formed.
C The molten iron cores of the two objects merged powerful telescope possible could see into
to form the core that the Earth has today. A The Earth should have an iron core. the Universe. Explain your answer. [2]
a. Explain why the complete asteroid was not
D The energy of the collision heated the Earth found on the ground. [1] B Some of the material of the Moon should be
and Theia. [1] the same as the Earth, and some should be
b. Define ‘mass-extinction event’.
E The lighter rock came together to form
different because it came from Theia.
c. Describe how an asteroid produces a mass
the Moon. [3] C The Moon should orbit the Earth at a distance
extinction event.
we can predict from models.
F An object the size of Mars called Theia collided
d. Explain why mass extinctions are rare. [1]
with the Earth. D The Moon’s orbit should align with the Earth.

240
 1
Stage 9 review
Review c. A runner will perspire (sweat) when he gets hot.
4. A referee needs to blow a whistle in a football
c. Describe what would happen if you used a
Explain how that helps to keep him cool. [2] game to stop play. This is a picture of the whistle
battery with a bigger voltage. Explain your
Stage 9 d. At the end of the race he goes inside a cool
sound wave on the screen of an oscilloscope: answer. [2]
room. It feels cold. In which direction is energy I The student replaces the buzzer with a different
being transferred: from the room to him, or lamp. The reading on ammeter2 is now 0.1A.
1. A girl is playing with some oil and some water. She from him to the room? [1]
pours the oil and water into a glass and the oil d. Deduce the reading on the other two
floats on the water. e. Is the energy being transferred by conduction, ammeters. [2]
convection, or radiation, or more than one of
[2] e. Describe where to put a voltmeter to measure
these methods? Explain your answer.
the voltage across the lamp. [1]
3. A student is planning an investigation into the
-I-oil f. Describe where to put a voltmeter to measure
TWS
effect of changing the tension in a string on the
the voltage across the battery. [1]
pitch of the sound produced. Here is a diagram of He blows his whistle again, but this time with a
the experiment that he is planning to do. lower pitch and quieter. g. Would the two voltmeter readings be the same
J-water
clamp a. Draw a wave to show what this sound would or different? Explain your answer. [2]
string

ff) look like. [2] h. What would happen to the reading on

a. Write down which liquid is more dense, the oil u b. Explain why you have drawn the wave in the ammeter3 if you added another bulb in that
branch? Explain your answer.
1 way that you have. |[1] [2]
or the water. Explain your answer. [2]
mass
c. On a sketch of the wave draw the wave that 6. The Earth has a magnetic field.
She cuts up a cube-shaped piece of banana and would superpose destructively with the wave
He plans to change the masses hanging on a. Describe one theory for why the Earth has a
puts it into the glass. on the screen.
the string, pluck it to make a sound, and use a [1] magnetic field. [1]
|
It floats between the layer of oil and water.
microphone to look at the wave on the screen d. Suggest where it is useful to have waves b. Explain why a student might think that the ‘bar
b. Write down what can you say about the density of the oscilloscope. He knows that the screen cancelling out. [1] magnet’ producing the Earth’s magnetic field is
of the banana compared to the density of the shows the number of waves in 10 milliseconds. the wrong way round. [2]
5. A student has connected a parallel circuit.
oil and the density of the water. [2] His teacher explains that he can count how many
7. An astronomer observes a planet around a distant
waves there are on the screen and divide by
She decides to measure the density of the star. It is not possible to see whether there are
0.01to get the frequency in Hz.
banana. craters on the planet.
a. Give the name of the independent variable. [1]
c. Write down what equipment she will need a. Suggest why the astronomer might think there
to use. [2] b. Give the name of the dependent variable. [1] buzzer lamp(X) would be craters. [1]
7s d. Explain how she could use that equipment c. Give the name of the variable or variables b. Suggest what might have caused the craters,
[3] he will need to control. [1]
to measure the density. Ai (£) (£) and where they come from. [2]

2. During the day in the desert it can get very hot. d. Draw the table he needs to use to record his c. A crater on Earth was formed at about the time
[2]
Some people even run marathons in the desert. results. of the last mass-extinction event. Name one
There is an ‘ultra-marathon’ that takes place in of the types of animals that died out in that
e. Give the name of the type of graph he should a. The reading on ammeter 1is 0.5 A, and the
the Sahara desert. event. [1]
plot from his results. Explain your answer. [2] reading on ammeter 2 is 0.2 A. Give the
a. The temperature in the Sahara can reach 45 °C. reading on ammeter 3. [1] d. An object is thought to have collided with the
f. He does the experiment and finds that as he
Describe the difference between temperature b. Describe what would happen to the ammeter Earth to produce the Moon. Name this theory. [1]
[2] adds more masses the frequency gets bigger.
and energy.
Name a musical instrument where this would readings if you swapped the buzzer and the
b. Describe how energy from the Sun reaches a TWS be important. [1] lamp. [2]
runner in the desert. [1]

242 243

I
 I
Reference
Reference
Choosing apparatus
1 There are many different types of scientific apparatus. The table below shows
what they look like, how to draw them, and what you can use them for.
stand, clamp, and boss
•/

/*»
• to hold apparatus
safely in place

What it looks like Diagram What you can use it for A

Apparatus name
• heating solids and Bunsen burner • to heat the contents of
liquids beakers or test tubes
test tube • mixing substances • to heat solids
• small-scale chemical
reactions

boiling tube
• a boiling tube is a big
test tube; you can use
it for doing the same
things as a test tube
tripod

T A • to support apparatus
above a Bunsen
burner

• to spread out thermal

energy from a Bunsen
gauze burner
• heating liquids and • to support apparatus,
beaker solutions
such as beakers, over
l- 4 • mixing substances a Bunsen burner

• to transfer liquids or
• heating liquids and
solutions
pipette
solutions from one
conical flask container to another
• mixing substances

) • to transfer liquids and

• to separate solids syringe
ftr I solutions
filter funnel from liquids, using • measure volumes
to
filter paper of liquids or solutions

spatula
/ • to transfer solids
to evaporate a liquid from one container to
evaporating dish * from a solution another
#

1
A • to cool a substance in tongs and test tube • to hold hot apparatus,
so that
the gas state, holders or to hold a test tube
condenser it condenses to the in a hot flame
A liquid state

244 245
 1
Reference

Reference Working safely

Working accurately and safely Hazard symbols

2 .... need to make accurate measurements in science practicals.

You
need to choose the correct measuring instrument, and use
You will
it properly.
Hazards are the possible dangers linked to using substances or doing
experiments. Hazardous substances display hazard symbols. The table shows
some hazard symbols. It also shows how to reduce risks from each hazard.
Measuring cylinder
A measuring
Hazard symbol What it means j Reduce risks from this hazard by...
Measuring cylinders measure volumes of liquids or solutions.

1 • wearing eye protection

smaller Corrosive - the substance attacks and
cylinder is better for this job than a beaker because it measures
differences in volume.
A destroys living tissue, such as skin and eyes. • avoiding contact with the skin
60

To measure volume:
50
1. Place the measuring cylinder on a flat surface.
Irritant - the substance is not corrosive, but • avoiding
wearing eye protection
X will make the skin go red or form blisters. • contact with the skin
2. Bend down so that your eyes are level with the
surface of liquid.

