Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015

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Journal of Cleaner Production

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jclepro

The vulnerability of women to climate change in coastal regions of

Nigeria: A case of the Ilaje community in Ondo State
Adenike A. Akinsemolu a, b, *, Obafemi A.P. Olukoya a, c
a
The Green Institute, Ondo, Ondo State, Nigeria
b
Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria
c
Faculty of Architecture, Urban Planning and Civil Engineering, Brandenburg Technical University, Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Values, patriarchal norms, and traditions related to gender and gendering are diverse among societies,
Received 2 March 2019 communities, and precincts. As such, although climate change is expected to exacerbate vulnerabilities
Received in revised form and deepen existing gender inequities and inequalities, the impacts will be unequally felt across
12 September 2019
geographical strata. This implies that the specificity of the vulnerability of women to climate change may
Accepted 22 October 2019
Available online 23 October 2019
also vary from community to community and society to societies. However, mainstream literature on the
vulnerability of women to climate changes in coastal zones trivializes the plurality and nuances of
Handling editor: Yutao Wang different geographical contexts by universalizing context-specific vulnerability to climate change.
Mindful of the limitations associated with the generalizing conception of women’s vulnerability, this
Keywords: paper is therefore underpinned by the implicit assumption that a successful response to the vulnerability
Women of women to climate change in coastal zone is forged in the nexus between contextual investigation of
Vulnerability climate change parameters and a localized investigation of differentiation in gender roles, patriarchal
Coastal region norms and other unknown factors in a particular setting. Thus, this paper presents a case study of the
Climate change
contextual vulnerability of women to climate change in Ilaje coastal region in Nigeria. Examining the
Ilaje
intersecting complex of contextual factors, the paper establishes that beyond patriarchal traditions and
Nigeria
norms: economic, political, educational and environmental factors are at play in the vulnerability of
women to climate change in Ilaje community. To this end, this paper posits that to alleviate the
vulnerability of women to climate change in coastal zones, the understanding of contextual factors play a
fundamental role.
© 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction mainstream women participation into mitigation and adaptation

processes. As such, a plethora of research perspectives has posi-
Gender equality and its mainstreaming within all policies and tioned women as the most vulnerable to the ravaging impacts of
programs is one of the fundamental aims of the United Nations climate change. The vulnerability of women is argued to be due to
(Roehr, 2007). Goal 5 of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs) their multi-dimensional role in the society which places them in a
demonstrates this aim within the international agenda for sus- position of first-hand contact to environmental resources (Manata
tainable development (United Nations UN, 2019). Gender equality and Papazu, 2009; Sultana, 2014; Arora-Jonsson, 2011; Yadav and
remains an active ingredient for achieving the SDGs, and it plays an Lal, 2018; UNDP, 2009; Glazebrook, 2011; Boetto and McKinnon,
irreducible role in fostering prosperous, peaceful and sustainable 2013). In this regard, literature concerning the discourse of
societies and the world at large (Monday et al., 2018). The urgency climate change gendering has operated under the universalization
of climate change, however, has drawn significant attention to the of the vulnerability of women while undermining the nuances
vulnerability of women to the widespread impacts and how to presented by the differences in cultural tradition, political and
economic situations in various contexts, especially in developing
countries. The continued devotion to the idea of generalizing
* Corresponding author. The Green Institute, Itanla, Akure Road, Ondo, Ondo context-specific vulnerability has perhaps contributed to the lack of
State, Nigeria. adequate response to the vulnerability of women to climate change,
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A.A. Akinsemolu),
[email protected] (O.A.P. Olukoya).
especially in developing countries. The reductionist approach has

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2 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015

