CHAPTER 1

Measurement

© 2013 Marshall Cavendish International (Singapore) Private Limited

Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 What is Physics?

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units
1.3 Measurement of Length
1.4 Measurement of Time
1.1 What is Physics?

Definition and Domain

• Physics is the study of matter and energy, and the
interaction between the two.
• The domain of Physics ranges from something as
large as the entire universe and planets, to something
as small as an atom and its constituents.

galaxy planet atom

1.1 What is Physics?
1.1 What is Physics?

Great Physicists

Galileo Galilei
(1564–1642) is René Descartes
known as the father (1596–1650) founded
of modern physics. geometry, the study of
He made valuable angles (an important
contributions to mathematical concept
astronomy. in physics).

Albert Einstein
(1879–1955) made
Sir Isaac Newton many discoveries. He
(1643–1727) is known won a Nobel prize for
as the father of classical his explanation of the
mechanics. He photoelectric effect.
discovered the laws of However, he is more
motion and gravity. famous for his theory
of special relativity.
Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 What is Physics?

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units
1.3 Measurement of Length
1.4 Measurement of Time
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Recall

Consider the following:

• 5 apples
• 10 kg of apples
• 50 cm3 of water displaced when some apples are
submerged in water

What do the different quantities and units tell us?

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

What is a Physical Quantity?

A physical quantity is a quantity that can be measured.

It consists of a numerical magnitude and a unit.

Examples

5 kg: __
5 is the numerical magnitude.
__ is the unit.
kg

10 cm: __ is the numerical magnitude.

10
__ is the unit.
cm
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

SI Units

• An SI unit is a unit of measurement in the

International System of Units.
• SI is short for “Système International” in French,
which means “International System” in English.
• The aim of this system is to promote common
understanding among scientists and merchants
around the world.
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Base Quantities/Units

• Base quantities are a set of independent

physical quantities.
• All other physical quantities will be derived by the
multiplication or division of two or more base
quantities.
• The SI units of the base quantities are called
base units.
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Base Quantities/Units

(Note: The candela is not mentioned in the syllabus.)

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Derived Quantities
• A derived quantity is given by the multiplication or
division of two or more base quantities.
• The unit of a derived quantity is given by the similar
multiplication or division of the corresponding base units.
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Derived Quantities

Example 1 Example 2
distance travelled
• Area is obtained by the • Speed =
time taken
multiplication of two lengths.

• So, area is a derived quantity. • So, speed is a derived quantity.

• The SI unit of area is: • The SI unit of speed is:

metre × metre = the square metre ÷ second i.e. the metre per
metre, symbolised by m2. second, symbolised by m s−1.
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Multiples and Submultiples

The magnitudes of physical quantities can range from
very big to very small.

Examples
The width of a hair is between 0.00002 m and 0.0002 m.
The mass of a large truck can be 5 000 000 g.

Writing many zeros:

(a)is inconvenient;
(b)carries a greater risk of miscounting the number of
zeroes.

So, prefixes are used to denote multiples or submultiples

of an SI unit.
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Common Prefixes
Some common prefixes are listed in the table below.
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Use of Prefixes
Examples
Express the following using the appropriate prefixes.
(a)5000 g = 5 × 103 g = 5 kg (since 103 ~ kilo)
(b)0.001 s = 1 × 10−3 s = 1 ms (since 10−3 ~ milli)

Try the following.

106 B = 3 __B
(a)3 000 000 B = 3 × ___ M

10−9 s = 19 __s
(a)0.000 000 019 s = 19 × ___ n

10−6 J = _________
(e) 15 µJ = 15 × ____ 0.000 015 J

109 m = ____________
(f) 6 Gm = 6 × ___ 6 000 000 000 m
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Worked Example
Express 30 km h−1 in SI units.

Solution
The SI unit of speed is m s−1.
Recall that 1 km = 1 000 m and 1 h = 60 × 60 s.
1 km
−1
1 km h = 1 h

1000 m
=
60 × 60 s
1000 m
Therefore, 30 km h−1 30 ×
= ___
60 × 60 s
≈ 8.3 m s−1
________
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Worked Example

Express (a) 50 cm3 in m3; (b) 50 m3 in cm3. Write your

answer in standard form.
Solution
(a) 1 cm3 = 1 cm × 1 cm × 1 cm
1
1 cm = m
100
1 1 1
m m m
3
1 cm = ______ 100 × ______
100 × ______
100
1
m3
= ______ 106
1
m3
5 × 10−5 m3
106 = ___________
So, 50 cm3 = 50 × ______
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Solution (continued)
1 m × ____
(b) 1 m3 = ____ 1 m × ____
1m
1 m = 100 cm
100 cm × _______
1 m3 = _______ 100 cm × _______
100 cm

6 cm3
= 10
______

cm3
50 × 106 ____
So, 50 m3 = ___
7
= 5 × 10__ cm3
1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units

Question

The human hair is about

20 μm in diameter.