3. Use the scale to read the volume. You need to look

at the bottom of the
meniscus. !
Toxic - can cause death, for example, if it is • wearing eye protection
curved surface of the liquid. The curved surface is called the swallowed or breathed in. • wearing gloves
Measuring cylinders measure volume in cubic centimetres, cm3, or • wearing a mask, or using the substance
in a fume cupboard
column millilitres, ml. One cm3 is the same as one ml.
of liquid Flammable - catches fire easily. • wea ring eye protection
Thermometer • keeping away from flames and sparks
bulb
The diagram to the left shows an alcohol thermometer. The
liquid expands
The liquid
k The different parts of a when the bulb is in a hot liquid and moves up the column.
thermometer. contracts when the bulb is in a cold liquid.
Explosive - the substance may explode if it • wearing eye protection
comes into contact with a flame or heat. • keeping away from flames and sparks
To measure temperature:

Look at the scale on the thermometer. Work out the temperature

1.
difference represented by each small division.
Dangerous to the environment - the • taking care with disposal
substance may pollute the environment.
2. Place the bulb of the thermometer in the liquid.
in the
3. Bend down so that your eyes are level with the liquid
Other hazards
thermometer.
The table does not list all the hazards of doing practical work in science.
4. Use the scale to read the temperature. You need to follow the guidance below to work safely. Always follow your
Celsius, °C.
k The temperature of the Most thermometers measure temperature in degrees teacher’s safety advice, too.
liquid is 95 °C.
Balance
• Take care not to touch hot apparatus, even if it does not look hot.
A balance is used to measure mass. Sometimes you
need to find the mass of • Take care not to break glass apparatus - leave it in a safe place on the
a beaker.
table, where it cannot roll off.
something that you can only measure in a container, like liquid in
To use a balance to find the mass of liquid in a beaker:
• Support apparatus safely. For example, you might need to weigh down a
clamp stand if you are hanging heavy loads from the clamp.
1. Place the empty beaker on the pan. Read its mass. • If you are using an electrical circuit, switch it off before making any
change to the circuit.
2. Pour the liquid into the beaker. Read the new mass.
• Remember that wires may get hot, even with a low voltage.
3. Calculate the mass of the liquid like this: • Never connect wires across the terminals of a battery.

The balance measures mass. (mass of liquid) = (mass of beaker + liquid) - (mass of
beaker) • Do not look directly at the Sun, or at a laser beam.
A
• Wear eye protection - whatever you are doing in the laboratory!
Balances normally measure mass in grams, g, or kilograms, kg.

246
 r
Reference
Reference Using an analogue voltmeter
Using ammeters and voltmeters
3
A voltmeter measures the voltage. You might want to find the voltage
across
a component such as a lamp. To do this you place the voltmeter in parallel
Measuring current and voltage
with the lamp.
In your experiments with electrical circuits you will measure current and
voltage using meters. There are two types of meter: analogue and digital. Like an ammeter, a voltmeter needs to be connected the right way round.
This is how you connect the voltmeter into a circuit with a cell or battery, a
• Analogue meters have a needle that moves and shows the current on lamp, and a switch.
a scale.
• Digital meters have a display of numbers. A digital meter is usually 1. Disconnect the cell or open the switch.
a multimeter, which means that you can use it to measure current 2. Follow the wire from the negative terminal of the cell until you get to
or voltage. A An analogue voltmeter.
the lamp. Do not disconnect the lamp but plug another lead into the
Using an analogue ammeter terminal on that side of the lamp.

An ammeter measures the current. You might want to find the current 3. Connect the other end of this lead to the black terminal on your
voltmeter.
flowing through a component such as a lamp. To do this you place the 4. Use another lead to connect the other side of the lamp to the red
ammeter in series with the lamp. terminal of the voltmeter.

h Connecting meters
You connect an ammeter in series, and a voltmeter in parallel. It is

0
1
o
\
A An ammeter connected to a
circuit with a cell or battery,
a lamp, and a switch.
important not to connect an ammeter in parallel with a component, or
directly across a battery or cell. The resistance of the ammeter is very small
so a very large current would flow that could damage the ammeter and A
t£i
A voltmeter connected to a
drain the cell. circuit with a cell or battery,
The resistance of a voltmeter is very, very high. If you connect it in series a lamp, and a switch.

For most components in a circuit it does not matter which way round you rather than in parallel no current will flow in the circuit.
A An analogue ammeter. connect them. This is not true for an ammeter. It needs to be connected
so that, if you follow the wires back to the battery or cell, the wire in the Using a multimeter
black terminal on the ammeter is connected to the negative terminal of the You can use a multimeter to measure current or voltage.
battery. The wire in the red terminal should be connected to the positive
The multimeter has a dial that you turn to select current (A or mA) or voltage
terminal of the battery. (V). You select whether you want to measure a large current (10 A) or a small
This is how you connect the ammeter into a circuit with a cell or battery, a current. Some examples of how to connect a multimeter are shown below.
lamp, and a switch. \
1. Disconnect the cell or open the switch. (f (f o.anl] f( a.oa)l
2. Follow the wire from the negative terminal of the cell until you get to the
lamp. Disconnect the lead from the lamp.
■turn the dial
3. Plug that lead into the black terminal on your ammeter.
to 20 V
J-

---
•- start at the
4. Use another lead to connect the lamp to the red terminal of the
turn the dial to 10 A
WÿafWj @ red terminal for
<
J highest mA
20200otoo]
ammeter. ,-IOADC-y
bjg current
reading O
13
An analogue meter may have two different scales. Start by connecting it
up using the red terminal labelled with the higher value of current. If the
ammeter does not show a current in your circuit using that scale, then move
the lead to the terminal with the lower value of current.
|
A
Ter®
black terminal

Using a multimeter to measure A

itSSS., II
red terminal for
small current
black terminal

Using a multimeter to measure A

I Is
-(ÿHT —

Using a multimeter to measure

rec* terminal for
voltage
black terminal

a big current. a small current. voltage.

