Dr. E. HAMATWI, Email: ehamatwi@unam.

na, Office #: E215

Jose Eduardo dos Santos Campus
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
School of Engineering and the Built Environment
 Circuits under considering in this section: RC and RL circuits.

 Analysis of such circuits using Kirchhoff’s laws produces differential equations,

- This is opposed to the analysis of purely resistive circuits which produce algebraic equations.

 A first-order circuit is characterised by a first-order differential equation.

 Two ways of exciting these RC and RL circuits:

1. Source-free circuits: free of independent sources. Thus, energy is initially stored in the
capacitive or inductive elements. – Natural response
2. Using independent sources: DC sources to be considered in this section
 A source-free RC circuit occurs when its DC source is suddenly disconnected.

 The energy already stored in the capacitor is released to the resistors.

 Determining the circuit response: the voltage 𝑣 𝑡 across the capacitor.

- The capacitor is initially charged, thus, we assume that at time t = 0, the initial voltage is;

𝑣 0 = 𝑉𝑜 (18)
- Corresponding value of energy stored is,
1
𝑤 0 = 𝐶𝑉02 (19)
2

- Applying KCL at the top node of the circuit yields,

𝑖𝐶 + 𝑖𝑅 = 0 (20)
 𝑑𝑣 𝑣
 By definition, 𝑖𝐶 = 𝐶 and 𝑖𝑅 = . Thus, Eq. 20 becomes,
𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑣
𝐶 + =0 → + =0 (21)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶

- Eq. (21) is a first-order differential equation – only the first derivative of v is involved.
𝑑𝑣 1
 Solving Eq. (21): =− 𝑑𝑡 (22)
𝑣 𝑅𝐶
𝑡
Integrating both sides, we get 𝑙𝑛𝑣 = − + 𝑙𝑛𝐴 (23)
𝑅𝐶
𝑣 𝑡
- A – integration constant, thus, ln = − (24)
𝐴 𝑅𝐶

- Taking powers of e produces, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 (25)

- But from the initial conditions, 𝑣 0 = 𝐴 = 𝑉0 , hence, 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝑹𝑪 (26)
 From Eq. (26), the voltage response of the RC circuit is an exponential decay of the initial voltage.
 The natural response of a circuit: the behaviour (in terms of voltage and currents) of the circuit
itself, with no external sources of excitation.
 At t = 0, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0
 As t increases, the voltage decreases towards zero.
 The rapidity with which the voltage decreases is expressed
in terms of the time constant 𝜏.
 Time constant of a circuit: the time required for the response to decay to a factor of 1/e or 36.8%
of its initial value.
 Thus, at 𝑡 = 𝜏, Eq. 26 becomes,
𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝜏Τ𝑅𝐶 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −1 = 0.368𝑉0
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 (27)
- In terms of the time constant, Eq. 26 is written as; 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝟎 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝝉 (28)
 Voltage 𝑣(𝑡) is less than 1% of 𝑉0 after 5𝜏 (five time constants). Capacitor is fully discharged.

 It takes 5𝝉 for the circuit to reach its final state or steady state.

 The smaller the time constant, the more rapidly the voltage decreases.

- A small 𝜏 gives a fast response, - circuit reaches its steady state quickly.

- Quick dissipation of energy stored.

 Whether 𝜏 is small or large, the circuit reaches steady state in 5𝜏.

 With the voltage 𝑣(𝑡) in Eq. 28, the current 𝑖𝑅 (𝑡) can be determined as,
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉0 −𝑡/𝜏
𝑖𝑅 𝑡 = = 𝑒 (29)
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉02 −2𝑡/𝜏
 The power dissipated in the resistor is, 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑖𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑒 (30)
 The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is,
𝑡 𝑡 𝑉02 −2𝑡/𝜏 𝜏𝑉02 −2𝑡Τ𝜏 𝑡 1
𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑅 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 = − 2𝑅 𝑒 |0 = 2 𝐶𝑉02 (1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡Τ𝜏 ) (31)
𝟏
 Note that as 𝑡 → ∞, 𝒘𝑹 (∞) → 𝑪𝑽𝟐𝟎 , the same as 𝒘𝑪 (𝟎) – the energy initially stored in the capacitor.
𝟐
Keys to working with a source-free RC circuit
1. Find the initial voltage 𝑣 0 = 𝑉0 across the capacitor.
2. Find the time constant 𝜏 of the circuit.
- In finding the time constant 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶, R is the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the terminals of the capacitor.
- Thereafter, the response (capacitor voltage) can be obtained 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 .
- Other variables can be determined, 𝑖𝐶 , 𝑣𝑅 , 𝑖𝑅 .
 The switch in the circuit shown has been closed for a long time, and it is opened at t = 0. Find 𝑣 𝑡
for 𝑡 ≥ 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the capacitor.

