Structure 1 - Models of the particulate nature of

matter

Elements, compounds and mixtures

● Elements are substances made from one kind of atom

● Compounds are made from two or more elements chemically combined

● Elements take part in chemical reactions in which new substances are made

in processes that most often involve an energy change

● In these reactions, atoms combine together in fixed ratios that will give them

full outer shells of electrons, producing compounds

● The properties of compounds can be quite different from the elements that

form them

Mixtures
● In a mixture, elements and compounds are interspersed with each other,
but are not chemically combined
 ● This means the components of a mixture retain the same characteristic
properties as when they are in their pure form
● So, for example, the gases nitrogen and oxygen when mixed in air, retain
the same characteristic properties as they would have if they were
separate
● Substances will burn in air because the oxygen present in the air supports
combustion

Homogeneous or heterogeneous
● A homogeneous mixture has uniform composition and properties throughout
● A heterogeneous mixture has non-uniform composition, so its properties are not
the same throughout
● It is often possible to see the separate components in a heterogeneous mixture,
but not in a homogeneous mixture

Separating Mixtures
 ● The components retain their individual properties in a mixture and we can often
separate them relatively easily. The technique we choose to achieve this will take
advantage of a suitable difference in the physical properties of the components

Elements, compounds and mixtures

Balancing Equations
● A symbol equation is a shorthand way of describing a chemical reaction using
chemical symbols to show the number and type of each atom in the reactants
and products
● A word equation is a longer way of describing a chemical reaction using only
words to show the reactants and products

Balancing equations
● During chemical reactions, atoms cannot be created or destroyed
● The number of each atom on each side of the reaction must therefore be the
same
○ E.g. the reaction needs to be balanced
● When balancing equations remember:
○ Not to change any of the formulae
○ To put the numbers used to balance the equation in front of the formulae
○ To balance firstly the carbon, then the hydrogen and finally the oxygen in
combustion reactions of organic compounds
● When balancing equations follow the following the steps:
 ○ Write the formulae of the reactants and products
○ Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product
○ Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced
○ Use appropriate state symbols in the equation
● The physical state of reactants and products in a chemical reaction is specified
by using state symbols
○ (s) solid
○ (l) liquid
○ (g) gas
○ (aq) aqueous

Ionic equations
● In aqueous solutions ionic compounds dissociate into their ions
● Many chemical reactions in aqueous solutions involve ionic compounds, however
only some of the ions in solution take part in the reactions
● The ions that do not take part in the reaction are called spectator ions
● An ionic equation shows only the ions or other particles taking part in a reaction,
without showing the spectator ions

Worked example
Balance the following equation:

Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium oxide

Answer:

Step 1: Write out the symbol equation showing reactants and products

Mg + O2 → MgO

Step 2: Count the numbers of atoms in each reactant and product

Step 3: Balance the atoms one at a time until all the atoms are balanced

2Mg + O2 → 2MgO

This is now showing that 2 moles of magnesium react with 1 mole of oxygen to form 2
moles of magnesium oxide

Step 4: Use appropriate state symbols in the fully balanced equation

2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)

● Between 1 & 2, the particles are vibrating and gaining kinetic energy and the
temperature rises
● Between 2 & 3, all the energy goes into breaking bonds – there is no increase in
kinetic energy or temperature
● Between 3 & 4, the particles are moving around and gaining in kinetic energy
● Between 4 & 5, the substance is boiling, so bonds are breaking and there is no
increase in kinetic energy or temperature
● From 5 & 6, the particles are moving around rapidly and increasing in kinetic
energy
 ● The Avogadro constant (NA or L) is the number of particles equivalent to the
relative atomic mass or molecular mass of a substance in grams
○ The Avogadro constant applies to atoms, molecules and ions
○ The value of the Avogadro constant is 6.02 x 1023 g mol-1
● The mass of a substance with this number of particles is called the molar mass
○ One mole of a substance contains the same number of fundamental units
as there are atoms in exactly 12.00 g of 12C
○ If you had 6.02 x 1023 atoms of carbon-12 in your hand, you would have a
mass of exactly 12.00 g
○ One mole of water would have a mass of (2 x 1.01 + 16.00) = 18.02 g