248
 Glossary

Battery Two or more electrical cells Climate change Changes to long-term Consequence (risk) What can happen
in a fluid is equal to the weight of fluid Decibel (dB) A commonly used unit of
Glossary displaced. joined together. weather patterns as a result of global
warming.
as a result of something you do. sound intensity or loudness.
Armature The coil of wire in an Big Bang The expansion of space Conservation (of energy) A law that Deform To change shape.
which we believe started the Universe. Clockwise The direction of rotation says that energy is never created or
electromagnetic device such as a that is the same as the movement of Degrees Celsius (°C) A temperature
destroyed but is is always transferred
generator. Biodegradable Able to be broken the hands of a clock. from one store to another. scale with 0 °C fixed at the melting
Absorbed What happens energy of Spacecraft made down by bacteria or other living point of ice and 100 °C fixed at the
electromagnetic radiation (e.g. light) or Artificial satellites Coal A fossil fuel formed from
by people to orbit the Earth for various organisms. Constant Not changing. boiling point of water.
sound is transferred to a thermal store dead plants that have been buried
on passing through or into a medium.
purposes. Biodiesel A biofuel made from plant underground over millions of years. Constructive interference The effect Demagnetise To destroy a magnet by
Asteroid An irregularly shaped lump of oils. of adding waves that are in step to heating it up, hitting it, or putting it in
Accelerating Speeding up, getting Coal-fired power station A place produce a larger amplitude wave.
rock in orbit around the Sun. Bioethanol A biofuel made from where the fossil fuel coal is burned to
an alternating current.
faster.
Asteroid belt A large number of carbohydrates such as sugar. generate electricity. Contact force A force that acts when Density The mass of a substance in a
Acceleration The rate of change of Mars and Jupiter. an object is in contact with a surface, certain volume.
increasing speed (the amount by which asteroids between Biofuel A fuel produced from Cobalt A metallic element that is air, or water.
speed increases in one second). Astronomer A scientist who studies renewable resources. magnetic. Dependent variable The variable
space. Continuous Describes a variable that that changes when you change the
Accuracy (of a measurement) How Biogas Gas produced from waste Cochlea A snail-shaped tube in the can have any value across a range, such
products, usually methane, used to independent variable.
correct a measurement is - how close it Atmosphere The layer of air above inner ear where the sensory cells that as time, temperature, length.
is to its true value. Earth’s surface. generate electricity. detect sound are. Destructive interference The effect
Convection The transfer of energy by of adding waves that are out of step to
Air resistance The force on an object Atmospheric pressure The force on Biomass Material from plants used for Co-formation theory A theory that the movement of a gas or liquid.
causing due the fuel, e.g. wood. produce a smaller amplitude wave.
that is moving through the air, an area of the Earth’s surface to says that the Moon formed in the same
it to slow down (also known as drag). weight of air above it, or the pressure in way and at the same time as the Earth. Convection current The way in which Detector Something that absorbs
Bioplastics Plastics made from starch. energy is transferred through liquids
made of a mixture of the atmosphere. electromagnetic radiation or sound to
Alloy A material Black dwarf A remnant of a star like Colourblindness Someone with and gases by the movement of their produce a signal.
metals, or of carbon with a metal. Atom The smallest particle of an our Sun that no longer gives out light. colour blindness cannot tell certain particles.
element that can exist. colours apart, because some cone cells Diffuse Describes reflection from a
Ammeter A device for measuring Black hole A remnant of a star much Core A rod of a magnetic material
in the retina of the eye do not work rough surface.
electric current in a circuit. Attract Pull together, for example bigger than our Sun from which placed inside a solenoid to make the
poles of a magnet or positive properly. Diffusion The movement of particles
Ampere (amp) The unit of
opposite nothing can escape, not even light. magnetic field of an electromagnet
current, and negative charges attract each other. Comets Bodies in space made of dust stronger. in gases and liquids from where there
measurement of electric Capture theory A theory that says that particles frozen in ice, which orbit the are a lot of the particles to where there
symbol A. Audible Able to be heard. the Moon is an object that was formed Cornea The transparent layer at the are fewer.
Sun.
Amplifier A device for making a sound Audible range The range of frequencies outside the Solar System and captured front of the eye.
Directly proportional A relationship
by the Earth’s gravity. Communicate To share and exchange
louder. that can be heard. Correlation A link between two things; in which one quantity increases in the
information.
Amplitude The distance from the Auditory canal The passage from the Categoric Describes a variable whose it does not necessarily mean that one same way as another.
a wave. values are words not numbers. Compact disc A metal disc that can thing causes the other.
middle to the top or bottom of outer ear to the eardrum.
Discrete Describes a variable that can
store high-quality digital recordings.
Analogy A way of explaining Auditory nerve Signals are sent from Cell (electrical) A device that uses a Craters Holes in the ground caused only have whole-number values.
something by saying that it is like your ear to the brain along this nerve. chemical reaction to produce a voltage/ Compass A device containing a when meteors or asteroids hit the
potential difference. small magnet that is used for finding Earth. Dispersion The splitting up of a ray
something else.
Aurora A display of lights in the sky directions. of light of mixed wavelengths by
Andromeda The nearest galaxy to the due to the interaction of the solar wind Centre of mass (or centre of gravity) Creative thinking Thinking in a new refraction into its components.
The point in an object where the mass Component An item used in an electric way.
Milky Way. with the magnetic field of a planet. Dissipated When transferred energy is
appears to be concentrated or weight circuit, such as a lamp.
Angle of incidence The angle between Average Found by adding a set of Crescent moon The shape that we see not useful/is wasted.
acts. Compressed Squashed into a smaller when a thin section of the Moon is lit, a
the incident ray and the normal line. values together and dividing by the Distance multiplier A type of lever
Centripetal force The force directed space, or deformed by making smaller. few days after a new moon.
Angle of reflection The angle between number of values (also called the -that uses a larger force to produce a
mean). towards the centre that causes a body Compression (in a sound wave) The Critical angle The smallest angle
the reflected ray and the normal line. to move in a uniform circular path. smaller force at a larger distance.
part of a sound wave where the air of incidence at which total internal
Average speed The total distance
Angle of refraction The angle between Charge This can be positive or particles are close together. reflection occurs. Distance-time graph A graph showing
the refracted ray and the normal line. travelled divided by the total time how the distance travelled varies with
taken for a complete journey. negative. It is a property of protons and Conclusion A statement about what Current The flow of electric charge
Anomalous result A point on a graph electrons. time.
the results of an investigation tell you. (electrons) around a complete circuit.
Average speed (molecules) The typical
that does not fit the general pattern Domain A small region inside a
(also called an outlier). value of the speed of molecules in a gas Chemical store The store associated Conduction (of energy) The way in Data Measurements taken from an magnetic material that behaves like a
or liquid. with the energy in fuels, food, and which energy is transferred through investigation or experiment.
electrical batteries. tiny magnet.
Anticlockwise The direction of solids (and, to a much lesser extent,
Axis, of Earth The imaginary line Day The period of time when one
rotation that is opposite to the Circuit (electric) A complete pathway liquids and gases). Drag A force on an object moving
movement of the hands of a clock.
through the Earth around which it section of the Earth (or other planet) is through air or water, causing it to slow
spins. for an electric current to flow. Conductor A material such as a metal facing the Sun.
Apparent depth How deep something or graphite that conducts charge or
down.
Describes forces that are the Circuit diagram Away of showing a
underwater appears to be when viewed Balanced energy well. Decelerating Slowing down, getting Dwarf planet A lump of rock in orbit
from above. same size but act in opposite directions circuit clearly, using symbols. slower. around the Sun that is nearly spherical
on an object. Circuit symbol A drawing that Cone A specialised cell in the retina
Area The size of a surface. Deceleration The amount by which but has other objects around it.
presenting data in represents a component in a circuit. that is sensitive to bright light and
Bar chart A way of speed decreases in one second.
Archimedes’ principle A law that which one of the variables is categoric colour.
states that the upthrust on an object (words).