 SOLUTION:

- Finding the initial voltage 𝒗𝑪 𝒕 : for 𝑡 < 0, the

switch is closed: the capacitor is an open circuit to DC,

 NB: the voltage across the capacitor cannot change

instantaneously, thus, 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 at 𝑡 = 0− is the same
as at 𝑡 = 0
9
- using VDR, 𝑣𝐶 𝑡 = 20 = 15𝑉, 𝑡 < 0 𝑣𝐶 0 = 𝑉0 = 15𝑉
9+3
 SOLUTION cont..:

- Finding the time constant 𝝉: for 𝑡 > 0, the switch is opened: the
circuit becomes source-free. The equivalent resistance is,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 1 + 9 = 10Ω
- The time constant is, 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑒𝑞 𝐶 = 10 × 20 × 10−3 = 0.2𝑠

- The voltage across the capacitor for 𝑡 ≥ 0 is,

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣𝐶 0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 = 15𝑒 −𝑡/0.2 𝑉
𝑣(𝑡) = 15𝑒 −5𝑡 V
 The initial energy stored in the capacitor is;
1 2 1
𝑤𝑐 0 = 𝐶𝑣𝐶 0 = × 20 × 10 −3 × 152 = 2.25𝐽
2 2
 The energy already stored in the inductor is released to the resistors.
 Determining the circuit response: the current i 𝑡 through the inductor.
- We assume that at time t = 0, the inductor has an initial current 𝐼𝑜 ;
𝑖 0 = 𝐼𝑜 (32)
- Corresponding value of energy stored is,
1
𝑤 0 = 𝐿𝐼02 (33)
2
- Applying KVL around the loop of the circuit yields,
𝑣𝐿 + 𝑣𝑅 = 0 (34)
𝑑𝑖
 But, 𝑣𝐿 = 𝐿 and 𝑣𝑅 = 𝑖𝑅. Thus, Eq. 34 becomes,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑅
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 = 0 → + 𝑖=0 (35) - a first-order differential equation.
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐿
 Rearranging the terms in (35) and integrating gives,
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑡
𝑑𝑖 𝑅
න = − න 𝑑𝑡
𝐼0 𝑖 0 𝐿
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅𝑡 𝑡 𝑅𝑡 𝑖 𝑡 𝑅𝑡
ln 𝑖 |𝐼0 = − | ⟹ ln 𝑖 𝑡 − ln 𝐼0 = − + 0 ⇒ ln =− (36)
𝐿 0 𝐿 𝐼0 𝐿

- Taking the powers of e, we get,

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−𝑹𝒕Τ𝑳 (37)
 From Eq. (37), the natural response of the RL circuit is an exponential
decay of the initial current.
 From Eq. (37), the time constant for the RL circuit is;
𝐿
𝜏= (38)
𝑅
 Eq. (37) can be written as, 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑰𝟎 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 (39)
 With the current i(𝑡) in Eq. 39, the voltage 𝑣𝑅 (𝑡) across the resistor can be determined as,
𝑣𝑅 𝑡 = 𝑖𝑅 = 𝐼0 𝑅𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 (40)
 The power dissipated in the resistor is, 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑅 𝑖 = 𝐼02 𝑅𝑒 −2𝑡/𝜏 (41)
 The energy absorbed by the resistor up to time t is,
𝑡 𝑡 𝜏 1
𝑤𝑅 𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝑝 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬0 𝐼02 𝑅𝑒 −2𝑡/𝜏 𝑑𝑡 = − 𝐼02 𝑅𝑒 −2𝑡Τ𝜏 |𝑡0 = 𝐿𝐼02 (1 − 𝑒 −2𝑡Τ𝜏 ) (41)
2 2
𝟏 𝟐
 Note that as 𝑡 → ∞, 𝒘𝑹 (∞) →
𝟐
𝑳𝑰 𝟎, the same as 𝒘𝑳 (𝟎) – the energy initially stored in the inductor.
Keys to working with a source-free RL circuit
1. Find the initial current 𝑖 0 = 𝐼0 through the inductor.
2. Find the time constant 𝜏 of the circuit.
𝐿
- In finding the time constant 𝜏 = , R is the Thevenin equivalent resistance at the terminals of the inductor.
𝑅
- Thereafter, the response (inductor current) can be obtained 𝑖𝐿 𝑡 = 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐼0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 .
- Other variables can be determined, 𝑣𝐿 , 𝑣𝑅 , 𝑖𝑅 .
 The switch in the circuit given has been closed for a long time. At t = 0, the switch is opened.
Calculate 𝑖 𝑡 for 𝑡 > 0. Calculate the initial energy stored in the inductor.