also limited the understanding of gendering to a partial one. on agricultural production, food insecurity, human health, and
Against this background, this paper argues that gender roles, migration patterns (Arora-Jonsson, 2011; Glazebrook, 2011). The
norms, and vulnerability have to be analyzed from a contextualized prevailing impacts, however, disproportionately affects women
perspective. Societal role of women and their contact with the more and exacerbate the inequalities between genders (Manata
environment varies from community to community, region to re- and Papazu, 2009; Arora-Jonsson, 2011). In many of these in-
gion and country to country and therefore, the specificity of stances, women are more susceptible to climate change impacts
vulnerability may differ from community to community (Arora- compared to men (Arora-Jonsson, 2011). Glazebrook (2011) argues
Jonsson, 2011). The intangible cultural heritage, which among that they are more vulnerable because they make up a more sig-
others, determines the roles and perception of women varies from nificant proportion of the world’s poor. The poor are vulnerable
community to community; thus, gender conceptions is equally because of the inability to adapt to climate change (Arora-Jonsson,
diverse (UNESCO, 2015). Also, more importantly, the impacts of 2011). Manata and Papazu (2009); Easterling (2000) and Wisner
climate change have unequal effects in different societies, et al. (2004) also argued that the vulnerability of women is
depending on e among others e the economic, political, and social driven by the differentiation in the division of labor social re-
structure of the society. Despite this awareness, however, only very sponsibilities among the sexes, which they assume, exacerbate the
scant studies are available, which illustrates the correlations be- burden of natural resource management on the women and makes
tween contextual factors and the vulnerability of women to climate women evoke their adaptive capabilities more than men. World
change, especially in coastal regions of developing countries. Thus, Health Organization (WHO, 2010) also explained that given the
this present paper argues that there is a need to contextualize the difference in social responsibilities, and the expected role of men as
debates concerning the discourse of climate change and the economic providers for their families, men are usually confronted
vulnerability of women to the prevailing impact through a case with extra burdens in the aftermath of such events.
study approach. Aside the impact the differences in roles and activities men and
Mindful of the limitations of the existing approach to women women play in their vulnerabilities, Terry (2009) and Neumayer
vulnerability and gender equality in this context of climate change, and Plumper (2007) suggest that women are generally more
this study aims to investigate the vulnerability of women to climate vulnerable to health implication of climate change due to social
change in coastal regions of Nigeria. Underpinning the paper is the inequalities between genders. Neumayer and Plumper (2007)
implicit assumption that a successful response to the vulnerability argued that the main health impacts are Sexual and Gender-
of women to climate change in the coastal zone is forged in the Based Violence (SGBV) and trauma. The higher incidences of
nexus between the contextual investigation of climate change im- SGBV may increase the number of deaths and diseases among
pacts and the localized discourse of gender roles, values, and norms women. Furthermore, recurrent and costly disasters related to
in a particular setting. To empirically locate the aim of the study, climate change can affect the social and health determinants of
this paper discusses the underlining aim in relation to Ilaje com- wellbeing (Nishat and Rahman, 2017). For example, cyclones and
munity of Nigeria as a case study. Through an ethnographic floods could damage the critical infrastructure, including health
methodological approach and by drawing on a critical review of and learning institutions. Due to the destruction, girls have more
existing professional perspectives, the paper investigates and an- likelihood to drop out of school to assist in domestic chores as the
alyses the multidimensional contextual factors at play in the family tries to deal with the disaster than boys (Nishat and Rahman,
vulnerability of women to climate change in this coastal region. 2017). Neumayer and Plümper (2007) argue that damaged infra-
To structure the argumentations in the research, this paper is structure also impedes access to health resources. Pregnant
organized into seven main sections. Following this present section women, for example, could be at a higher risk, thus leading to a rise
is the second section which presents a brief review of the existing in maternal death.
perspectives on the discourse of climate change, women, and Moreover, Ishaya and Abaje (2008) explained that rising sea
vulnerability. The section aims at presenting state of the art and the levels and salinization could also affect the health and mortality
research lacuna which encouraged this research. Section three rate of women. With women usually responsible for collecting
presents the framing of Ilaje and its geographical contexts as a water, inadequate availability of clean water implies that women
coastal zone. Section four presents the methodology. Section five is will take more time fetching water for their families. In the same
the presentation of the data gathered through the methods vein, Sultana (2014) also explained that the gender implication of
described in the previous section. In this section, the various climate change in South Asia is particularly distressing, due to the
contextual factors affecting the vulnerability of women to the im- patriarchal traditions and norms which often dictate the societal
pacts of climate change in the coastal region are presented. This is roles of men and women in a manner that fosters inequities, in-
followed by section six, which is the discussion of the data pre- equalities and differentiates the associations with the immediate
sented in section five. Also, section six presents the potential environment. Furthermore, Yadav and Lal (2018) buttressed this
contribution of women to climate change mitigation and adaption assertion by opining that women are also vulnerable because they
and the strategies to mainstream these potentials in this commu- rely on natural resources threatened by disastrous impacts of
nity. This is followed by recommendations based on the study of climate change and they also experience socio-economic and po-
the factors affecting gender vulnerability. Lastly, this paper con- litical impediments that limit their ability to withstand climatic
cludes by arguing that contextual analysis of local factors plays a change. Therefore, due to this disadvantaged position of women,
fundamental role in positing a holistic framework for gendering climate policies should not be gender-neutral (Lambrou and Piana,
climate change issues in coastal regions both in developed and 2006).
developing countries. Despite the disadvantaged position of women in the climate
change discourse, their involvements in climate discourse in the
2. Climate change and the vulnerability of women: a review developing world demonstrate a position of oppression and
discrimination. For example, in Sub-Saharan Africa, women spend
Climate change has grown to become a challenge of global “40 billion hours per year collecting water, two to 9 h per day col-
concern due to the disastrous effects that it poses to society. Today, lecting firewood which is equivalent to a year worth of labor by the
some of these effects have become common. Many world areas are entire workforce of France” (Lenton et al., 2005 cited in UNDP,
already witnessing these adverse effects, which includes impacts 2009: 32). It is envisaged that by 2025 two-thirds of the global
 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015 3