250
Glossary Glossary

Electrical signal (ear) Information is Evaporate To turn from a liquid to a waves or vibrations produced in one Gravity (gravitational force) The
)ynamo A device that produces a
jotential difference when it spins (a transferred from the ear to the brain as vapour (gas). second (measured in hertz). force of attraction between two objects Snaÿnductorisÿnÿchfngingÿÿ
;mall generator). an electrical signal (nerve signal). Evaporation The change of state from Friction A force that resists movement because of their mass. magnetic field.
Electromagnet A temporary magnet liquid to gas that can happen at any because of contact between surfaces. Gravity store The energy store
EarThe organ of the human body that Inertia The tendency of an object to
produced using an electric current. temperature. Fuel A material that contains a store of associated with moving objects away resist a change in speed caused by a
fetects sound.
Evaporative coolers Equipment used energy and can be burned, e.g. gas, oil, from the Earth. force.
Ear defenders A device used to protect Electromagnetic spectrum A range of
radiation with electrical and magnetic in hot countries that uses the cooling coal, petrol (gas or gasoline). Greenhouse effect The effect of Infinite Without end.
:he ears from noise.
properties that can travel through effect of evaporation to cool houses.
Eardrum A membrane that transmits a vacuum (for example, the Sun’s
Fulcrum The point about which a lever
fheati"?
fcroÿhe
*e Earth because the energy
Infrared (radiation) A type of
sound vibrations from the outer ear to radiation). It also refers to the range
Evidence Observations and
measurements that support or disprove
or see-saw turns, also called the pivot.
Sun/s reflefed bauck
t0 the
Earth from a layer of greenhouse gases electromagnetic radiation that transfers
:he middle ear. Full moon The shape that we see when in the atmosphere. energy from a hotter to a colder place,
of wavelengths of electromagnetic a scientific theory. the whole disc is lit, when the Moon is
radiation produced by the Sun and which can be known as heat.
Earth A rocky inner planet, the third Greenhouse gases Gases that reflect
other sources. Exoplanet A planet in orbit around a opposite the Sun.
Inner ear The part of the ear made up
planet from the Sun. energy back to the surface of the
star other than our Sun. Fundamental (sound) The lowest of the cochlea and semi-circular canals.
Earth (charge) To connect a metal wire Electron A tiny sub-atomic particle frequency of sound produced by an
Earth, warming it and maintaining a
with a negative charge that flows Expand To increase in size, get bigger. temperature suitable for life, such as
From an object to the ground to take instrument or object.
Inner planets Mercury, Venus, Earth,
any charge away. through a wire to create an electric Explanation A statement that gives a carbon dioxide, water vapour, and and Mars.
current. reason for something using scientific Galaxy A number of stars and the solar methane.
Earthing The process of connecting systems around them grouped together. instantaneous speed Speed at a
Electrostatic attraction The force knowledge. Hazard symbol A warning symbol on particular moment.
objects to the ground.
between two particles of objects that Extension The distance by which an Gas (natural) A fossil fuel that collects a substance that shows what harm it
Echo A reflection of a sound wave by might cause if not handled properly. Insulator A material that does not
have opposite charge object gets longer when you stretch it. above oil deposits underground.
conduct energy or electricity very well.
an object.
Electrostatic force The force between Eye The organ of sight, which focuses Gas pressure (air pressure) The force Heating The energy transfer process
Echolocation The process of finding two charged objects. exerted by air particles when they that involves changing the temperature Intensity (sound) Flow loud a sound is,
out the position of something using
and detects light. measured in decibels.
collide with 1square metre (1 m2) of a or state °f a material.
echoes. Electrostatic phenomena Things that Fair test A controlled investigation surface. Interference (of waves) The effect of
happen because objects have become in which only one variable at a time is Heat pump A device that transfers heat
Eclipse The Sun or Moon is blocked tbe ground to a building on the combining two or more waves.
from view on Earth (see also lunar
charged. changed, while all other conditions are Gemstone A stone made from minerals
kept the same. that can be cut and used in jewellery. surface. International Space Station (ISS) A
eclipse or solar eclipse). Electrostatic repulsion The force research station in orbit around the
between two particles of objects that Field study An experiment or Generator A device that produces a Heliocentric (model) A model of the
Earth.
Efficient Describes something that voltage. Universe with the Sun at the centre.
does not waste much energy.
have the same charge observations made in the natural
habitat of an organism. Interstellar space The space between
Element A substance that is made of Geocentric model A model of the Hertz (Hz) The unit of frequency.
Effort The amount of force that you be split stars or solar systems.
one type of atom that cannot Filament The very thin, coiled piece of Universe with the Earth at the centre. Hooke’s law A law that says that the
use to push down when using a lever. Inversely proportionalA relationship
into other substances. wire that glows inside a light bulb. Geothermal An energy source extension is proportion to the force
Elastic Describes a type of material Emit To send something out (such as that uses water heated to steam applied up to the elastic limit. in which one quantity decreases as the
that can be stretched and will return Filter A piece of material that allows other increases.
to its original length when the pulling
heat, light, vapour). some radiation (colours) through but underground to produce electricity. Hydroelectricity Electricity generated
absorbs the rest. Inverted Upside down.
force is removed. Endoscope A medical instrument for Giant impact hypothesis A hypothesis using water fallinS downhill to turn
seeing inside the human body. First quarter/third quarter The shape that suggests that the Moon formed generators. Investigation An activity such as
Elastic limit The point beyond which from an object produced by a collision an experiment or set of experiments
a spring will never return to its original Energy A quantity that can be stored that we see when about half the Moon Hypothesis A scientific theory or
is lit, about a week before or after a new between a very young Earth and a Mars¬ designed to produce data to answer a
length when the pulling force is or transferred; a way of calculating sized planet.
proposed explanation made on the
scientific question or test a theory.
removed. which processes are possible. moon. basis of evidence which can be further
Floating An object floats when the Gibbous moon The shape that we see tested. Ions Atoms that have gained or lost
Elastic potential energy (EPE) Energy Energy conservation Energy is never
upthrust from the water is equal to the when most of the Moon is lit, a few days electrons.
stored in an elastic object that is made or lost but can be transferred, . image The point from which rays of
stretched or squashed. downwards force of the object’s weight. after a full moon. light entering the eye appear to have Iris The coloured part of your eye that
Energy store An object of collection originated. controls the size of the pupil.
Force A push or a pull that acts on an Global positioning system (GPS) A
Elastic store The energy store of objects about which a quantity of
energy can be calculated object to affect its movement or shape. system that pinpoints the position of Impact winter The period of cold Iron A metallic element that is the main
associated with objects that are something using signals from a satellite,
deformed Force multiplier A lever or hydraulic weather that scientist think would substance in steel. Iron is a magnetic
Energy transfer Energy can be follow an impact by a very large material.
machine that can lift or move heavy Gradient The slope or steepness of a
Electric car A car powered by electric transferred by forces, electricity, graph. asteroid or meteor.
batteries. heating, or waves. weights using a force smaller than the Joule The unit of energy, symbol J.
weight. Gravitational field A region in which Incident ray The ray coming from a
Electric circuit A complete pathway Energy transfer diagram A diagram source of light.
Jupiter A large outer planet made of
used to measure there is a force on a mass due to its
for an electric current to flow. that shows how energy is transferred or Forcemeter A device or attraction to another mass.
gas, the fifth from the Sun.
forces; also called a newtonmeter
changed in a process or device. Incompressible Describes something
Kilogram The unit of mass, symbol kg.
Electric current A flow of electric spring balance Gravitational field strength The force that cannot be compressed (squashed).
charge (electrons) around a complete Equator An imaginary line round the on a mass of 1kg, measured in N/kg. Kilojoule (kJ) 1000 joules.
from the
circuit. middle of the Earth at an equal distance Fossil fuel Fuel made and plants
Independent variable The variable
from both the North and South Poles. decayed remains of animals Gravitational potential energy (GPE) tbat y°u change, that causes changes in Kilometres per hour The unit of
Electric field A region around a that died millions of years ago. Fossil Energy stored in an object because of the dependent variable. speed, km/h.
charged object where other charged Equilibrium Balanced (as in a lever or fuels include coal, oil, and natural gas. its height above the ground.
objects feel a force. see-saw). Kilowatt 1000 watts.
Frequency The number of complete