 SOLUTION:

- Finding the initial current 𝒊𝑳 𝒕 : for 𝑡 < 0, the switch is

closed: the inductor is a short circuit to DC.
- 16Ω resistor is short-circuited.

 NB: the current through the inductor

cannot change instantaneously, thus, 𝑖𝐿 𝑡
at 𝑡 = 0− is the same as at 𝑡 = 0
40 𝑖𝐿 0 = 𝐼0 = 6𝐴
- Using Ohm’s law, 𝑖1 = = 8𝐴.
2+3
12
- Using CDR, 𝑖 𝑡 is obtained as, 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑖 = 6𝐴, 𝑡 < 0.
12+4 1
 SOLUTION cont..:

- Finding the time constant 𝝉: for 𝑡 > 0, the switch is opened: the circuit becomes source-free.
The equivalent resistance is,
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = 12 + 4 ||16 = 8Ω
𝐿 2 1
- The time constant is, 𝜏 = = = 𝑠.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 8 4

- The current through the inductor for 𝑡 > 0 is,

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 0 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 = 6𝑒 −4𝑡 A

 The initial energy stored in the inductor is;

1 2 1
𝑤𝐿 0 = 𝐿𝑖𝐿 0 = × 2 × 62 = 36𝐽
2 2
 Singularity functions: functions that either are discontinuous or have discontinuous derivatives.
 They are also called switching functions –useful in circuit analysis.
 Good approximations to the switching signals that arise in circuits with switching operations.
 Useful in the compact description of some circuit phenomenon; e.g. step response of RC or RL
circuits.
 Commonly used singularity functions: unit step, unit impulse, and unit ramp.

UNIT STEP FUNCTION 𝒖(𝒕)

 The unit step function is a 0 for negative values of t and a 1 for positive values of t.
𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
 Mathematically, 𝒖 𝒕 =ቊ (42)
𝟏, 𝒕>𝟎
 𝑢 𝑡 is undefined at t = 0, where it changes abruptly from 0 to 1.
 𝑢 𝑡 is dimensionless.
 UNIT STEP FUNCTION 𝒖(𝒕)
 If the change occurs at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 (where 𝑡0 > 0) instead of 𝑡 = 0, the unit step function becomes,

0, 𝑡 < 𝑡0
𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 =ቊ 𝑡 > 𝑡0 (43)
1,
- 𝑢 𝑡 is delayed by 𝑡0 seconds.

 If the change occurs at 𝑡 = −𝑡0 , the unit step function becomes,

0, 𝑡 < −𝑡0
𝑢 𝑡 + 𝑡0 =ቊ 𝑡 > −𝑡0 (44)
1,
- 𝑢 𝑡 is advanced by 𝑡0 seconds.

 The step function can be used to represent an abrupt change in voltage

or current, - mainly in control systems and digital computers. For instance;

0 𝑡 < 𝑡0
𝑣(𝑡) = ቊ 𝑡 > 𝑡0 can be represented as 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉0 𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑡0 (45)
𝑉0
UNIT STEP FUNCTION 𝒖(𝒕)
 UNIT IMPULSE FUNCTION 𝛅(𝒕)
 The derivative of the unit step function u(t) is the impulse function 𝛿(𝑡).

