A figure of speech is a creative use of language that deviates from ordinary expression to

produce a rhetorical effect. It adds emphasis, artistic flair, or unexpected meaning. Or Present an
idea without directly making reference to it. Here are some common types:

1. Simile: Compares two unlike things using “like” or “as.” Example: “Her smile was as bright
as the sun.”
2. Metaphor: Directly equates two unrelated things. Example: “Time is a thief.”
3. Paradox: Presents a contradictory/conflicting statement that reveals deeper truth.
Example: “Less is more.”
4. Personification: Attributes human qualities to non-human entities. Example: “The wind
whispered secrets.”
5. Oxymoron: Combines contradictory terms. Example: “that was an awfully good movie.”
6. Anthithesis: Two Components in opposition at the same. “No Pain, No Gain”
7. Alliteration: the first Sound of two adjacent words are repeated. TikTok, CocaCola, Kitkat

To identify figures of speech in a sentence:

 Look for comparisons, exaggerations, or unexpected twists.

Unlike a alliteration, the repeating sounds in the words need not to be found adjacent to each
other or placed in the beginning of the words. In assonance, consonance, sibilance

 Assonance: Repetition of vowel sounds close together.

Examples: "Jack and Jill went up the hill."
 Consonance: Repetition of consonant sounds.
Examples: "Chips and dips."
 Sibilance: Repetition of 's' or 'sh' sounds.
Examples: "She sells sea shells on the seashore."
 Irony: Outcome opposite to what is expected.
Examples: Nurse afraid of blood.
 Pun: Wordplay with multiple meanings.
Examples: "Can February March? No, but April May."
 Juxtaposition: two Opposing ideas placed together.
Examples: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times."
 Synecdoche: Part represents the whole or vice versa.
Examples: "Wheels" for car.
 Anaphora: Repetition at the beginning of clauses.
Examples: "Stay home, Stay safe."
 Metonymy: use of the name of one thing for another.
Examples: "The White House" for the President. The kiwis- Newzeland
 Litotes: Negative Statement to say Something Positve.
Examples: "Not bad" meaning good.
 Hyperbole: Exaggeration for effect.
Examples: "It's raining cats and dogs."
 Euphemism: Mild term for something harsh.
Examples: "Passed away" instead of died.
Discourse Markers
 Words/phrases used to manage conversation flow, connect ideas, organize thoughts, and
indicate attitude. Agar bitch mein lag raha hai, to fullstop ke baad, like on top of that, then
comma laga then other part. She is an obedient child. On top of that, she is a very smart girl.
 Examples: "well," "you know," "so," "anyway," "actually," "basically," "I mean."
"Well, it was good, but I expected more action."

"Actually, I was wondering about the due date."

"Basically, we need to increase our sales by 20% this quarter."

"Anyway, after the storm passed, we decided to go for a hike."

 Rhythm: The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables in speech. Used to create a
natural flow in speaking.
 Pitch: The highness or lowness of the voice, used to convey different meanings and
emotions. Rising pitch often indicates questions, while falling pitch indicates statements.

Intonation: The rise and fall of the voice while speaking. It conveys meaning and emotion.

Three Main Types of Intonation:

1. Rising Intonation:
o Definition: Voice goes up at the end.
o Use: Yes/no questions.
o Example: "Are you coming?" (Voice rises at "coming").
2. Falling Intonation:
o Definition: Voice goes down at the end.
o Use: Statements and commands.
o Example: "She went to the store." (Voice falls at "store").
3. Flat Intonation:
o Definition: Voice stays at the same pitch.
o Use: To show boredom or lack of interest. Or Straight forward statement.
o Example: "I'm reading a book." (Voice remains level). Sun rises in east.(
Straight Forward FACT Statement ).

Importance: Helps express different meanings, emotions, and intentions in speech. We don’t
use inverted comma, because it is just a statement.

1. **Adverb of Manner**
- **Definition**: Describes how an action is performed.
- **Examples**: quickly, softly, well
- **Question Answered**: How?
- **Example Sentence**: "She danced gracefully."

2. **Adverb of Degree**
- **Definition**: Describes the intensity or degree of an action, adjective, or another adverb.
- **Examples**: very, completely, extremely
- **Question Answered**: To what extent? / How much?
- **Example Sentence**: "He is extremely happy."

3. **Adverb of Place**
- **Definition**: Describes where an action takes place.
- **Examples**: outside, upstairs, everywhere
- **Question Answered**: Where?
- **Example Sentence**: "She looked everywhere."

4. **Adverb of Time**
- **Definition**: Describes when an action takes place.
- **Examples**: soon, yesterday, tomorrow
- **Question Answered**: When?
- **Example Sentence**: "I will call you tomorrow."

5. **Sentence Adverb**
- **Definition**: Modifies the entire sentence, giving a general feeling or commenting on its truth.
- **Examples**: fortunately, honestly, frankly
- **Question Answered**: Modifies the whole sentence.
- **Example Sentence**: "Frankly, I don’t care."