253
ilossary

linetic energy Energy associated with Longitudinal Describes a wave in Massive (star) Having lots of mass Negatively charged Describes Normal (force) The force from a Oval window The membrane that
noving objects. which the vibrations are in the same (massive does not mean large). an object that has had electrons solid object that pushes at 90° to the connects the ossicles to the cochlea in
direction as the direction in which the Matter The scientific word for materials
transferred to it. surface. the ear.
linetic store The energy store wave moves.
issociated with moving objects. or objects which can be solid, liquid or Neptune A large outer planet made of North pole The pole of a magnet Oxide A compound made when an
Loudspeaker A device that changes an gas gas, eighth from the Sun. that points north. A north pole repels
Cuiper belt The region outside the element combines with oxygen.
electrical signal into a sound wave. Measuring cylinder A cylinder used to Neutral Describes an object that has another north pole.
iolar System where astronomers think Parallel circuit An electric circuit in
hat some comets come from. Lubrication Reducing friction between measure the volume of a liquid. no charge; its positive and negative Northern hemisphere The half of the which there are two or more paths for
surfaces when they rub together. charges cancel out. Earth between the Equator and the
.ast quarter The shape that we see Medium (sound/light) The material an electric current.
Luminous Describes something that that affects light or sound by slowing it Neutral point (magnetic field) A point North Pole.
vhen about half the Moon is lit, about a Partial eclipse Occurs when part of
veek after a full moon. gives out light. down or transferring the wave. where there is no force on a magnet or Nuclear fission The process of the light from the Sun is blocked by the
magnetic material because two or more splitting atoms that releases energy in a
.aterally inverted The type of reversal Lunar eclipse Occurs when the light Meniscus The curved upper surface of Moon or the Earth.
magnetic fields cancel out. nuclear power station
hat occurs with an image formed by a from the Sun is blocked by the Earth a liquid. Particles The tiny pieces of matter that
jlane mirror. because it is in a direct line between the Mercury The rocky inner planet
Neutralise To cancel out, when you Nuclear fusion The process of joining
add an equal amount of positive charge
everything is made from.
Earth and the Sun, and the Moon is in nearest the Sun. hydrogen together in the Sun and other
.aw of conservation of energy The shadow. to negative charge. stars that releases energy. Pascal The unit of pressure, symbol Pa,
I
aw that says that energy cannot Meteor A piece of rock or dust that equal to 1N/m2.
Magnet An object that attracts Neutron A tiny sub-atomic particle Nuclear store The energy store
oe created or destroyed but can be makes a streak of light in the night sky. Pendulum Any rigid body that swings
:ransferred. magnetic materials and repels other with no charge that is found in the associated with the process of nuclear
magnets. Meteorite A stony or metallic object nucleus of an atom. The relative mass of fusion. about a fixed point
Law of reflection The law that says that has fallen to Earth from outer space a neutron is 1.
[hat the angle of incidence is equal to Magnetic field An area around a Nucleus The central part of an atom, Penumbra The area of blurred or
without burning up. Neutron star A very small, massive fuzzy shadow around the edges of
the angle of reflection. magnet where there is a force on a made up of protons and neutrons.
magnetic material or another magnet. Metres per second The unit of speed, star. the umbra.
Lens A device made of shaped glass m/s. Object Something that can be seen or
New moon The shape that we see Period The time taken to complete one
which focuses light rays from objects to Magnetic field lines Imaginary lines touched.
that show the direction of the force on a Microphone A device for converting when the Moon is in between the Earth cycle of motion.
form an image. Observations The results of looking
magnetic material in the magnetic field, sound into an electrical signal. and the Sun. Periscope A tube with mirrors or
Lever A simple machine consisting of a carefully at something and noticing
Magnetic force The force between the Middle ear The eardrum and ossicles Newton the unit of force including properties or changes. prisms that enables you to see over
rigid bar supported at a point along its
poles of two magnets, or between a (small bones) that transfer vibrations weight, symbol N. objects.
length.
Life cycle (of a star) The process that
describes how a star is formed and what
magnet and a magnetic material such
as iron.
from the outer ear to the inner ear.
Milky Way The galaxy containing our
Sun and Solar System.
Newton’s first law of motion A law
that says that a resultant force is
needed to change the motion of an
Smedÿ
of prehistoric plants and animals that
tPheartÿtTyrmamgane?ictAPieCe0fmetal
will happen to it. Magnetic material A material that is died millions of years ago. It is used to Permanently extended The
attracted to a magnet, such as iron, Milliamp One thousandth of an amp. object. make fuels such as petrol/gasoline and irreversible extension of a spring when
Light A form of electromagnetic steel, nickel, or cobalt. diesel, and many plastics.
Newtonmeter A meter that is used to loaded beyond its elastic limit.
radiation that comes from sources like Minerals Chemicals in rocks.
the Sun, and transfers energy. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measure the magnitude of a force; also Oort cloud A cloud of comets and dust Petrol (gas or gasoline) A hydrocarbon
scanner A machine that uses strong Model Away of representing called a forcemeter or spring balance outside the Solar System. fuel (containing hydrogen and carbon)
Light source An object that emits magnetic fields to produce images of something that you cannot see or
Newtonmetre the unit of moment, that comes from crude oil.
visible light, also called a luminous the inside of the human body. experience directly. A model may be a Opaque Describes objects that absorb,
object. physical model built on a different scale symbol Nm. scatter, or reflect light and do not allow Phases of the Moon Parts of the Moon
Magnetised Made into a magnet. to the original system, or it may take the Nickel A metal that is magnetic. any light to pass through. that we see as it orbits the Earth.
Light year The distance light travels in
Magnetism The property of attracting form of equations. Night The period on one section of the Optic nerve A sensory nerve that runs Photosynthesis The process by which
one year.
or repelling magnets or magnetic Moment A measure of the ability of a Earth or other planet when it is facing from the eye to the brain. plants make their own food from
Light-emitting diode (LED) A low- materials.
energy lamp. force to rotate an object about a pivot. away from the Sun. Optical fibre A very fine tube of carbon dioxide and water, using light.
Main sequence star The longest stage Moon A rocky body orbiting Earth; it is Noise Any undesired or unwanted plastic or glass that uses total internal Pie chart A way of presenting data in
Lightning conductor A piece of metal of a star’s life cycle; the current stage of reflection to transmit light.
Earth>s only natural satellite. sound. which only one variable is a number.
connected to tall buildings to conduct ourSun.
lightningto the ground. Moons The natural satellites of planets. Non-contact force A magnetic, Orbit The path taken by one body in Pinna The outside part of the earthat
Mains supply Electricity generated in electrostatic, or gravitational force space around another (such as the we can see.
Line graph A way of presenting results power stations and available through Natural satellite A moon in orbit Earth around the Sun).
when there are two numerical variables. power sockets in buildings. around a planet. that acts without being in contact with Pitch A property of sound determined
something. Oscilloscope A device that enables you by its frequency.
Line of best fit A smooth line on a Neap tide The lower tide that occurs
Mars A rocky planet, the fourth from Non-luminous Describes objects that to see electrical signals that change,
graph that travels through or very close the Sun. when the Moon is not aligned at all with such as those made in a microphone.
Pivot A support on which a lever turns
produce no light; objects that are seen
to as many of the points plotted as the Sun. or oscillates.
possible. Mass The amount of matter in by reflected light. Ossicles The small bones of the middle
an °ÿect; The mass affects the Nebula A region of dust and gas where ear (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that Plane mirror A mirror with a flat
Liquid pressure The pressure produced acceleration stars are born. Non-renewable Describes energy reflective surface .
for a particular force. sources that will run out eventually transfer vibrations from the eardrum to
by collisions of particles in a liquid. Negative charge Describes the the oval window. Planet Any large body that orbits a star
Mass extinction event An event that (such as fossil fuels).
Load An external force that acts over a causes the extinction of a large number charge on an electron, or the charge Outer ear The pinna and auditory
in a solar system.
region of length, surface, or area. on an object that has had electrons Normal An imaginary line at right
of species over a relatively short angles to a surface where a light ray canal. Planetary nebula A cloud of dust and
Lodestone A naturally occurring (geological) timescale. transferred to it. gas from which planets are formed.
strikes it. Outer planets Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus,
magnetic rock. and Neptune.