0, 𝑡<0
𝑑
𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 = ቐ𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑, 𝑡=0 (46)
𝑑𝑡
0, 𝑡>0
- Unit impulse function is zero everywhere except at t = 0, where it is undefined.

- Impulsive currents and voltages occur in electric circuits as a result of switching operations.

UNIT RAMP FUNCTION 𝒓(𝒕)

 Integrating the unit step function u(t) results in the unit ramp function r(t).

𝑡 0, 𝑡≤0
𝑟 𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑢(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢 𝑡 = ቊ (47)
𝑡, 𝑡≥0
- Unit ramp function is zero for negative values of t and has a unit slope for positive values of t.
 The current or voltage source supplying an RC circuit can be modelled as a step function.

 Step response of a circuit: its behaviour when the excitation is the step function, which may be a
voltage or a current source.
 The response of the circuit due to a sudden application of a DC voltage or current source.

 Determining the circuit response, i.e., the capacitor voltage.

- Consider the two circuits below, with a voltage step input.

- Assume an initial voltage 𝑉0 across the capacitor (although not necessary for the step response).
𝑣 0− = 𝑣 0+ = 𝑉0
- 𝑣 0− - 𝑉0 before closing the switch, 𝑣 0− - after switching.

- Applying KCL to the second circuit;

𝑑𝑣 𝑣−𝑉𝑠 𝑢 𝑡 𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠
𝐶 + =0⟹ + = 𝑢(𝑡) (48)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶
 For 𝑡 > 0, Eq. (48) becomes;
𝑑𝑣 𝑣 𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑣−𝑉𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑡
+ = ⇒ = − ⇒ = − (49)
𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑣−𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶

 Integrating both side and introducing the initial conditions,

𝑣(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
ln(𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 ) ቤ =− ฬ ⇒ ln 𝑣 𝑡 − 𝑉𝑠 − ln 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 = − +0
𝑉0 𝑅𝐶 0 𝑅𝐶
𝑣−𝑉𝑠 𝑡
ln =− (50)
𝑉0 −𝑉𝑠 𝑅𝐶

 Taking the exponential on both sides,

𝑣−𝑉𝑠
= 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝑅𝐶 ⇒ 𝑣 − 𝑉𝑠 = 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 𝜏 = RC
𝑉0 −𝑉𝑠

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡/𝜏 , t>0 (51)

 𝑽𝟎 𝒕<𝟎
 From (51), 𝒗 𝒕 ቊ (52)
𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 𝒕>𝟎
A 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞 of the RC circuit
to a sudden application of a DC voltage source. Assuming ቑ
the capacitor is initially charged.

 If we assume the capacitor is uncharged initially, then 𝑉0 = 0, and Eq. (52) becomes;

𝟎 𝒕<𝟎
𝒗 𝒕 ቊ (53)
𝑽𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 𝒕>𝟎
𝒕
−𝝉
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒖(𝒕) (54)
A 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐥𝐞𝐭𝐞 𝐨𝐫 𝐭𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐩𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐞 voltage response of the RC circuit
to a sudden application of a DC voltage source, when the capacitor ቑ
is initially uncharged.
 𝑑𝑣
 From (54), the current through the capacitor is obtained as follows; considering 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝐶 .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝐶 𝑽𝒔 −𝒕Τ𝝉
𝑖 𝑡 =𝐶 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 , 𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶, 𝑡 > 0 ⇒𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒆 𝒖(𝒕) (55)
𝑑𝑡 𝜏 𝑹

Current response of an initially uncharged capacitor. ሽ

 A systematic approach of determining the step response of an RC circuit:

- Re-examining Eq. (51) and (54), 𝑣 𝑡 actually has two components.

1
- Two ways of decomposing 𝒗 𝒕 into two components:
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉
𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 = 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝒕
−𝝉
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝒖(𝒕)
𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

Or 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒

𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡
 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 = 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒
𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑛 + 𝑣𝑓 (56)
Where 𝑣𝑛 = 𝑉0 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 and 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑉𝑠 (1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 )
- 𝑣𝑓 called a forced response - produced by the circuit when an external “force” (voltage or current) is applied.
 The natural response eventually dies out, along with the transient component of the forced
response.
 Thus only leaving the steady-state component of the forced response.

 𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 = 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 + 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑦 − 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒

𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑣𝑠𝑠 (57)
Where 𝑣𝑡 = (𝑉0 − 𝑉𝑠 )𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 and 𝑉𝑠𝑠 = 𝑉𝑠
 Transient response 𝑣𝑡 : the portion of the complete response that decays to zero as time
approaches infinity.
 Steady-state response 𝑣𝑠𝑠 : the portion of the complete response that remains after the transient
response has died out.
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 + 𝑽𝟎 − 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉
 Thus, the complete response in (51) may be written as;

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 ∞ + [𝑣 0 − 𝑣 ∞ ] 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 (58)
Where 𝑣 0 - initial voltage at 𝑡 = 0+ and 𝑣 ∞ - the final or steady-state value.

Finding the STEP RESPONSE of an RC Circuit requires:

1. The initial capacitor voltage 𝑣 0 , for 𝑡 < 0.
2. The final capacitor voltage 𝑣 ∞ , for 𝑡 > 0.
3. The time constant 𝜏, for 𝑡 > 0.
 EXAMPLE 1
The switch in the figure has been in position A for a long time. At t = 0, the switch moves to B.
Determine 𝑣(𝑡) for t > 0 and calculate its value at t = 1s and 4s.
SOLUTION:
 For 𝑡 < 0, the switch is in position A.

- The capacitor acts as an open circuit to DC.

- Voltage v is the same as the voltage across 5Ω resistor.

- Finding the voltage across the capacitor just before t = 0, using VDR:
−
5
𝑣 0 = 24 = 15𝑉
5+3
𝑣 0 = 𝑣 0− = 𝑣 0+ = 15𝑉.
 EXAMPLE 1
SOLUTION cont…:
 For 𝑡 > 0, the switch is in position B.

- The Thevenin resistance connected to the capacitor is:

𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 4𝑘Ω
- The time constant 𝜏 is; 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝐶 = 4 × 103 × 0.5 × 10−3 = 2𝑠.

- The capacitor acts like an open circuit to DC at steady-state, thus, 𝑣 ∞ = 30𝑉. Then,

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 ∞ + [𝑣 0 − 𝑣 ∞ ] 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏
𝒗 𝒕 = 30 + [15 − 30] 𝑒 −𝑡Τ2 = 𝟑𝟎 − 𝟏𝟓𝒆−𝒕Τ𝟐 V
- At t = 1s, 𝑣 𝑡 = 30 − 15𝑒 −1Τ2 = 20.9𝑉

- At t = 4s, 𝑣 𝑡 = 30 − 15𝑒 −4Τ2 = 27.97𝑉

 EXAMPLE 2
In the figure below, the switch has been closed for a long time and is opened at t = 0. Find i and v
for all time.
SOLUTION:
Note: the resistor current can be discontinuous at t = 0,
while the capacitor voltage v cannot.
- Thus, find v first and then obtain i from v.

𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
By definition, unit step function 𝟑𝟎𝒖 𝒕 = ቊ .
𝟑𝟎, 𝒕>𝟎
 For 𝑡 < 0, the switch is closed and 30𝑢 𝑡 = 0.

- Capacitor acts as an open circuit to DC.

𝑣
𝑣 = 10𝑉, 𝑖= − = −1𝐴 ⇒ 𝑣 0 = 𝑣 0− = 𝑣 0+ = 10𝑉
10
 EXAMPLE 2

SOLUTION cont…:
 For 𝑡 > 0, the switch is open, the 10V voltage source is disconnected.

- The 30𝑢 𝑡 voltage source is now operational.