Relative Mass
Relative atomic mass, Ar
● The relative atomic mass (Ar) of an element is the weighted average mass of one
atom compared to one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom
● The relative atomic mass is determined by using the weighted average mass of
the isotopes of a particular element
● The Ar has no units as it is a ratio and the units cancel each other out

Relative isotopic mass

● The relative isotopic mass is the mass of a particular atom of an isotope
compared to one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom
● Atoms of the same element with a different number of neutrons are called
isotopes
● Isotopes are represented by writing the mass number as 20Ne, or neon-20 or
Ne-20
○ To calculate the average atomic mass of an element the percentage
abundance is taken into account
○ Multiply the atomic mass by the percentage abundance for each isotope
and add them all together
○ Divide by 100 to get average relative atomic mass
○ This is known as the weighted average of the masses of the isotopes
Relative molecular mass, Mr
● The relative molecular mass (Mr) is the weighted average mass of a molecule
compared to one twelfth the mass of a carbon-12 atom
● The Mr has no units

● The Mr can be found by adding up the relative atomic masses of all atoms
present in one molecule
● When calculating the Mr the simplest formula for the compound is used, also
known as the formula unit

Relative formula mass, Mr

● The relative formula mass (Mr) is used for compounds containing ions
● It has the same units and is calculated in the same way as the relative molecular
mass
● In the table above, the Mr for potassium carbonate, calcium hydroxide and
ammonium sulfate are relative formula masses
Empirical & Molecular Formulae
 ● The molecular formula is the formula that shows the number and type of each
atom in a molecule
○ E.g. the molecular formula of ethanoic acid is C2H4O2
● The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
○ E.g. the empirical formula of ethanoic acid is CH2O
● Organic molecules often have different empirical and molecular formulae
● The formula of an ionic compound is always an empirical formula

Empirical Formula Calculations

Empirical formula
● The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of the atoms of each
element present in one molecule or formula unit of the compound
● It is calculated from a knowledge of the masses of each element in a sample of
the compound
● It can also be deduced from data that give the percentage composition by mass
of the elements in a compound

Worked example
Determine the empirical formula of a compound that contains 10 g of hydrogen and 80 g
of oxygen
Answer:
Worked example
Determine the empirical formula of a compound that contains 85.7% carbon and 14.3%
hydrogen
Answer:

Molecular formula
● The molecular formula gives the actual numbers of each element present in the
formula of the compound
● The molecular formula can be found by dividing the relative molecular mass by
the relative mass of the empirical formula and finding the multiple that links the
empirical formula to the molecular formula
● Multiply the empirical formula by this number to find the molecular formula

Worked example
The empirical formula of X is C4H10S and the relative molecular mass of X is 180.42.
What is the molecular formula of X? Relative Atomic Mass Carbon: 12.01
Hydrogen: 1.01 Sulfur: 32.07
Answer:

Step 1: Calculate the relative mass of empirical formula

Relative empirical mass = (C x 4) + (H x 10) + (S x 1)

Relative empirical mass = (12.01 x 4) + (1.01 x 10) + (32.07 x 1)

Relative formula mass = 90.21

Step 2: Divide relative molecular mass of X by relative mass of empirical formula

The multiple between X and the empirical formula = 180.42/90.21 = 2

Step 3: Multiply the empirical formula by 2

2 x C4H10S = C8H20S2

The molecular formula of X is C8H20S2

Mass & Charge Distribution

● The mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus, because the nucleus
contains the heaviest subatomic particles (the neutrons and protons)
○ The mass of the electron is negligible
● The nucleus is also positively charged due to the protons
● Electrons orbit the nucleus of the atom, contributing very little to its overall mass,
but creating a ‘cloud’ of negative charge
● The electrostatic attraction between the positive nucleus and negatively charged
electrons orbiting around it is what holds an atom together
The mass of the atom is concentrated in the positively charged nucleus which is
attracted to the negatively charged electrons orbiting around it