254
Glossary Glossary

Reflects When a surface causes light or Rod A specialised cell in the retina that Solar System The Sun (our star) and
Plastic A type of material that can be anticlockwise moments about a fixed is sensitive to bright light.
Star A body in space that gives out its
point. sound to it bounce off it, it reflects it. the planets and other bodies in orbit own light. The Sun is a star.
stretched and does not return to its around lt There are other solar systems
original length. Reflected ray The ray that is reflected Satellite Any body that orbits another
Prism A triangular-shaped piece of (such as the Moon or a weather satellite in the Universe as well as our own.
Static (charge) Charge on an insulator
Pluto Used to be regarded as the ninth glass used to produce a spectrum of from a surface. that does not move.
around Earth). Solar wind The continuous flow of
and last planet from the Sun; now light. Reflection The change in direction of Steady speed A speed that doesn’t
Saturn A large outer planet made of charged particles from the Sun.
called a dwarf planet together with Probability (risk) The chance that a light ray or sound wave after it hits a change.
others of the same size that are beyond happen. surface and bounces off. gas, the sixth from the Sun. Solenoid Acoreofwireusedtomake
something will Steel An alloy of iron with carbon and
Pluto’s orbit. Scatter graph A graph that shows all an electromagnet.
_ . , .. Proportional A relationship in which Refraction The change in direction of other elements. Steel is a magnetic
a light ray as a result of its change in the values in a set of measurements.
°e!°r4.?
points ofthe n
Earth
*n°
T5t0U
connected by its axis
two variables increase atthe same rate,
forexampie when one is doubled the speed. Seasons Changes in the climate during
Sonar A system that uses ultrasound
detect underwater objects or to
material.
of tilt. determine the depth of the water. Stellar nurseries Regions of interstellar
other doubles too. Refractive index A measure of how the year as the Earth moves around its space containing dust and gas where
Poles, of magnet The opposite and with much light slows down when it goes orbit. Sound Vibrations of molecules
Proton A tiny sub-atomic particle stars form.
most strongly attractive parts of a a positive charge that is found in the from one medium to another. Secondary colours Colours that can produced by vibrating objects and
detected by your ear that transfers Designing the shape of
magnet. nucleus of an atom. The relative mass of Refrigerant A liquid used in a be obtained by mixing two primary an object so as to reduce resistance to
a proton is 1. colours. energy.
Positive charge Describes the charge refrigerator. motion from the air or a liquid.
on a proton, or the charge on an object proxima Centauri The nearest star to Secondary data Data collected by Sound-level meter A device for
Refrigerator a machine for keeping Stretch The extension when an elastic
that has had electrons transferred away ourSun. things cold using evaporation. other scientists and published. measuring the intensity (loudness) of a
from it. sound. material such as a spring is pulled
Pupil The hole in the front of your eye Relay An electrical device that allows Secondary source Sources of data outwards or downwards.
Potential difference Also known as where the light goes in. current flowing through it in one circuit collected by others that you use. Soundwave A series of compressions
voltage, a measure of the energy that and rarefactions that moves through a Sun The star at the centre of our Solar
Question In science, a problem to switch on and off a larger current in a Secondary sources (of energy) System.
each charge transfers. medium.
that is stated in a form that you can second circuit. Sources of energy that are produced
Potential energy Stored energy as a Source (of light/sound) Something Sunlight Light from the Sun.
investigate. Reliable Describes an investigation from primary sources, such as
result of a object’s change of position or in which very similar data would be electricity produced from coal, or that emits (gives out) light or Sunspots Dark spots on the surface of
change of shape. Rainbow An optical phenomenon sound. the Sun.
colours ofthe collected if it was repeated under the petrol/gasoline produced from crude
that appears as the oil.
Power The rate of transfer of energy, spectrum when falling water droplets same conditions. South pole The pole of a magnet that Supernova An exploding star.
measured in watts. are illuminated by sunlight. Renewable Describes energy resources Semicircular canals The part of the points south. A south pole attracts a
Supersonic Describes a speed that is
ear that helps you to balance. north pole.
Power station A place where fuel is Rarefaction The part of a sound wave that are constantly being replaced and faster than the speed of sound.
burned to produce electricity. where the air particles are most spread are not used up, such as falling water or Series circuit An electrical circuit in Southern hemisphere The half of the
Symbol A sign that represents
wind power. which the components are joined in a Earth between the Equator and the
Precision The number of decimal out. something (see also circuit symbols,
single loop. South Pole.
places given for a measurement. Ray diagram A model of what happens Repel To push away. and hazard symbols).
to light, shown by drawing selecting Shadow An area of darkness on a Spark A flash of light that you see when
Prediction A statement saying what Reservoir A large amount of water Tangent A straight line that touches a
rays. surface produced when an opaque the air conducts electricity.
you think will happen. behind a dam; it is used in hydroelectric curve or circle.
power. object blocks out light. Spectrum A band of colours produced
Preliminary work The work that you Reaction The force from a solid object Telescope A device made with lenses
that pushes at 90° to the surface. Shielding Putting something in when light is spread out by a prism.
do before or during the planning stage Resistance How difficult it is for that allows distant objects to be seen
of an investigation, to work out how to Reaction time In humans, the time the current to flow through a component in between a source and a receiver, for Speed The distance travelled in a given clearly.
do it. takes process information and a circuit. example, sound is shielded by ear time, usually measured in metres per
brain to Temperature A measure of how hot
in response to it. defenders. second, m/s.
Pressure The force applied by an act Resultant force The single force something is, which is related to the
object or fluid divided by the area of equivalent to two or more forces acting Signal (electrical) A current or voltage Speed of light The distance light average speed ofthe particles.
Real Describes an image that you can
surface over which it acts. on an object. that changes overtime. travels in one second (300 million m/s).
put on a screen, or the image formed in Tension A stretching force.
Pressure gauge An instrument for your eyes. Retina The layer of light-sensitive cells Significant figures The number of Speed-time graph A graph that shows
digits in a decimal number. Terminal (of a cell) The positive or
measuring pressure in a liquid or gas. Real depth The depth underwater that at the back ofthe eye. how the speed of an object varies with
time. negative end of a cell or battery.
Primary colours For light these are an object actually is. Retrograde motion The apparent Solar cells Devices that use light to
produce a voltage Terminal velocity The highest velocity
red, blue, and green. Receiver (sonar) A device that absorbs ‘backwards’ motion of planets due to Spring A metal wire wound into spirals
an object reaches when moving
Primary data Data collected directly sound waves. the motion ofthe Earth and the planet Solar eclipse Occurs when the Moon ™at can store e'astic potential energy.
through a gas or a liquid; it happens
by scientists during a particular around the Sun. blocks out the light from the Sun Spring balance A device for measuring when the drag force equals the forward
Red giant Part of the life cycle of a star
investigation. Reverberation The persistence of a because it is in a direct line between the forces; sometimes called a forcemeter or gravitational force.
like our Sun when it becomes much
and cooler. sound for a longer period than normal. Earth and the Sun, and part ofthe Earth or a newtonmeter.
Primary source Sources of data that bigger is in shadow. Thermal A rising current of heated air.
you have collected yourself. Red supergiant The next stage in the Risk The chance of injury from Spring tide The higher tide that occurs
Solar energy Energy from the Sun Thermal store The energy associated
Primary sources (of energy) Energy lifecycle of our Sun. a hazard. A combination ofthe when the Earth, Moon and Sun are
with objects or systems when there is a
probability that something will happen which can be used directly to heat water aligned.
sources from the environment or Reed switch A switch that uses a or to make electricity. change in temperature.
underground, such as coal, uranium, or magnet to work. and the consequence if it did. Stable Describes an object in
Solar panels Devices that use light and Thermal equilibrium The state of two
the wind. Risk assessment A statement of what equilibrium that cannot easily be
objects at the same temperature.
Refinery A place where crude oil is could cause injury or damage, and infrared radiation to heat water. toppled.
Principle of moments The law that refined and separated into fuels.
says that the sum of the clockwise the action to be taken to reduce the Thermal image An image made using
probability that it will happen. thermal or infrared radiation.
moments is equal to the sum of the

256
Glossary

Thermal imaging camera A device Turning force The moment of a force. Volume (of space) The amount of colour 144-147, 150-151
that forms an image using thermal
or infrared radiation so that different
Ultrasound Sound at a frequency
space that something takes up, which is
related to its mass by its density.
Index balanced forces 102-106, 114-115
balancing moments 114-115
colourblindness 151
greater than 20 000 Hz, beyond the comets 75, 77, 181-183
temperatures appear as different range of human hearing. Waning Describes the Moon that we barcharts 100 compact fluorescent lamps (CFL)
colours. see when the amount of the lit side is absorbed light 144-147, 151 batteries 60 228-229
Umbra The area of total shadow decreasing.
Thermometer A device used to behind an opaque object where no light acceleration 98-104 Bhaskaracharya 40 compasses 157, 184-185
measure temperature. has reached. Wasted energy Energy transferred accuracy 94-95, 192 Big Bang 232-233 components, electric circuits 60
Thought experiment The process of to non-useful forms; often energy addition biodegradable plastics 177
Unbalanced Describes forces on an transferred to the surroundings. compressed liquids 122-123
thinkingthrough what might happen in object that are unequal. colour 144 biodiesels 176 compression, sound 50
an experiment without actually doing it. Water (energy from) Using water to sound waves 216-217 bioethanols 176
Universe Everything that exists. conclusions 45, 111, 138, 147
Thrust The force from an engine or generate electricity from tides, water biofuels 166-167, 176-177
African astronomy 81 conduction/conductors 59, 61, 67,
rocket. Upright Describes an image that is the behind dams and waves.
right way up. air resistance 37,42-45 biogas 176 200-201, 204-205
Tidal energy/power Energy from the Water resistance The force on an Al-Biruni 81, 192-193 biomass 166-167, 176-177
Upthrust The force on an object in a object moving through water that cones, eyes 150-151
movement of water in tides which can alloys 154 bioplastics 176-177 consequences 215
be used to generate electricity. liquid or gas that pushes it up. causes it to slow down (also known as
drag). ammeters 62-63,248 black holes 180, 239 conservation of energy 198-199
Total eclipse Occurs when all of the Uranium A metal used in nuclear amperes (A) 62 body, energy stores/use 20-21, 33
power stations. Watts The unit of power, symbol W. constant acceleration 99
light from the Sun is blocked out by the amplifiers 211 Brahmagupta 81 constructive interference
Earth or the Moon. Uranus A large outer planet made of Wave A variation that transfers energy bright light 150
amplitude 210-211, 217 216-217
Total internal reflection The complete gas, the seventh from the Sun. or information.
analogy 233 contact forces 37, 42-45, 104-109,
reflection of light at a boundary Useful energy The energy that you Wave energy/power Using energy ancient ideas, Earth in space 80-83 calculations
between two media. from waves to generate electricity. 122, 190-191
want from a process.
angle of incidence 132-133, 136, moments 114-115 continuous variables 100-101
Transducer A device that changes an Vacuum A space that has no particles, Wavelength The distance between 138-139, 142 power 228-229
electrical signal into light or sound, or controlling variables 161
and so no matter. two identical points on the wave, such pressure 118-121
changes light or sound into an electrical angle of reflection 132-133 convection 202-205
Vaporized (meteor) What can happen
as two adjacent peaks or two adjacent
signal. troughs. angle of refraction 136, 138-139 resistance 224-225 convection currents 202-203
to a meteor or asteroid on collision, animal echolocation 55 speed 92-93
Transfer (of energy) Shifting energy Waxing Describes the Moon that we cooling by evaporation 206-207
when solid material is turned into dust. cameras 150-151
from one place to another. see when the amount of the lit side is animal hearing 213 Copernicus, Nicholas 84
Variable A quantity that can change, anomalous results 111, 227 cancelling out sound 216-217 cores, magnetism 158-161, 163
Translucent Describes objects that increasing.
such as time, temperature, length, or anticlockwise moments 114-115 capture theory 237
transmit light but diffuse (scatter) the mass. In an investigation you should Weight The force of the Earth on an critical angles 139
light as it passes through. change only one variable at a time to object due to its mass. apparent depth 136 categoric variables 100-101 current see electric circuits
see what effect it has. apparent weight 109 cells, electric circuits 60,63
Transmitted Light or other radiation White dwarf A small, very dense star;
passed through an object. part of the life cycle of our Su n. Archimedes’ principle 109 Celsius (°C) 196 damage, hearing 53,215
Venus A rocky inner planet, the second
from the Sun. area, pressure 118-125 centre of gravity 116-117 dangers of electricity 66-67
Transmitter A device that gives out Wind energy/power Energy from wind
Aristotle 82 centre of mass 116-117 data presentation 86-87, 100-101,
a signal, such as sound in a sonar Vibrate To move continuously and that can be used to generate electricity.
transmitter. rapidly to and fro. artificial satellites 75 centripetal force 46-47 110-111, 167
Wind farm A collection of wind Aryabhata 80 CFL see compact fluorescent lamps
Transparent describes objects that Vibration Motion to and fro of the parts turbines. day length 72-73
transmit light; you can see through asteroid belt 74, 76-77, 182, 234 charge, electricity 58-59, 62-67 day and night 70-73
of a liquid or solid. Wind turbine A turbine and generator
transparent objects. asteroids 74, 76-77, 181-183, charging/discharging 58-59 decelerating/deceleration 98-103
Virtual Describes an image that cannot that uses the energy of the wind to chemical stores 24-25,27
Transverse Describes a wave in which generate electricity.
234-237 decibels (dB) 214-215
be focused onto a screen.
the vibrations are at right angles to the astronomy 40, 74-77, 80-85, MO- circuit diagrams 60 deformation 32-33
Volt The unit of measurement of Year The length of time it takes for a
direction in which the wave moves. 141, 149, 180-182, 192, 232, circuits, electric 60-65,220-231 degrees Celsius (°C) 196
voltage, symbol V. planet to orbit the Sun.
235-238 circuit symbols 60,62,225
rr.-=r.s-*ss »™y,rei
to turn a generator.
atmosphere 74
atmospheric currents 203
circular motion 46-47
climate change 205
demagnetising 155
density 137, 190-193, 237
dependent variables 161
around a circuit; it is measured in volts.
Turning effect A force causing an atmospheric pressure 125 clockwise moments 114-115 depth 122-123, 136
object to turn. Voltmeter A device for measuring atoms 58-59, 232 coal 21, 166-167, 170-171
voltage. destructive interference 216-217
attraction 36, 58-59, 154-157, coal-fired power stations 170-171 detecting/detecto rs
162-163 cobalt 154-155 light 130-131
audible range 212-213 cochlea 52-53 sound 50,52-55
auditory canal 52 co-formation theory 237 diagrams
auroras 185 coils, magnetism 158-159, electric circuits 60
average speed 92-93, 97, 196, 168-169 energy transfers 26
206-207 cold 196-197 forces 36
axis, Earth 70-73, 86-87 collisions 234-237 diffuse reflections 135