- After a long time, circuit reaches steady-state, Capacitor acts as an open circuit again.
20
- Obtaining 𝑣 ∞ using VDR; 𝑣 ∞ = 30 = 20V.
20+10
10×20 20
- Thevenin resistance at the capacitor terminals is; 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 10||20 = = Ω.
30 3
20 1 5
- The time constant 𝜏 is; 𝜏 = 𝑅𝑇𝐻 𝐶 = × = 𝑠.
3 4 3

- Thus, 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑣 ∞ + [𝑣 0 − 𝑣 ∞ ] 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏
3Τ5 𝑡
𝒗 𝒕 = 20 + [10 − 20] 𝑒 − = 𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝒆−𝟎.𝟔𝒕 V
 EXAMPLE 2
SOLUTION cont…:
 To obtain i, (the sum of the currents through the 20Ω resistor and the capacitor).
𝑣 𝑑𝑣
𝑖= +𝐶
20 𝑑𝑡
𝒊 = 1 − 0.5𝑒 −0.6𝑡 + 0.25 −0.6 −10 𝑒 −0.6𝑡 = 𝟏 + 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔𝒕 𝑨

𝟏𝟎𝑽, 𝒕<𝟎
𝒗=ቊ
𝟐𝟎 − 𝟏𝟎𝒆−𝟎.𝟔𝒕 V, 𝒕≥𝟎

−𝟏𝑨, 𝒕<𝟎
𝒊=൝
𝟏 + 𝒆−𝟎.𝟔𝒕 𝑨, 𝒕>𝟎
 Determining the circuit response, i.e., the inductor current i.

- Consider the two circuits below, with a voltage step input.

- Rather than applying Kirchhoff’s laws, we will use the systematic approach.

- Let the total/complete circuit response be;

𝑖 = 𝑖𝑡 + 𝑖𝑠𝑠 (59)
−𝑡 Τ𝜏 𝐿
• Transient response is always a decaying exponential, i.e., 𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 ,𝜏 = (60).
𝑅

~ A – a constant to be determined.
• Steady-state response – the value of the current a long time after the switch

is closed.
- After the transient response dies out, inductor becomes a short circuit, v(t) = 0.
𝑉
- At steady-state, the source voltage Vs appears across R. Thus, 𝑖𝑠𝑠 = (61)
𝑅
Substituting Eq. (60) and Eq. (61) into Eq. (59) gives;
𝑉𝑠
𝑖 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 + (62)
𝑅

 Determining constant A from the initial value of i:

- Let 𝐼0 - initial current through the inductor (may come from a source other than 𝑉𝑠 ).

- The current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, thus 𝑖 0− = 𝑖 0+ = 𝐼0 (63)
- Thus at 𝑡 = 0, Eq. (62) becomes,
𝑉𝑠 𝑉𝑠
𝑖 0 =𝐴+ , 𝐴 = 𝐼0 − (64)
𝑅 𝑅

- Substituting A into Eq. 62, we get,

𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒔
𝒊(𝒕) = + 𝑰𝟎 − 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝝉 (65)
𝑹 𝑹

𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝐿 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑢𝑖𝑡, 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼0 ሽ

 If 𝐼0 = 0, then

𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
𝒊 𝒕 ቐ 𝑽𝒔 (66)
𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕/𝝉 , 𝒕>𝟎
𝑹

𝑽𝒔
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝝉 𝒖(𝒕) (67)
𝑹

𝑑𝑖
 The voltage across the inductor is obtained from (67) using 𝑣 = 𝐿 ,
𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝑉𝑠 𝐿 −𝑡 Τ𝜏 𝐿
𝑣 𝑡 =𝐿 1 − 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 = 𝑉𝑠 𝑒 , 𝜏= , 𝑡>0
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝜏𝑅 𝑅

𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒔 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝝉 𝒖(𝒕) (68)

 𝑽𝒔 𝑽𝒔 −𝒕Τ𝝉
𝒊(𝒕) = + 𝑰𝟎 − 𝒆
𝑹 𝑹
 The response in (65) may be written as:

𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 ∞ + [𝑖 0 − 𝑖 ∞ ] 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 (69)
Where 𝑖 0 - initial current at 𝑡 = 0+ and 𝑖 ∞ - the final or steady-state value.

Finding the STEP RESPONSE of an RL Circuit requires:

1. The initial inductor current 𝑖 0 , for 𝑡 < 0.
2. The final inductor current 𝑖 ∞ , for 𝑡 > 0.
3. The time constant 𝜏, for 𝑡 > 0.
 EXAMPLE
 At t = 0, switch 1 in the figure is closed, and switch 2 is closed 4s later. Find i(t) for t > 0.
Calculate I for t = 2s and t = 5s.
SOLUTION:
- Need to consider 3 time intervals; 𝑡 ≤ 0, 0 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 ≥ 4.