Types of Subatomic Particles

● The protons, neutrons and electrons that an atom is made up of are called
subatomic particles
● These subatomic particles are so small that it is not practical to measure their
masses and charges using conventional units (such as grams or coulombs)
● Instead, their masses and charges are compared to each other, and so are called
‘relative atomic masses’ and ‘relative atomic charges’
● These are not actual charges and masses, but rather charges and masses of
particles relative to each other
○ Protons and neutrons have a very similar mass, so each is assigned a
relative mass of 1
○ Electrons are 1836 times smaller than a proton and neutron, and so their
mass is often described as being negligible
● The relative mass and charge of the subatomic particles are:
 Relative Mass & Charge of Subatomic Particles Table

Exam Tip
You can see from the table how the relative mass of an electron is almost negligibleThe
charge of a single electron is -1.602189 x 10-19 coulombs, whereas the charge of a
proton is +1.602189 x 10-19 coulombs. However, relative to each other, their charges
are -1 and +1 respectively. This information can also been found in the IB Data Booklet

he Electromagnetic Spectrum
● The electromagnetic spectrum is a range of frequencies that covers all
electromagnetic radiation and their respective wavelengths and energy
● It is divided into bands or regions, and is very important in analytical chemistry
● The spectrum shows the relationship between frequency, wavelength and energy
● Frequency is how many waves pass per second, and wavelength is the distance
between two consecutive peaks on the wave
● Gamma rays, X-rays and UV radiation are all dangerous - you can see from that
end of the spectrum that it is high frequency and high energy, which can be very
damaging to your health
 ● All light waves travel at the same speed; what distinguishes them is their different
frequencies
● The speed of light (symbol ‘c’) is constant and has a value of 3.00 x 108 ms-1
● As you can see from the spectrum, frequency (symbol ‘ν') is inversely
proportional to wavelength (symbol ‘λ')
○ In other words, the higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength
● The equation that links them is c = νλ
● Since c is constant you can use the formula to calculate the frequency of
radiation given the wavelength, and vice versa

Continuous versus line spectrum

● A continuous spectrum in the visible region contains all the colors of the
spectrum
● This is what you are seeing in a rainbow, which is formed by the refraction of
white light through a prism or water droplets in rain
 A continuous spectrum shows all frequencies of light

● However, a line spectrum only shows certain frequencies

The line spectrum of helium which shows only certain frequencies of light

● This tells us that the emitted light from atoms can only be certain fixed
frequencies - it is quantised (quanta means 'little packet')
● Electrons can only possess certain amounts of energy - they cannot have any
energy value

Emission Spectra
● Electrons move rapidly around the nucleus in energy shells
● If their energy is increased, then they can jump to a higher energy level
● The process is reversible, so electrons can return to their original energy levels
○ When this happens, they emit energy
 ● The frequency of energy is exactly the same, it is just being emitted rather than
absorbed:

The difference between absorption and emission depends on whether electrons are
jumping from lower to higher energy levels or the other way around

● The energy they emit is a mixture of different frequencies

● This is thought to correspond to the many possibilities of electron jumps between
energy shells
● If the emitted energy is in the visible region, it can be analysed by passing it
through a diffraction grating
● The result is a line emission spectrum

Line emission spectra

The line emission (visible) spectrum of hydrogen

● Each line is a specific energy value

○ This suggests that electrons can only possess a limited choice of allowed
energies
● These packets of energy are called 'quanta' (plural quantum)
● What you should notice about this spectrum is that the lines get closer together
towards the blue end of the spectrum
● This is called convergence and the set of lines is converging towards the higher
energy end, so the electron is reaching a maximum amount of energy
● This maximum corresponds to the ionisation energy of the electron
● These lines were first observed by the Swiss school teacher Johannes Balmer,
and they are named after him
● We now know that these lines correspond to the electron jumping from higher
levels down to the second or n = 2 energy level