population will experience a shortage of water shortage and an is among the coastal regions that are vulnerable to the vagaries of
estimated one billion people will have restricted access to clean climate change. These subsequent sections seek to provide a
water (Brody et al., 2008: 5). This implies that the envisaged flood detailed exploration of the vulnerability of women to climate
will increase the distance women and girls have to walk to reach change in this specific case and highlighting the ways that localized
water, thereby increasing their vulnerability to several vices like insights can better inform policies on mitigation and adaptation.
rape and a rise in water-borne illnesses (Manata and Papazu, 2009).
Also, the challenge of finding firewood could lead to deforestation 3. Setting the context: introduction to Ilaje Community
and pollution in homes which may pose severe health hazards to
women (UNDP, 2009: 32). Ilaje is a Local Government Area in Ondo State, Nigeria. It oc-
Thus, in developing countries, especially in the coastal regions, cupies a lowland or coastal area. It has an area of 1,318 km2 and a
due to the geographical location and the social and economic ca- population of 336,740 at the 2011 census (City Population, 2015)
pabilities, women are more vulnerable to widespread impacts than with latitude 5
500 N e 6
090 N and longitude 4
450 E e 5
050 E). It
the developed world (Manata and Papazu, 2009). Women in coastal is bounded on the south by the Atlantic Ocean (see Fig. 1). As such,
and rural areas in developing states are particularly vulnerable in the extreme south of the communities, the undulating lowland
because they are highly reliant on the coastal natural resources to surface is covered by silt, mud and superficial sedimentary
sustain their livelihoods (Boetto and McKinnon, 2013). Manata and deposits.
Papazu (2009) also opined that however, women of the third world Generally, coastal areas are essential ecosystems for the suste-
are equipped with an untapped potential which is key to sustain- nance of livelihoods (Danladi et al., 2017). Being a coastal area (see
able development and mitigation processes. At this point, it is Fig. 2 and 3), fishing is the principal occupation of the Ilajes and the
imperative to mention that the literature overview in this section is easy access to the sea enhances this. Boat making craft and main-
not exhaustive; such would take a book-length treatment. Instead, stream agriculture is also another means of subsistence in Ilaje
the paper presents an appraisal of papers necessary to buttress the communities. Concerning the sociocultural aspect of Ilaje, the
underlying assumptions of this paper. intangible heritage, which determines the patriarchal norms and
However, the appraisal of the growing body of research con- traditions related to gender in the community is still resilient today,
cerning women vulnerability in developing countries demonstrates and it is strictly observed (Danladi et al., 2017). Consequently,
comparatively low attention has been drawn to the importance of women still adhere to their traditional roles as caregivers and
contextual factors which may or may not induce the vulnerability mothers. Ilaje men can migrate to find economic opportunities, but
of women in different local contexts. A considerable number of women often remain at home to take care of children and other
literature have been driven on the umbrella assumptions that family members. Ilaje women often have the responsibility of
women are vulnerable in all contexts, irrespective of socio-cultural, ensuring that food, fuel, and water are available. During drought
economic or political dynamics and nuances (Lambrou and Piana, and low rainfall, Ilaje girls and women have to walk long distances
2006; Tirado et al., 2011; Enarson et al., 2007; Bradshaw and and take more time collecting fuel and clean drinking water. Ilaje
Fordham, 2015; Ba €thge, 2010; Brody et al., 2008; Goh, 2012; girls may also be compelled to drop from school to assist their
Otzelberger, 2011; Schipper and Langston, 2014; Skinner, 2011; mothers with such tasks (see Fig. 6).
Nelson, 2011; World Health Organization, 2014 to mention a few).
For example, Alam et al. (2015) generalized by stating that “[…] 4. Methodology
women e who constitute half the world’s population e bear severe
gendered impacts of climate change” (2015, p. 11). In the same vein, A qualitative research approach has been adopted given the
World Health Organization (WHO, 2010) universalized the qualitative nature of the research aim which is to investigate the
vulnerability of women by explaining that “Globally, natural di- contextual socio-cultural factors affecting the vulnerability of
sasters such as droughts, floods, and storms kill more women than women to climate change in the coastal villages in Ilaje Local
men, and tend to kill women at a younger age” (2010, p. 3). Affir- Government area in Ondo State. The background awareness of the
matively, Onwutuebe (2019) also explained that “patriarchy paves qualitative nature of the research goal made it obligatory to adopt
way for high rate of exposure of women to adverse impacts of climate methods that permitted access to a diverse range of data sources so
change. Patriarchy equips men with stronger adaptive capability, that the gathered data is verifiable for positioning them as
especially in the area of vocational flexibility and mobility” (2019, p.1)
by drawing on a vast generalization of Nigeria as a whole. These
example of studies operated on the assumption that women are
vulnerable in all respects without paying attention to the particu-
larity that several communities might bring in the context of
vulnerability. However, a few case study research exists which ar-
gues the importance of contextual differences in the discourse of
gender, vulnerability and climate change (Dankelman et al., 2008;
Arora-Jonsson, 2011; David and Enarson, 2012; Sultana, 2014;
LDC Expert Group, 2015; Bryant and Garnham, 2015; Yadav and Lal,
2018). Thus, this paper argues that, although explicitly, climate
change is expected to change vulnerabilities and marginalization of
women, its impacts will be unequally distributed across societal
strata due to the social difference, the plurality of traditional norms
and values, especially along with gender roles. As such, gender is-
sues must be understood in contexts and specificities (Arora-
Jonsson, 2011), the generalization of vulnerability will amount to
a partial view of such a holistic and multifaceted concept like
gender. Against this background, the next sections present the case
study of the Ilaje community found in Ondo State of Nigeria, which Fig. 1. Map showing the location of Ilaje district in Ondo State, Nigeria.
4 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015

participant observation method was used to gather qualitative data

regarding contextual factors affecting the vulnerability of women
in these villages.

4.1.2. Transect walks

A transect walk method is generally applied to record the
tangible and intangible elements which the community consultant/
participant describes and comments upon during a guided walk of
the site (Low, 2002). The transect walk was conducted with two
community members in each of the ten villages to inquire about the
unknown from an indigenous point of view. This allows the com-
munity members to comment on community values that are
important in the context of the oral history of women and their
associated vulnerability.
Fig. 2. Typical Vista of Ilaje communities along the Atlantic Ocean (Authors, fieldwork,
2017). 4.1.3. Interviews
The semi-structure interview in this study consisted of flexible
questions with each addressing questions of research concern
related to achieving the research aim. The interviews were devel-
oped using open-ended questions, aiming to find explanations for
the following:

⁃ Means of subsistence in the Ilaje villages

⁃ Role of women in the community as regards subsistence
⁃ The intangible heritage as regards to patriarchal norms associ-
ated with women and family hierarchy
⁃ Political, institutional, and economic factors as regards women
in the coastal communities.