 For 𝒕 < 𝟎, switch 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are open so that 𝑖 = 0.

- Since the inductor current cannot change instantaneously,

𝑖 0− = 𝑖 0 = 𝑖 0+ = 0
 For 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝟒, 𝑆1 is closed but 𝑆2 is still open, so that the 4Ω and 6Ω resistors are in series.
40 𝐿 5 1
Thus, using Ohm’s law, 𝑖 ∞ = = 4𝐴, 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 4 + 6 = 10Ω and 𝜏 = = = 𝑠.
4+6 𝑅𝑇𝐻 10 2

- Thus, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 ∞ + [𝑖 0 − 𝑖 ∞ ] 𝑒 −𝑡Τ𝜏 = 4 + 0 − 4 𝑒 −𝑡Τ0.5

𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 𝑨, 𝟎≤𝒕≤𝟒
 EXAMPLE
SOLUTION cont…:
 For 𝒕 ≥ 𝟒, 𝑆2 is closed; the 10V source is connected, and the circuit changes.

- The sudden change does not affect the inductor current (inductor current cannot change abruptly).

- Thus, the initial current is, 𝑖 4 = 𝑖 4+ = 4(1 − 𝑒 −8 ) ≅ 4𝐴

- Finding 𝑖 ∞ , let v be the voltage at node P. Using KCL,

40−𝑣 10−𝑣 𝑣 180
+ = ⟹ 𝑣= 𝑉
4 2 6 11
𝑣 30
𝑖 ∞ = = = 2.727𝐴
6 11

22 𝐿 5 15
- Thevenin resistance at the inductor terminals; 𝑅𝑇𝐻 = 4||2 + 6 = Ω, and 𝜏 = = = 𝑠.
3 𝑅𝑇𝐻 22/3 22
SOLUTION cont…:
 For 𝒕 ≥ 𝟒, 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑖 ∞ + [𝑖 4 − 𝑖 ∞ ] 𝑒 −(𝑡−4)Τ𝜏 , (𝑡 − 4) in the exponential due to the time
delay.
15
𝑖 𝑡 = 2.727 + (4 − 2.727) 𝑒 −(𝑡−4)Τ𝜏 , 𝜏=
22
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝒆−𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒕−𝟒 , 𝒕≥𝟒

𝟎, 𝒕≤𝟎
Putting all together; 𝒊 𝒕 = ൞ 𝟒 𝟏 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒕 , 𝟎≤𝒕≤𝟒
𝟐. 𝟕𝟐𝟕 + 𝟏. 𝟐𝟕𝒆−𝟏.𝟒𝟔𝟔𝟕 𝒕−𝟒
, 𝒕≥𝟒

 At 𝑡 = 2𝑠, 𝑖 2 = 4 1 − 𝑒 −2(2) = 3.93𝐴

 At 𝑡 = 5𝑠, 𝑖 𝑡 = 2.727 + 1.27𝑒 −1.4667 5−4 = 3.02𝐴
Delay circuits: an RC circuit can be used to provide various time delays.
- An RC circuit with a capacitor connected in parallel with a neon lamp.

- When the switch is closed, the capacitor voltage

increases gradually toward 110V, @ a rate determined

by the circuit’s 𝜏 = 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐶.
- The lamp acts as an open circuit (not emit light) until the voltage across it exceeds a certain level,
i.e., 70V.
- When the voltage level is reached, the lamp goes on, the capacitor discharges through it.

- The capacitor voltage drops and the lamp turns off, and the cycle repeats.

- By adjusting 𝑅2 , long or short time delays can be introduced.

- Delay circuits are mainly used in the warning blinkers commonly found on road construction sites.
Relay circuits: a magnetically controlled switch is called a relay.
 Relay – an electromagnetic device used to open or close a switch that controls another circuit.

- The coil circuit is an RL circuit shown below.

- When switch 𝑆1 is closed, the coil circuit is energised.

- The coil current gradually increases and produces a magnetic field.

- The magnetic field becomes sufficiently strong to pull the movable

contact in the other circuit and closes switch 𝑆2 .

 Relay delay time: time interval between the closure of 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 .

- Relay circuits were used in the earliest digital circuits.

- They are still used for switching high-power circuits.

END OF SUB-UNIT