What is the standard form

of the radius in its SI unit?

10 μm
radius
20 μm
diameter
Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 What is Physics?

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units
1.3 Measurement of Length
1.4 Measurement of Time
1.3 Measurement of Length

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
• show an understanding of how the sizes of objects,
such as an atom and the Earth, can range in orders of
magnitude;
• describe how to measure a variety of lengths using the
appropriate instruments (e.g. tape measure, metre rule,
vernier calipers, micrometer screw gauge).
1.3 Measurement of Length

Recall

Length is one of the seven base quantities.

What are the sizes of

What do we use to common objects?
measure different
lengths?
1.3 Measurement of Length

Orders of Magnitude of Sizes

1.3 Measurement of Length

Orders of Magnitude of Sizes

1.3 Measurement of Length

IT Activity
Objective
To see animated pictures of common biological and
technological objects microscopically
Instructions

1. Click to take a trip into the nano-world. Welcome aboard!

http://www.nanoreisen.de/english/index.html
URL

2. At every stage, click on the expanding rectangle to

magnify the spot and take a closer look at the
structures in each new unexplored territory.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Measuring Instruments
Instrument Suitable magnitude of
measurement
Tape measure A few metres
e.g. dimension of a room

Metre rule Several centimetres

e.g. width of a tabletop

Vernier calipers A few centimetres

e.g. thickness of a laptop

Micrometer screw gauge A few millimetres

e.g. thickness of a coin
1.3
1.3Measurement
MeasurementofofLength
Length

Precision of an Instrument
The precision of an instrument is the smallest unit that
the instrument can measure.

For example, consider a metre rule.

1 mm 1 cm

The smallest difference in measurement made by the

metre rule is 0.1 cm or 1 mm.
Hence, the precision of the metre rule is 0.1 cm.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Measuring Accurately with the Metre Rule

• Avoid parallax errors: Position your eyes such that
your line of sight is perpendicular to the rule.

cm 1 2 3 cm 1 2 3

No parallax errors Inaccurate measurement due

to parallax errors
1.3 Measurement of Length

Measuring Accurately with the Metre Rule

• Reduce random error: Repeat the measurement
and take the average value of the measurements.
• Correct any zero error: The 0 cm mark on the ruler
may not be exactly at the end of the ruler.
• Avoid using the zero mark as a start point to take
measurements. This is because wear and tear may
make it unsuitable for measuring purposes.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Tape
Measure

Precision: 0.1 cm or 1 mm
Use: Measuring a length of several metres and measuring
the length of a curve.
Reasons for use: It has a range of a few metres and it is
flexible.
Precaution: Ensure that the tape is not slack or twisted.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Vernier Calipers — The Parts and Their Functions

1.3 Measurement of Length

How to Use Vernier

Calipers
1.3 Measurement of Length

Question
What is the precision of a pair of vernier calipers?

3.14 cm
3.1 cm
cm
main scale

vernier scale

4
1.3 Measurement of Length

Vernier Calipers — Accuracy and Zero Error

For the reading to be accurate, there should be no zero

error i.e. the two zero marks on the main scale
and the vernier scale must form a straight line, as
shown in the diagram below, when the jaws are
completely closed.

The two zero

marks coincide
— no zero error
1.3 Measurement of Length

Vernier Calipers — Correcting Zero Errors

Should a zero error exist,
Corrected reading =
correcting the error gives the observed reading − zero error
accurate corrected reading.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Question
What are the zero errors for these vernier calipers?

1. 2.
cm 1 2
cm 1 2
1.3 Measurement of Length

IT Activity (Group)
Objective
To improve your competency in reading the vernier calipers.
Instructions

1. In groups, go to
http://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/en-vernier-caliper-
URL
pachymeter-calliper-simulator-inch.html
2. Click and drag to part the jaws a certain distance apart.
3.Determine the reading before checking against the given
answer.
4. Repeat for five or more different readings.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Worked Example
Determine the length of the object.

cm 1 2 cm 1 2

Solution
Zero error = −0.01 cm Corrected reading
Observed reading = 1.14 cm = observed reading − zero error
= 1.14 cm − (−0.01 cm)
= 1.14 cm + 0.01 cm
= 1.15 cm
1.3 Measurement of Length