The ensuring discourses generated were accompanied by a text

synopsis of the interpretation deduced from the interview. The
choice of interviewees was selected with the snowball method,
Fig. 3. Sea levels in the Atlantic Ocean along Ilaje (Authors, fieldwork, 2017).
interview schedule, and the determined number of interviews. The
interview subcategories are stratified with regards to the position,
qualitative evidence. Thus, first, a literature review was conducted, roles, gender, experience, and level of education of participants in
which was followed by fieldwork that included physical observa- certain cases. A total number of 85 people were interviewed for the
tions in selected coastal villages in Ilaje and semi-structured in- research. This comprises of people representing various back-
terviews with the inhabitants of the villages. Elaborations on the grounds including, local heritage experts, traditional chiefs, and
various methods are described as follows; related stakeholders such as neighborhood association presidents,
teachers, or principals in local schools and pastors. It also comprises
of both males (50) and females (35), allowing mixed-gender per-
4.1. Field research
spectives and encouraging the diversity of opinion in the discus-
sion. The names of the interviewees remain anonymous
The field research allowed for the application of every other
throughout the paper.
method, including transect walks, participant observation, and
semi-structured interviews. A total of ten communities namely;
5. Results and analysis
Igbokoda, Mahin, Ugbo-Nla, Idi-Ogba, Ayetoro, Ilowo, Obenla, Odo-
Nla Ikuyinminu, and Awoye were iteratively visited, and the various
5.1. Climate change and Ilaje coastal communities
methods were applied to gather the intended data. The selected
sites are the representative coastal villages in Ilaje with flood risk,
From the participant observation conducted and the literature
and other climate change associated risks which can induce
review, it is evident that the different Ilaje communities are
vulnerability of women in the region. The field survey was
vulnerable to extreme weather events, including floods, drought
accompanied by tools such as a camera for photographic docu-
and rise in sea levels which owe its cause to a complex of factors
mentation, writing tools, and diaries. The method applied for data
among which anthropogenic activities is paramount (see Fig. 4). Its
collection through the field survey are as follows;
setting, especially the elevation and proximity to the Indian Ocean,
makes its population vulnerable to climate change as demonstrated
4.1.1. Participant observation by Danladi et al. (2017). This is also in congruence with Danladi
Walliman (2016) suggests that the participant observation et al. (2017) who suggested that the changes in anthropogenic ac-
method involves recording conditions, events, and activities by tivities witnessed in Nigerian coastal areas during the last 44 years
looking rather than asking. Participant observation provides increase the vulnerability of coastal communities to extreme
contextual experience and data that can be compared to what is weather events. The study (Danladi et al., 2017) mainly established
seen, and such observation is said to enable accurate data inter- that during the last 44 years, the Nigerian coast had experienced
pretation (Low, 2002). In this regard, a total of ten communities significant erosion and flooding (for example, see Fig. 5). The Ilaje
namely; Igbokoda, Mahin, Ugbo-Nla, Idi-Ogba, Ayetoro, Ilowo, Community is vulnerable to climate change because they occupy
Obenla, Odo-Nla Ikuyinminu, and Awoye were visited, and this coastal area. Furthermore, there is the likelihood that the rise in
 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015 5