6. **Conjunction Adverb**
- **Definition**: Connects independent clauses or sentences, showing relationships like contrast
or cause and effect.
- **Examples**: however, therefore, consequently
- **Question Answered**: Connects clauses/sentences.
 - **Example Sentence**: "He didn’t study; consequently, he failed the exam."

 Verb: A word that describes an action, occurrence, or state of being.

 Tense: A grammatical category that indicates the time of the action or state described by
the verb (present, past, future).
 Indefinite/Habitual( Basic action or State).
 Continuous/Progressive ( ongoing action).
 Perfect( Complected action with relevance to another time).
 Perfect Continous( Ongoing action over a period of time ).
I see a car near the building. I live in chennai. ( Present indefinite). I Saw a car near the building( past
indefinite).

1. Simple Sentence, she runs_ She Saw_ She will come to Chennai. * Indefinite
2. Am, Are, Is_ Was, Were, Was_ Shall be, Will be, Will be *Continuous VERB1 + ING ( play
+ ing)
3. Have, Have , Has _ Had, Had, Had_ Shall have, will have, Will have *Perfect VERB3 (
Played)
4. Have been, have been, has been_ Had been, had been, had been_ Shall have been, Will have
been, Will have been * Perfect Continuous VERB1 + ING ( playing )

Har verb mein v2 mein ed/d nahi lagta hai. Focus on learning. Play, Played, Played, Playing,
Plays(regular verb) jisme v2 mein ed/d lagta hai, usse regular verb kehte hai.
See, Saw, Seen( irregular verb)
Out of the verbs listed, only "take," "sleep," and "bring" have irregular past forms. "Work"
has a regular past form.

 Take: The past tense is "took" (irregular).

 Sleep: The past tense is "slept" (irregular).
 Bring: The past tense is "brought" (irregular).
 Work: The past tense is "worked" (regular).

Two types of sentences:

 Active: The subject does the action (e.g., "Deepa wrote a novel.")
 Passive: The subject receives the action (e.g., "A novel was written by Deepa.")

Jab ham Passive banante hai to be+ V3 + by lagate hai. Jaise yaha v2(simple past—
Past Continuous as, WAS.

Indirect Objects in Passives

 Active: "Ravi gave Deepa a book."

 Passive: "Deepa was given a book by Ravi."

In the active form:

 Verb: "gave"
 Subject: "Ravi"
 Indirect Object: "Deepa"
 Direct Object: "a book"

In the passive form:

 The indirect object ("Deepa") is promoted to the subject position. Indirect object agge a jata
hai.

Adjectives are words that describe or modify nouns or pronouns by providing additional information
about their size, shape, age, color, origin, material, opinion, observation, or purpose.
She is noble women. It is a reading hall. It is a round cup. It is a Chinese saucer. It is an iron bridge. (
here Adjective comes before noun, as Attributive Adjective.

This person looks suspicious. This place seems unsafe. This is beautiful. This book is big. ( here
adjective comes after verb to complete sentences, as Predicative Adjective.

Degree adverbs modify the extent of adjectives, verbs, or adverbs. When adverbs comes
before adjective to provide more context.
Ex. They are extremely sad.
 Very and too indicate high degrees but have different connotations.
The weather was very hot." (high degree, but okay)
It is too hot to stay here." (excessive, not okay)
 Very much is used before certain verbs for emphasis.
We very much enjoyed the visit.
 Extremely, very, absolutely, completely are used with different types of adjectives to
show degree.
It is extremely difficult.
I am absolutely sure
 Quite has dual meanings, modifying adjectives to mean either "fairly" or "completely."
Quite is not a degree adverb, it is adjective, where we use adverb before it. In this context
here quite is performing as adverb by modifying satisfied and wrong( adjectives).
Fairly: "I was quite satisfied." (fairly satisfied)
Completely: "You are quite wrong." (completely wrong)
Yaha Satisfied and wrong adjective hai ussi ko Quite Adverb banke satisfied kar raha hai. it modifies
the adjectives, here as Quite.

 Comment adverb:
Expresses the speaker's opinion or attitude.
Examples: fortunately, unfortunately, surprisingly. Sadly, the team did not qualify for the finals.
Indicates emotional stance towards the information.

 Viewpoint adverb:
Indicates the perspective from which something is judged.
Examples: personally, arguably, ideally. Personally, I think we should go with option B.
Shows how someone sees or interprets a situation.

 Focus adverb:
Directs attention to a specific aspect of the statement.
Examples: primarily, mainly, specifically. Mainly, we need to focus on improving customer
satisfaction.
Emphasizes what is most important within the context.

 Clause: A group of words with a subject and a predicate.

 Independent Clause(main Clause) having single subject and One verb: Can stand
alone as a complete sentence.
 Subordinate Clause: Cannot stand alone and depends on an independent clause.

 Complex Sentence: Contains one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses.

 Example: "Swaminathan became so consistently stubborn that a few days later his
father took him to the Board School and admitted him there."

 Types of Subordinate Clauses:

 Noun Clause: Acts as a noun or object to a verb.