258 259
idex Index

iffusion, forces 126-127 endoscopes 139 geocentric model 82-85 Indian astronomy 40, 80-81 longitudinal sound waves 51 moons 74-75
ischarging 58-59 end of the Universe 233 geothermal energy 166, 172-173 induced voltages 168-169 looped wires 158-159 motion, Earth in space 70-89
iscrete variables 100-101 energy 20-35, 166-179, 196-209 geothermal power 173 inertia 107 loudness 210-211, 214-217 moving charges 59
lispersion 142-143 energy balance 21 giant-impact hypothesis 236-237 infrared radiation 130-131, 204-205 loudspeakers 53 MRI see magnetic resonance imaging
lissipation 26-29, 32-33, energy transfer 24-33, 62-67, glass blocks 138-139 inner ear 52 lubrication 104-105
197-199, 211 200-207 global positioning system (GPS) 75 inner planets, solar system 76 luminous objects 130-131 neap tide 79
listance energy transfer diagrams 26 GPE see gravitational potential instantaneous speed 93 lunar eclipses 79 nebula 238-239
distance multipliers 113 EPE see elastic potential energy energy insulators 59, 61, 200-201 negative charge 58-59
distance-time graphs 96-97, equator 72 gradient 96-97 intensity, sound 214-215 magic rocks 154 net forces 103
99-101 equilibrium 114-115, 197 graphs 96-101, 110-111 interference 216-217 magnetic fields 155-163, 168-169, neutral charge 59
line graphs 100-101 evaporation/evaporative cooling gravitational fields 39 International Space Station 75 184-185, 237 neutralise, charge 59
speed of light 140-141 206-207 gravitational field strength 39 inverted images 134, 150-151 magnetic forces 36, 154, neutral point 156
lomains, magnetism 156 evidence 80-82, 227 gravitational forces 36,38-41,47 investigations 44-45, 226-227 156-157, 161 neutrons 58-59
irag 37 exojoules (EJ) 167 gravitational potential energy (GPE) ions 62 magnetic materials 36, neutron stars 239
irawing line graphs 100-101 expansion 196, 202-203, 232-233 28-29, 31-33 Irani, Ardeshir 144 154-159, 162 Newton, Isaac 41, 107, 143, 148-149
iwarf planets 74,76 explanations 80-81, 148-149 gravity 36, 38-41, 47, 116-117 iron 154-163 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) newtonmeters 37, 105, 108, 114-115
extension, forces 108-111 gravity stores 24, 28-29, 31-33 iron filings 156 scanners 163 newtons 37-38
;ar defenders 215 extinctions 234-235 Greek astronomy 82-83 Islamic astronomy 81 magnetising 155 nickel 154-155
;ardrum 52-53 eyes 150-151 greenhouse effect/gases 205 magnetism 154-165, 168-169, night and day 70-73
;ars 53, 212-215, 217 joules (J) 20 184-185, 237 night sky 70, 74-76, 142, 180-181,
;arth fair tests 22-23,44-45 handles/straps 121 magnets 154-155, 157, 184-185 232-233, 236-239
electric currents 66-67 falling objects 43 hearing 53,212-215,217 kilograms (kg) 38 magnitude, sound 217 noise 214-215
energy from 166, 172-173 filament light bulbs 228-229 heat 196-207 kilojoules (KJ) 20 mains supply 228-229 non-contact forces 36-41, 47, 58-59,
Earth’s axis 70-73, 86-87 filters 144-147 heat dissipation 197-199 kilometres per hour (km/h) 92 man-made objects in space 75 66, 154-157, 161
Earth’s magnetic field 184-185 first law of motion 107 heating 25, 196-197 kilowatts (kW) 228 mass 38, 116-117 non-luminous objects 130-131
Earth in space 70-89, 180-187, floating 37, 109, 122, 190-191 heat pumps 173 kinetic energy 28-29, 31-33 mass extinction event 235 non-renewable energy 21,
232-241 focused images, cameras 151 height, Sun in the sky 73 kinetic stores 24, 27-29, 31-33 massive stars 239 166-167, 170-177
scho/echolocation 54-55 food 21-25 heliocentric model 84-85 Kuiperbelt 180-181 materials normal, line of 132-133, 136, 138
sclipses 78-79 force arrows 36 hertz (Hz) units 212 energy 32-33 normal force 37
efficiency forcemeters 37 history, Earth in space 80-85 lamps 62-63 heating 196-197 northern hemisphere 73
energy 199 force multipliers 113 Hooke’s Law 108 laterally inverted images 134 matter 38 north pole 154-155, 157, 184-185
light bulbs 228-229 forces 36-49, 92-129, 190-195 horizontal lines 99 laws measurements nuclear fusion 25,238
effort, levers 112-113 formation hot and cold 196-197, 200-201 first law of motion 107 electric current 62-63, 221-223 nuclear store 25
elastic bands 108-109 fossil fuels 171 human ears 52-53,212-215,217 Hooke’s Law 108 forces 37-39, 94-95, 105, 123 nucleus 58-59
elastic limit 108, 110-111 Moon 236-237 Huygens, Christiaan 148-149 Law of Gravitation 41 light 132-133, 140-141
elastic materials 32-33, 108-109 solar system 77 hydroelectricity 174 law of reflection 132-135 time 94-95 objects, cameras 151
elastic potential energy (EPE) 32-33 fossil fuels 21, 166-167, 170-177 hypothesis 22-25, 30-31, 44-45, 138, LED see light-emitting diodes medicines, magnets 163 observation evidence 40-41, 148-
elastic store, energy 24, 32-33 Foucault, Leon 71 236-237 levers 112-115 medium 149, 156-157
electric bells 163 frequency 212-213, 217 life cycles of stars 238-239 light 130-137, 148 ohms 224-225
electric circuits 60-65,220-231 friction 37, 104-107 Ibn Al-Haytham 81 light 130-153 sound waves 51 oil 21, 166-167, 170-171, 176-177
electric current 25,62-67, fuels 21-25, 67, 166-167, 170-177 ice 190-191 light bulbs 228-229 metals 154-163,201 Oort cloud 180-181
220-231 fulcrum 112-113' images light-emitting diodes (LED) 228-229 meteors, meteorites and meteoroids opaque media 131
electricity 58-69, 166-177, fusion 25,238 magnetic resonance lightning 66-67 75, 181, 183, 234-235 optical fibres 139
222-231 imaging 163 lightning conductors 67 metre 140 orbits 46, 72-79, 82-86
electric shocks 66-67 galaxies 85, 141, 180-181, reflection 134-135, 150-151 light years 141 metres per second (m/s) 92 origins of the Universe 232-233
electric signals, sound waves 53 232-233 thermal images 196 line of best fit 110-111 microphones 52-53 Orion Nebula 239
electromagnetic spectrum 205 Galilei, Galileo 84-85, 94-95, 106- impacts 234-235 line graphs 100-101 Milky Way galaxy 141, 180-181,232 oscilloscopes 210-211
electromagnets 158-163, 169 107, 195 impact winter 235 liquids minerals 192-193 ossicles 52-53
electronics 67 gas, energy 166-167, 170-177 incidence, angle of 132-133, 136, conduction 201 mirrors 132-135 outer ear 52
electrons 58-59, 62-64 gases 124-127, 201 138-139, 142 diffusion 126-127 modelling 64-65, 80-85, 224-225 outer planets 76
electrostatic forces 36, 58-59, 66 gas pressure 124-125 incident rays 132-133, 136 pressure 122-123 moments 114-115 oval window 52-53
elements, magnetism 154-163 gemstones 192-193 incompressible liquids 122-123 loads 112-113 Moon 78-79,236-237 oxides 154
emitted light 130-131, 135, 140 generating electricity 166-177 independent variables 160-161 lodestones 154 moonlight 78