experience intangible losses and adverse health effects. The main

health impacts are Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) and
trauma (Neumayer and Plumper, 2007). Higher incidences of SGBV
may increase the number of deaths and diseases among women.
Also, a rise in sea level will result in less land in Ondo State for living
and less freshwater. Ilaje women are usually responsible for col-
lecting water. Lower availability of clean water implies that women
will take more time fetching water for families (Ishaya and Abaje,
2008). Also, when family members fall ill because of water-borne
diseases caused by climate change, Ilaje women are responsible
for taking care of them. They may find it difficult caring for them-
selves when they fall ill because of the same water-borne diseases
(Uyigue and Agho, 2007).
Furthermore, Ilaje women, particularly pregnant women, are
vulnerable to the health effects of climate variability due to the
Fig. 4. Traditional anthropogenic activities in Ilaje (Authors, fieldwork, 2017). numerous social and physiologic changes (McMichael, 2013). For
example, climate-related exposures could result in adverse preg-
nancy, dehydration, malnutrition, respiratory, and gastrointestinal
diseases in Ilaje women (Omonijo et al., 2012). They are also sus-
ceptible to temperature extremes, particularly dehydration that can
lead to the release of hormones that induce pregnancy (Owombo
et al., 2014). Moreover, in pregnant Ilaje women, extreme heat
events can lead to adverse birth outcomes, including infant mor-
tality and preterm birth. Floods could increase the exposure to
mold and toxins, less access to food, and psychological distress
(Uyigue and Ogbeibu, 2007). For pregnant women, floods can
expose them to anemia and spontaneous abortion risks. Finally,
adverse climate change may lead to poor nutrition. Ominijo et al.
(2012) contend that nutrition is vital for the health and social
well-being of the entire family. Because of climate change, nutrition
may be affected since there will be low food availability (Omonijo
et al., 2012). Women, especially pregnant Ilaje women, are sus-
ceptible to climate-related effects, including the low nutritional
Fig. 5. Erosion and Flooding in Ilaje (Authors, fieldwork, 2017). value of foods, and food safety (Uyigue and Ogbeibu, 2007). Poor
nutrition leads to complications among women, including delivery
problems and low birth weight. In other words, climate change
sea levels could trigger floods that would displace the community increases the vulnerability of women to health problems and
(Xenarios et al., 2016: Bathi and Das, 2016). However, other factors mortality rates.
will increase their vulnerability to these climatic changes.
Climate change influences the socio-environmental de- 5.2. Subsistence in Ilaje coastal communities
terminants of health, including safe drinking water, proper shelter,
enough food, and clean air. The World Health Organization (2017) The transect walks provided insight that Ilaje is bordered to the
suggests that between 2030 and 2050, climate variability will South by the Atlantic Ocean and has numerous natural resources
lead to 250,000 more deaths every year (WHO, 2017). Given the that the community relies on for life sustenance. The fieldwork also
poor economic capacity of the rural coastal villages, people who demonstrated that the main occupation and means of subsistence
live in areas with feeble health infrastructure, like the Ilaje Com- in Ilaje Community is fishing owing to its proximity to waters. Site
munity in Ondo State of Nigeria, will have the lowest capacity to visits also led to the inference that the other occupation is timber
cope unless they are helped to prepare and respond adequately. logging due to the proximity to rainforests. Also, Ilaje Community
Also, climate change poses significant effects on freshwater re- members are salt miners owing to the access and proximity to salty
sources, forests, and other vital resources, thus affecting water water. Based on observations, the proximity to these natural re-
availability (Denton, 2002). Water is an essential resource for pro- sources is crucial for the sustenance of livelihood for the Ilaje
ductive and domestic use. In the Ilaje Community, women and girls Community. Since women face numerous issues including the lack
have the responsibility of fetching water for families. Ondo State of power to influence decisions in the society, data obtained from
has a scarcity of fresh drinking water, thus compelling women and the interviews demonstrated that they engage more in subsistence
girls to trek for long distances to get water (Babatunde, 2010). Due activities than men who are usually on the voyage in nearby cities.
to water scarcity, the Ilaje Community is susceptible to higher in- Data obtained also demonstrated that the majority of the Ilaje
cidences of diseases and deaths (Arora-Jonsson, 2011). It is because women actively took part in farming. Some of their roles in agri-
water obtained from distant sources may become contaminated culture include production, distribution, planting, weeding, har-
along the way, thus increasing the vulnerability of the community vesting and as well as storage. By engaging in food production,
to water-borne diseases. including fishing, Ilaje women closely interact with the environ-
Research highlights that women are 14 times more likely to ment and particularly land (Ajayi and Olutumise, 2018; Tindall
become sick or die than men because of a disaster (Terry, 2009). et al., 2003; Adebayo and Anyawu, 2005). Thus, they are victims
According to Terry (2009), this effect reduces as the social in- of soil degradation and erosion (Fakoya et al., 2007). As such,
equalities between genders. Neumayer and Plümper (2007) assumedly, women are more vulnerable to changes in environ-
contend that apart from high fatalities, Ilaje women may also mental conditions. Concerning the factors affecting the
6 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015

vulnerability, the following data were equally gathered;

5.3. Factors affecting the vulnerability of women in Ilaje coastal

community

5.3.1. Economic factor

Generally, based on the data gathered from literature, it was
established that women constitute the larger majority of Nigeria’s
poor (Usman, 2015). By extension, in Ilaje also, data obtained from
the interviews demonstrated that the majority of women in Ilaje
are more reliant on natural resources for survival compared to men.
This is because the women population rely on natural resources for
food, fuel, and water. Site visits also demonstrated that the role of
Ilaje women is to fetch water and collect firewood that is obtained
Fig. 6. Women on a search for fish, firewood and other materials in Ilaje (Authors,
from the forest, rivers, and the ocean. Fig. 6 illustrates women on a fieldwork, 2017).
search for water, fish, and other firewood in Ilaje. Comparatively,
according to the interviews, most of the women have lower-
incomes and have a higher likelihood of relying on their men. For obtained insinuated that a large percentage of Ilaje women have the
instance, when extreme weather events threaten agricultural pro- responsibility of ensuring that food, fuel, and water are available.
duction, men may use their economic independence for investing Climate change plays a critical role in securing food, fuel, as well as
in other sources of income (Alston, 2014). They can also use their water (Alston, 2014; Danladi et al., 2017). In events of droughts and
savings to adapt to climate change. In events of food scarcity, data low rainfall, the participant observation approach also demon-
obtained from interviews suggested that Ilaje women tend to pri- strated that Ilaje girls and women have to walk for long distances
oritize their husbands. Consequently, they tend to ensure that their and take more time collecting fuel and clean drinking water. Girls
men eat before they consider themselves. Studies highlight that are also generally compelled to drop out of school to assist their
after experiencing climatic disasters, poor women find it difficult to mothers with such tasks. Dropping out of school consequently
recover (Daramola et al., 2016: Ifegbesan et al., 2016). affected their education which could have empowered and lifted
them out of poverty; a result that is in tandem with the findings by
5.3.2. Educational factor Muttarak and Lutz (2014) (see Fig. 7).
Ideally, education plays a crucial role in imparting knowledge
and skills that can enable people to cope with the adverse effects of 5.3.4. Political factor: power and power relations
climate change (Muttarak and Lutz, 2014; Anyanwu, 2010). Based Owing to the patriarchal norms, Ilaje women lack the power to
on data collected from the interviews, it was revealed that majority make autonomous decisions within the family and in society. For
of the women in the Ilaje communities are illiterates and unedu- example, many of the Ilaje women expressed concern over the lack
cated. Thus, this poor education potentially exacerbates Ilaje of control on the assets and finances of their families. Also, re-
women’s vulnerability to climate variability in line with the sug- spondents demonstrated that only 6% of Ilaje women were repre-
gestion of Muttarak and Lutz (2014) and Anyanwu (2010). sented in politics. This figure is comparatively low and below the
Furthermore, unlike men, the interviews led to the collection of recommended global average. This limits them from accessing
data, which suggested that many women in Ilaje Community have material as well as financial resources. Thus, it equally limits the
substantially less access to critical information on weather alerts influence that women could have in the strategies adopted by the
and fishing patterns. This limited information impedes them from community to tackle climate change (Alston et al., 2013). Interviews
responding effectively to climate change. also demonstrated that more representation could provide women
with more impetus to offer solutions since they are the most
5.3.3. Intangible cultural heritage: patriarchal norms and traditions vulnerable to climate change. In this regard, Alston (2014) also
Onwutuebe (2019) explained that patriarchy put men in the suggested that because of exclusion, many of the solutions do not
position which equips them with stronger adaptive capability, prioritize the needs of women. In addition, the programs to
particularly in the context of mobility vocational and flexibility.
Alam et al. (2015) equally suggested that men and women are
shaped by their societies and as such, societal expectations deter-
mine the roles women and men assume in the social spheres. In the
Ilaje case, based on data gathered from interviews with traditional
chiefs in the different villages, it was established that Ilaje com-
munities still adhere, in fact, strictly to their intangible heritage.
Consequently, in tandem with the positions of Alam et al. (2015)
and Onwutuebe (2019) among others, the findings suggest that
women still adhere to their traditional roles as caregivers and
mothers in the society. The patriarchal norm in Ilaje also mandates
women to be at the fore of providing for the family in certain in-
stances. This places women in direct contact with the environment
and thus, more prone to the adverse effects of climate change.
Furthermore, women are not allowed to participate in decision-
making processes in society. On the other hand, men in the
different communities generally migrate to find economic oppor-
tunities, but the majority of the women often remain at home to Fig. 7. Image showing women selling domestic items on the sea (Authors, fieldwork,
take care of children and other family members (see Fig. 6). Data 2017).
 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015 7