Example: "For Raju to get a good night sleep(Subject) is a bliss."
Raju(sub) knows(verb) how to work on a computer(Object).
  Adjectival Clause: Clauses can describe nouns.
Example: "Raju(s) who lives in Chennai(description about noun) is a teacher of English."
 Adverbial Clause: Clauses can modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
Example: "[As far as rain is concerned], it is likely to begin in July." (modifies the entire sentence)."

1. Simple Sentences:
o Consist of one independent clause.
o Express a complete thought.
o Example: “She ate lunch.”
2. Compound Sentences:
o Contain two or more independent clauses.
o Joined by coordinating conjunctions (e.g., “and,” “but,” “so”).
o Example: “She ate lunch, but she was still hungry.”
3. Complex Sentences:
o Have one independent clause and at least one dependent clause.
o Dependent clauses introduced by subordinating conjunctions (e.g., “because,”
“although,” “when”).
o Example: “I did not go to the meeting because I was sick.”

 Adjectival clauses typically begin with relative pronouns such as "who," "whom,"
"whose," "that," or "which."
 They provide additional information about a noun, similar to an adjective.
"By eight he was at his desk in his 'room(noun)', which was only a corner in his father's
dressing-room." Dekho which provide additional information about noun “room”.
"Swaminathan was gazing on his face, which seemed so tame at close quarters."
"which seemed so tame at close quarters" is an adjectival clause modifying "face."

Relative Pronouns:

 Commonly start with relative pronouns: "who," "whom," "whose," "that," "which."

 Sentence Structure:

 A sentence is composed of a subject and a predicate.

 The predicate includes the verb, object(s), and adjuncts/adverbs.
 Subject + Predicate (Verb + Object(s) + Adjuncts/Adverbs).
 Verbs can be transitive (require an object) or intransitive (do not require an object).

 Complements vs. Adjuncts:

 Complements are essential parts of a sentence. Removing them makes the sentence
incomplete or ungrammatical.
o Example: "Raju needs" (incomplete) vs. "Raju needs a book" (complete).
 Adjuncts are optional parts of a sentence. Removing them does not make the
sentence ungrammatical.
o Example: "Raju helped Ramu" (complete) vs. "Raju helped Ramu in the
morning" (complete with adjunct).

 Subjects and Predicates:

 Examples:
o [John] [loves Mary].
o [John] [likes pizza] [with his friends].
o [John and Mary] [like pizza] [in the evening].

Imperative Sentences:

 These sentences often have an implied subject (you). Jaise ham come here! Bole lekin
uske pehle mein janta hu. Mein usse bula raha hu, you ko.
 o Examples:
 (You) come here.
 (You) sit down.
 (You) drink a glass of water before food.

  Common phrases: “on one hand...,” “as well as...,” “in view...”
  Adjectives: “most,” “more,” “less,” “little.”

Essay Writing: Tips

 Discuss both sides of issues.

 Use evidence and personal opinion.
  Use statistical evidence for larger policy levels.

Common Sentence Structures:

 "If…, then…"
 "While…, this…"
 "Whereas…, there…"
 "As…, so…"
  Present both sides of the argument before concluding.
  Ensure your evidence is relevant and supports your points.

Practice and Revise:

 Write multiple drafts and seek feedback.

 Revise to improve clarity, coherence, and impact.

Lab Manual Writing:

 Similar to recipes, requiring accuracy.

 Correct nouns, verbs, sequence, duration, and noting changes.

Pro-Censorship:

 Ensures age-appropriate content.

 Responds to public reaction and societal tensions.

What is a Synopsis?:

 An overview, like looking at a city from a rooftop.( INDEX ) jisme each term ko
explain karte jana hai. To Make More Professional of containing every term.
 It helps in organizing thoughts and covering key points.
 Spend at least five minutes on the synopsis if you have 30 minutes to write the essay.

Topic: "Is Technology Making Us More Connected or More Isolated?"

 Introduction:
Define technology, connectivity, isolation.
Central question: Connect or isolate?
 Technology and Connectivity:
Social media: Global connections, real-time communication.
Video calls: Maintain distant relationships.
Online communities: Shared interests, support groups.
 Technology and Isolation:
Social media: Superficial connections, less face-to-face interaction.
Screen time: Less physical social activities, loneliness.
Online communication: Miscommunication, less emotional depth.
 Examples and Evidence:
Positive: Reconnecting, global movements.
Negative: Loneliness, mental health issues from social media.
 Balance and Perspective:
Moderation: Healthy tech use, balance online/offline life.
Individual choice: Usage impacts connection/isolation.
 Conclusion:
Summarize key points.
Restate question: Impact depends on usage.
Personal viewpoint: Mindful tech use for better connectivity.

 Revision is Crucial:

 Always revise your essay to correct mistakes due to oversight, haste, or slip of hand.
 If you have 30 minutes for an essay, allocate at least five minutes for revision.

 Include Stories and Anecdotes:

 Integrate stories and anecdotes into your essay to make it more engaging.
 These can be included in the synopsis as instances and illustrations.
 Use 20-25% of your words on examples.

 Coherent and Interesting Final Draft:

 Ensure your final draft is easy and interesting to read.

 Sentences and paragraphs must be connected; use cohesive devices.
 Examples of cohesive devices include: as, for example, here, henceforth, thus,
therefore, etc.