260
Index Index
233-237 sunspots 85 transfers, energy 24-33,200-207 data presentation 100-101
paint 146-147 real images 134
solar water heating 172-173 supernova 239 transmitted light 131, 139, electromagnets 160-161
parallel circuits 220-223 receivers 54
red giants 238-239 solar wind 185 switches 162-163 144-145 energy 22-23
partial eclipse 78
particles 122-123, 148-149 red supergiants 239 solenoids 158-159 transmitters 54 resistance of a wire 226-227
reed switches 160 sonar (sound navigation and ranging) tables, electromagnets 160-161 transparent media 131 velocity 99
particle theory 126-127 tangent 46
pascal (Pa) units 118-119 refineries 166 54 transverse waves 51 vibration 50-57
reflected rays 132-133 sound 50-57,210-219 telescope 84-85 travel virtual images 134
paying for electricity 229 temperature
pendulums 25,29-31,71 reflection sound-level meters 214-215 light 130-131, 135-143, 148 voltage 168-169, 222-223, 249
echoes 54-55 sound waves 50-51, 216-217 diffusion 127 soundwaves 50-51,216-217 volume 124-125
penumbra 78
light 132-136, 138-140, 142-143, sources, energy 21, 166-167, 170-177 Earth’s axis 73 turbines 170, 175 wasted energy 198-199
perforation 53
146-151 southern hemisphere 73 energy 23, 196-197, 200, 204-207 turning effect/forces 112-115 water
period 30
refraction 136-139, 142-143, 148-149 south pole 154-155, 157, gas pressure 124-125 tyres 121 energy 166-167, 170-175
periscopes 133
refractive index 137, 193 184-185 tension 37, 108-109 forces 190-191
permanent magnets 155, 159,
refrigerants 207 space terminals, electric circuits 60 ultrasound 54-55,213 water model 65
162-163, 169
refrigerators 207 centripetal force 46 terminal velocity 99 umbra 78 water resistance 37
phases, Moon 78-79
relays 160, 163 Earth in 70-89, 180-187, testable hypothesis 31 unbalanced forces 102-106 watts (W) 228
photovoltaic cells 172
renewable energy 166-167, 172-177 232-241 thermal energy 24, 33, 130-131, 166, units wavelength 210-211
pie charts 100
report writing 44-45, 138, 147 sparks and current 66-67 171-173, 196-207 electric current 62 wave power 174-175
pitch 212-213
repulsion 36, 58-59, 154-157 spectrum, light 142-143 thermal equilibrium 197 energy 20-21, 167 waves
pivots 112-113
reservoirs 174 speed thermal images 196 forces 37-38 light 148-149
plane mirrors 134-135
resistance 63,224-227 distance-time graphs 97 thermals 203 ohms 224-225 sound 50-51,216-217
planetary data 86-87
resultant forces 103 forces 42-43, 46-47, 92-93, thermal stores 24 power 228-229 weight 36, 38, 109, 118-119, 121-123
planetary nebula 238-239
results 110-111 96-107, 123, 126-127 thermometers 195-197 pressure 118-119 white dwarfs 238
planets 70-89
retrograde motion 82 of light 137-141 thought experiments 106-107 sound 212 white light 142-147, 193
plastics 108, 176-177
reverberation 54-55 line graphs 100-101 thrust 37, 108-109, 122, 191 speed 92 wind energy 166-167, 174-175
Plato 82
risk of sound 51,217 thunderstorms 66-67 Universe 80-85, 180-181, wind farms 175
plotting compasses 157
assessments 160-161 speed-time graphs 98-101 tidal power 175 232-233, 239 wind turbines 175
poles 72, 154-155, 157, 184-185
electricity 67 spinning earth 71 tides 79 upthrust 37, 108-109, 122, 191 wires
positive charge 58-59
sound 214-215 splitting light 142-143 tilt 72-73, 86-87 uranium 166-167 electromagnets 158-159
potential difference 222-223
rods, eyes 150 spring balance 37, 108, 110-111 time 94-101 useful energy 198-199 resistance 226-227
power 228-229
springs 108-111 timing gates 95 world’s energy needs 166-167
power stations 166, 168-177 rollercoasters 29
rope model 64, 224-225 springtide 79 total eclipse 78 vacuum 43,51,204-205
precision 94-95, 193
stability 116-117 total internal reflection 138-139 vaporised 234 year 72
predictions 138-139
sea breezes 203 stars 70-71, 74-75, 80-83, 130, 141, transducers 53 variables
pressure 118-125
pressure gauges 123 seasons 72-73,87 149, 180-183, 232,
primary colours 144-145 secondary colours 144-145 236-239
primary data sources 86-87, 167 secondary data sources static 59
primary energy sources 166-167 86-87, 167 steady speed 92, 96-97, 101-107 OXFORD should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at
the address above.
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Shutterstock; pl44(m): ponsulak/Shutterstock; pl45: Gino Santa Maria/ I would like to thank my editors for their support and feedback,
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Lambert Photography/Science Photo Library; pl49(b): nienora/Shutterstock; pl50: dance instructor, for providing continuing encouragement for my
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A

Cambridge Lower Secondary

Complete
Physics
Second Edition

Cambridge Lower Secondary Complete Physics ensures that learners

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Empowering every learner to succeed and progress

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