substitute traditional coping mechanisms with ones better suited contribution, results obtained from the semi-structured interview
for the changing environment only focus on the needs of men. highlighted that Ilaje women make up less than 10% of the total
Finally, the majority of the female respondents alluded that cultural membership in local agricultural committees. Also, some of the
restrictions impeded them from accessing services and informa- interviewed women suggested that they can work collectively and
tion. The patriarchal norms also reject women relocating without submit petitions to enhance resource conservation. It is because
the permission of male relatives even in the event of sudden they had a stronger link with the natural environment for many
climate events. Therefore, coupled with many other factors, women years and played a crucial role in the protection of the environment
are more susceptible to climate variability. as it is a crucial aspect of their cultural values (Sayne, 2011).
Furthermore, women also play crucial roles in decision-making
5.3.5. Inequalities and inequities: complex of factors on management and consumption of household needs. Based on
Findings from the various methods demonstrated that gender data collected from the interviews, it was established that some of
inequality remains an elusive aspect. Responses obtained from the Ilaje women understood climate change issues as well as global
participants in the survey demonstrated that women are discrim- warming. Based on this awareness, Nzeadibe (2009) suggests that
inated at every level, with the community denying them access to there is the likelihood that women engage in practices that
assets, land ownership, and education. This finding resonates with conserve and protect resources. As such, women can participate in
the results reported by Denton (2002) and Dankelman (2010) that tree planting and management of forests. Ilaje women rely on
women are also discriminated in education and skills development. natural resources for fuel, and intensive exploitation of these re-
According to the interviews, the dominant perception in Ilaje sources can result in air pollution, degradation of the soils and
community is that women are inferior to men. The Federal Republic deforestation. Already, some of Ilaje women participate in man-
of Nigeria, Muhammadu Buhari worsened the aspect of discrimi- aging forests through activities such as rehabilitation, planting of
nation recently when he said that his wife’s role did not go beyond trees, and protection (Audu, 2013). They can also assume active
cooking and house cleaning. It is the epitome of the continued roles in afforestation programs by providing seedlings within the
suppression and oppression of women, particularly in the Ilaje nursery as well as flowers to enhance the beauty of the environ-
community (Ajibade et al., 2013). The respondents further sug- ment. Also, since their societal role ensures the women closely
gested that Ilaje women have fewer chances to make decisions interact with the environment, they take part in environmental
because of cultural inequalities. The destructive natural forces, management, particularly in terms of waste disposal (Olanrewaju
coupled with rising global temperatures can be negative multi- and Ilemobade, 2009).
pliers in a society like the Ilaje Community due to the problems
associated with gender inequality (Ifegbesan et al., 2016). Droughts 6. Discussion and recommendation
can lead to adverse water and food insecurity. Such impacts have a
disproportionate effect on individuals with the least capacity to 6.1. Discussion
tackle the increased social strains like Ilaje women.
Gender inequality, therefore, acts as an impediment to equal The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) identi-
resource sharing and decision-making (Chanamuto and Hall, 2015; fied Nigeria as a climate change hot spot which is likely to expe-
Djoudi et al., 2016). In the face of climate change, it increases the rience colossal shifts in weather conditions over the twenty-first
susceptibility of Ilaje women to climate variability (Chanamuto and century (Boko et al., 2007; Olukoya, 2016). Recent studies also
Hall, 2015). Expert interviews demonstrated that it is because they demonstrated that climate change in Ilaje coastal zones had been
lack the skills, knowledge, experience, or power to cope with underway over the last two decades or so and there are little efforts
climate change impacts. The implication for this is that inequality concerning mitigation on the part of the Local, State and Federal
impedes the social wellbeing of Ilaje women (Yadav and Lal, 2018). government levels. The above described economic, social, cultural,
When Ilaje women’s social wellbeing is limited, they become and political factors demonstrate the precarious position of women
vulnerable to external shocks because of the lack of physical, in Ilaje coastal communities in their ability to respond effectively to
mental, and psychological preparation (Chanamuto and Hall, 2015). climate change impact. Given these factors, men are less vulnerable
On the other hand, it was equally observed that Ilaje women in Ilaje coastal village and thus, have higher chances of survival
could play a pivotal role in climate change by acting as change dues to the different economic, social, cultural, and political factors
agents. Contrarily, Ilaje women are not included in the imple- which privilege the male population. Furthermore, it was observed
mentation of projects or policies which therefore results to an in- that increased humidity amplified the incidence of malaria in the
crease in the existing inequalities. Despite this, Ilaje women community.
respondents reported that they played an important role in According to literature, several physiological changes, including
responding to climate change because of the local knowledge and heat dissipation and higher exhaled breath, make pregnant women
leadership abilities. For example, the majority of Ilaje women stated appealing to the female Anopheles mosquitoes that carry malaria
that they engaged in activities that are geared towards sustainable (Ayeni, 2011). As such, women in various communities are more
resource management that can lead to sustainable practices at both vulnerable to this indirect impact of climate change. The poor level
the community and household level. It was equally observed that of education among women also contributes to the early child-
the participation of Ilaje women at the political level could lead to bearing, which limits the ability of women to earn money that can
better responsiveness to the needs of citizens; an argument that enable them to adapt to climate variability (Muttarak and Lutz,
correlates with the findings of Alston (2014) which suggested that 2014). The economic dimension as regards to poverty, also makes
equal participation can result in better cooperation and sustenance women more vulnerable. Wuyep et al. (2014) reported that a larger
of peace. Equally, the United Nations Framework Convention on proportion of Nigeria’s poor are women. In the Ilaje case also, the
Climate Change (UNFCCC) recognizes the significance of involving majority of the poor population are women and have substantially
men and women equally in developing and implementing national less access to critical information on weather alerts and fishing
climate policies that respond to gender (Dankelman, 2010). Re- patterns. This limited information impedes them from responding
spondents suggested that women in Ilaje can contribute signifi- effectively to climate change. Also, concerning the patriarchal
cantly to the agricultural sector, but they have limited access to norms which determine the role of women in the society, it
resources and involvement in decision-making. Despite this deepens the existing inequalities between men and women in the
8 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015