Micrometer Screw Gauge

Precision: ±0.001 cm
Use: Measures very short lengths such as the
diameters of wires or ball bearings
Reason for use: Provides a precision of ±0.001 cm for
small measurements that fall within a suitable range
1.3 Measurement of Length

Micrometer Screw Gauge

The following diagram shows the labelled parts of a
micrometer screw gauge.

lock
lever
1.3 Measurement of Length

How to Use the Micrometer Screw Gauge

Turn the thimble until the anvil
and spindle touch the object. Main scale reading
Turn the ratchet until it clicks. = 8.5 mm

Thimble
scale
reading
= 0.40 mm

Diameter = main scale reading + thimble scale reading

= 8.5 mm + 0.40 mm
= 8.90 mm
1.3 Measurement of Length

Question
What is the precision of the micrometer screw gauge?

8.90 mm
1.3 Measurement of Length

Micrometer Screw Gauge — Zero Error

When the anvil touches the spindle as shown below,
anvil spindle

5
0

45

the reading should be 0.00 mm. Otherwise, the

micrometer screw gauge has zero error.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Micrometer Screw Gauge

— Correcting Zero Errors
1.3 Measurement of Length

Worked Example
The diameter of a wire is measured using a micrometer
screw gauge. A student takes an initial zero reading and
then a reading of the diameter. What is the corrected
diameter of the wire in mm?

Initial zero reading Reading of diameter

Solution
Zero error = −0.06 mm
Reading = 5.0 mm + 0.47 mm = 5.47 mm
Actual length = 5.47 – (−0.06) = 5.53 mm
1.3 Measurement of Length

IT Activity (Pair)
Objective
Additional practice of the micrometer screw gauge

Instructions
1.In pairs, go to
http://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/aka-micrometer-caliper-
URL
outside-inch-thousandths.html
2. Take turns to use the applet on the website to set a
random spindle−anvil gap width. Hide the reading and
let your partner read the micrometer screw gauge.
3. Repeat step 2 until both of you have each read at
least five readings correctly.
1.3 Measurement of Length

Question
The diagram on the left shows a micrometer screw
gauge when the jaws are closed. The diagram on the
right shows the reading when an object is placed
between the jaws. Determine the correct reading.

mm
1.3 Measurement of Length

Question
The external diameter of a cylinder is measured using
vernier calipers. Assuming there is no zero error,
(a)what is the radius of the cylinder?
(b)state another precaution you can take to minimise
other errors.

mm
 1.3 Measurement of Length

Worked Example
Prove that the precision of a pair of vernier calipers is 0.01 cm.
Solution
cm
0.1 cm
main scale

vernier scale
0.09 cm
1 2 3 4 6 7 8 9
0 5 10
0.01 cm
• Each division on the main and vernier scales is 0.1 cm and 0.09 cm
respectively, giving a difference of 0.01 cm.
• As the movable jaw slides, the vernier scale reading changes by a
minimum of one division, which results in the reading changing by a
minimum absolute value of 0.01 cm.
Chapter 1 Measurement

1.1 What is Physics?

1.2 Physical Quantities and SI Units
1.3 Measurement of Length
1.4 Measurement of Time
1.4 Measurement of Time

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section, you should be able to:
• describe how to measure a short period of time with
appropriate accuracy, using appropriate instruments.
1.4 Measurement of Time

How do We Tell Time?

• We can tell time by observing events that repeat at
regular intervals or periods.
1.4 Measurement of Time

How do We Tell Time?

• The SI unit for measuring time is the second (s).
• A more precise way to measure a fixed interval of time
is to use a pendulum.

• Each complete to-and-fro motion is one oscillation.

• The time for one complete oscillation is known as the
period.
• The period is dependent on the length of the
pendulum.
1.4 Measurement of Time

What do We Use to Measure Time?

• Pendulums, stopwatches and clocks are used to
measure time intervals using periodic motion.
• The accuracy of an electronic stopwatch is 0.01 s.
• Due to human reaction time, the time measured using a
stopwatch usually has an error of about 0.3 s to 0.5 s.
• How can this error be minimised?
1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum

• How can a pendulum be
used to tell time?
• As the time taken to
complete one swing is fixed,
by determining the number
of swings, a time interval
can be determined.
• First, we need to calibrate a
pendulum.
1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum

• Record the time taken by the pendulum to make
20 oscillations.
• Repeat the above step and find the average time
taken for 20 oscillations.
• Repeat for different lengths of the pendulum.
• Find the average time T taken for one oscillation.
1.4 Measurement of Time

Calibrating a Simple Pendulum

• Record your data in a table.
Time for 20 oscillations tave÷ 20
Length/m T2/s2
t1/s t2/s tave/s T/s

• Plot a graph of T2 against the length l of the pendulum.