The Hydrogen Spectrum

● A larger version of the hydrogen spectrum from the infrared to the ultraviolet
region looks like this

The full hydrogen spectrum

● In the spectrum, we can see sets or families of lines

● Balmer could not explain why the lines were formed - an explanation had to wait
until the arrival of Planck's Quantum Theory in 1900
● Niels Bohr applied the Quantum Theory to electrons in 1913, and proposed that
electrons could only exist in fixed energy levels
● The line emission spectrum of hydrogen provided evidence of these energy
levels and it was deduced that the families of lines corresponded to electrons
jumping from higher levels to lower levels
 Electron jumps in the hydrogen spectrum

● The findings helped scientists to understand how electrons work and provided
the backbone to our knowledge of energy levels, sublevels and orbitals
● The jumps can be summarised as follows:

Electron Jumps & Energy Table

Worked example
Which electron transition in the hydrogen atom emits visible light?

A. n = 1 to n = 2

B. n = 2 to n = 3

C. n = 2 to n = 1

D. n = 3 to n = 2

Answer:

Option D is correct

○ Emission in the visible region occurs for an electron jumping from any
higher energy level to n = 2

Electron Energy Levels

Shells
● The arrangement of electrons in an atom is called the electronic configuration
● Electrons are arranged around the nucleus in principal energy levels or principal
quantum shells
● Principal quantum numbers (n) are used to number the energy levels or quantum
shells
○ The lower the principal quantum number, the closer the shell is to the
nucleus
○ The higher the principal quantum number, the greater the energy of the
electron within that shell
● Each principal quantum number has a fixed number of electrons it can hold
○ n = 1 : up to 2 electrons
○ n = 2 : up to 8 electrons
○ n = 3 : up to 18 electrons
 ○ n = 4 : up to 32 electrons
● There is a pattern here - the mathematical relationship between the number of
electrons and the principal energy level is 2n2
○ So for example, in the third shell n = 3 and the number of electrons is 2 x
(32 ) = 18

Electrons are arranged in principal quantum shells, which are numbered by principal
quantum numbers

Subshells
● The principal quantum shells are split into subshells which are given the letters s,
p and d
○ Elements with more than 57 electrons also have an f subshell
○ The energy of the electrons in the subshells increases in the order s < p <
d
● The order of subshells overlap for the higher principal quantum shells as seen in
the diagram below:
 Electrons are arranged in principal quantum shells, which are numbered by principal
quantum numbers

Orbitals
● The subshells contain one or more atomic orbitals
● Orbitals exist at specific energy levels and electrons can only be found at these
specific levels, not in between
○ Each atomic orbital can be occupied by a maximum of two electrons
● The orbitals have specific 3D shapes
 Representation of orbitals (the dot represents the nucleus of the atom) showing
spherical s orbitals (a), p orbitals containing ‘lobes’ along the x, y and z axis

● Note that the shape of the d orbitals is not required for IB Chemistry
 An overview of the shells, subshells and orbitals in an atom

Ground state
● The ground state is the most stable electronic configuration of an atom which has
the lowest amount of energy
● This is achieved by filling the subshells of energy with the lowest energy first (1s)
- this is called the Aufbau Principle
● The order of the subshells in terms of increasing energy does not follow a regular
pattern at n= 3 and higher
 The Aufbau Principle - following the arrows gives you the filling order

Sublevels & Energy

● The principal quantum shells increase in energy with increasing principal
quantum number
○ Eg. n = 4 is higher in energy than n = 2
● The subshells increase in energy as follows: s ＜ p ＜ d ＜ f
○ The only exception to these rules is the 3d orbital which has slightly higher
energy than the 4s orbital, so the 4s orbital is filled before the 3d orbital
● All the orbitals in the same subshell have the same energy and are said to be
degenerate
○ Eg. px, py and pz are all equal in energy
Relative energies of the shells and subshells