society. Majority of the women respondents believed that the un- need to ensure that the community strengthens the role played by
equal participation of women in decision-making processes as well Ilaje women (Dankelman, 2010). Many of them are under-
as labor markets create inequalities and usually deter women from represented in the process of decision-making about environ-
contributing to climate change mitigation. For example, women mental conservation and governance (Boette & McKinnon, 2013). It
cannot easily migrate even if there is a sudden climate event while is prudent to ensure that they are equally represented in the cur-
it is common for men to always migrate to nearby communities. rent decision-making structures for them to contribute their per-
Given the existing challenges affecting women and their potential spectives on climate change (Nelson et al., 2002). For example, Ilaje
contribution to climate change mitigation, this paper, therefore, women in leadership positions at the community levels can make a
suggests the following recommendation for ameliorating their significant difference in responses to natural disasters (Wuyep
vulnerability to the actual and potential impacts of climate change et al., 2014). As such, there is a need to enhance their participa-
in the coastal zones. tion in leadership and programs geared at climate change mitiga-
tion and adaptation. Women should be imparted with relevant
6.2. Recommendation skills, knowledge, and expertise to enable them to develop resil-
ience for coping with climate change (Muttarak and Lutz, 2014).
6.2.1. Women as agents of change Ilaje women should particularly have equal access to credit, skill-
Audu (2013) suggested that women can play an instrumental development programs, and credit facilities to ensure that they
role in protecting the environment by advocating for biodiversity fully participate in climate change initiatives (Yadav and Lal, 2018).
conservation. Through their active participation, Ilaje women The Ondo State government should, therefore, incorporate capacity
ensure sustainable use of resources. Moreover, Ilaje women also building in its action plans, programs, and measures geared at
engage in water resource management (Fakoya et al., 2007). They sustainable development.
are at the center of management of Ondo State’s community water Lastly, the active involvement of Ilaje women in developing
resources. For example, they always take control of the communal criteria and allocating resources for climate change initiatives is
water points (Wuyep et al., 2014: Fakoya et al., 2007). Occasionally, crucial at the local level (Alston, 2013, 2014). Also, gender analysis
they lock the taps to deter the children from causing damage to the of financial instruments is vital to enhance gender-sensitive in-
water pipes. Also, women can play a crucial role in the 3R initiative. vestments in activities for capacity building, mitigation as well as
The 3R involves the concepts of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Reduce technology transfer. Furthermore, the community should embrace
entails the use of fewer resources, and is the most effective among technological developments to harness the potential of Ilaje
the 3Rs (Nzeadibe, 2009; Uyigue and Agho, 2007). Through such women mitigating climate change impacts (Nelson et al., 2002).
initiatives, Ilaje women can play a leading role in ensuring that The developments should consider the roles, needs, and priorities
resources are used efficiently, effectively, and sustainably. Women of Ilaje women. Climate change efforts need to use Ilaje women’s
also act as role models for children in reinforcing positive conser- knowledge, expertise, and skills, including traditional practices
vation habits (Adelekan, 2010; Saito, 2014). The knowledge that (Adebayo and Anyawu, 2005). The involvement of women in
they have on the natural environment can be instrumental in developing new technologies can be instrumental in ensuring that
reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Iyun, 1998). Given this they are affordable, sustainable, and responsive to Ilaje community
background, it is therefore suggested that women are prioritized in needs (Chanamuto and Hall, 2015). While considering women as
policy-making, and there is a need to adopt the HeForShe change agents, the community should prioritize gender in-
Campaign. HeForShe is a solidarity program for advancing women equalities during the development of programs for mitigating
that was initiated by the United Nations’ women (Bailliet, 2016). climate change.
The primary objective is to attain equality through boys and men
being the change agents and taking actions to eliminate detri- 6.2.3. The dynamism of culture: the need for consideration
mental inequalities that afflict women. The cultural role of women which is determined by the intan-
gible heritage in Ilaje gives impetus to every other factor which
6.2.2. Increase participation of women invigorates the vulnerability of women in Ilaje communities.
DeVoe et al. (2013) suggested that since women are the most Although the cultural heritage of a people is linked with their
affected by climate change, they need to adopt a leadership role. To identity and peace, it is equally dynamic and thus subject to con-
enhance progress, there is a need for the government, civil society, struction and re-interpretations of each generation. At this climate
scholars, and affected populations to take various proactive actions change phase in the history of the Ilaje communities, there needs to
for Ilaje women. They should involve women in negotiations on be a reconsideration of the role of women, such that it reduces their
climate change. To enhance the adaptation of Ilaje women, they vulnerability to environmental changes. This is not an attempt to
should have a voice and the ability to engage in decision-making establish agitations against cultural heritage but to simply
roles and leadership rather than merely assuming political office. encourage the societies to allow culture adaption as a means of
Ilaje women should actively participate in planning and imple- solving contemporary generational problems.
menting programs that aim to enhance sustainable natural
resource management (Alston, 2014). They should also participate 6.2.4. Integration of mitigation and adaptation with health
in Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) to enhance climate change miti- program
gation (Daramola et al., 2016). Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) in- There is a need to combine climate change adaptation and
volves the community systematically analyzing and mitigating the conservation efforts with the health programming of Ilaje women.
causes of disasters (Daramola et al., 2016). It includes minimization Nigeria should boost investment in meeting the current need for
of exposure to hazards, reduction of the susceptibility of in- health services (McMichael, 2013). It is crucial for ensuring that the
dividuals, prudent land and environmental management and progress made in biodiversity conservation and environmental
improvement of preparedness as well as an early warning for the stewardship are preserved. Despite the recognition of the value of
adverse events (Daramola et al., 2016). This can only succeed when the role of voluntary family planning, it does not receive sufficient
the community involves girls and women. It is consistent with the funding for climate change adaptation (McMichael, 2013). Adap-
finding that climate adaptation becomes sustainable when the tation strategies need to depict multi-sector approaches and offer
community involves Ilaje women in leadership roles. There is also a funding to predictable approaches. More importantly, these efforts
 A.A. Akinsemolu, O.A.P. Olukoya / Journal of Cleaner Production 246 (2020) 119015 9

should be founded on rights-based approaches. One of the prom- women to climate change, the identified factors must be addressed
ising strategies is the renowned population, health, and environ- and urgently.
ment, PHE, approach (Daramola et al., 2016). It involves the linkage Moreover, women role as stakeholders and change agents need
of efforts geared at improving climate adaptation and environment to be strengthened, harnessed, and integrated into the mitigation
to the health of Ilaje women and family planning. The PHE and adaptation programs. Thus, as a recommendation for future
approach can increase the participation of Ilaje women in natural research in this direction, a bottom-up climate change adaptation
resource management (Chanamuto and Hall, 2015). Perhaps, framework needs to be developed by drawing on the factors
Nigeria can gain insights from Rwanda’s project called Sustaining identified in this study. Such studies should also importantly
Partnerships to Enhance Rural Enterprise and Agribusiness Devel- incorporate women capacity building and empowerment as an
opment (SPREAD). The project embeds health education that aims active ingredient of a successful adaptation proposal.
to reach farmers and empower women. However, during the
implementation of such a project, there is a need to ensure that it is Funding
adapted to the local needs of Ilaje women. Finally, it is vital to
incorporate women in creating policies for protecting the envi- This work did not receive any specific grant from funding
ronment, resilience, food insecurity, and ensuring that energy agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
poverty ends.
Declaration of competing interest
7. Conclusion
The author declares that the review was conducted in the
This study contributes to the scant literature, which adopts a absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be
case based approach to the investigation of the vulnerability of construed as a potential conflict of interest.
women to climate change in coastal zones. As demonstrated in the
appraisal of the existing literature, most studies have been Acknowledgments
accomplished under the assumption that women are vulnerable in
every context irrespective of the nuances of the values, patriarchal The authors will like to thank the Green Institute staff for their
norms, environmental economic and sociocultural factors which intellectual contribution and unwavering support.
determines the roles of women and their contact with the envi-
ronment. Thus, this present study argues that among others, to References
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