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9_science_short theory notes

NOTE: THIS IS AN INCOMPLETE SUMMARY OF TOPICS; USE YOUR OWN NOTES FOR STUDYING
- bio
- fundamental unit of life

- most important

search 'Biology: Cell Structure I Nucleus Medical Media' on YouTube

or watch it from: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=URUJD5NEXC8
- cell
latin word (little room); is fundamental (funda) unit of life; all living organsm have it;
discovrd by robert hooke (lttle room in cork made of tree-bark + had honeycomb structure);
cell biology: bio branch to study structure, func, 7 behavr of cells; robert brown disc cell-nucleus
- cell theory

proposed by schleiden & schwann says that all plants & animals are made of cell
expanded by virchow; suggested that all cells arise from pre-existing cells
- type BOBS FON
(blood+ovum+bone+smooth+fatonio+nerve) cells
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (father of microbio) invented simple microscope; first saw free living cells
- compund microscope
parts (eye piece, objctv lens, condenser);
drop of safranin (for plant cell)/ methylene blue (for animal cel) is put into cell before obsrvn
- plasma membrane (selective permeable membrane)
outermost cell-covering; helps in diffusion & osmosis
- diffusion
movemnt of substance (subs) from high conc to low conc; figure
- osmosis

misc: soln is homogeneous mixture with solvent (like water) and solute (like lime); eg is neebu sharbat
movement of water from high conc area to low conc area
- water/solvent movement when cell is placed in
hypotonic soln (hypo = less): cell has more solute> water moves in from surrounding
isotonic soln (iso = equal): both cell & surrounding has same solute conc> no water movt
hypertonic soln (hyper = more): surrounding has more solute> water moves out of cell into surrounding
- endomosis vs exosmosis

endosmosis occurs when water moves inside cell (aka cell drinking)
exosmosis occurs when water moves out of cell (ak emission of water)
- endocytosis vs exocytosis (common eg. amoeba))
endocytosis: pro where cell engulfs food by engulfing it in vesicles; fig
exocytosis: pro where cell excrete solid waste
- cell wall

is rigid (made of cellulose); gives structural strength; plasmolysis occurs when cell lose water & cell shrinks
imp bec it helps plants like bacteria & fungi to stay in hypotonic (diluate) soln without bursting
- parts of cell
cytoplasm: fluid matrix (other than nucleus)
protoplasm: cytoplasm + nucleus; coined by Purkinge
- cell organelles

defn: special structures inside cell; performs specific function

- examples
- nucleus

dark colored+spherical/oval shaped; near centre of cell; imp for cellular activities & reprodctn
contains chromatin which converts into chromosome (has genetic info in form of DNA Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid)
functional parts of DNA is called genes; is resp for inheritance of features from parents to child; fig
- types

prokaryote: when nucleus membrane (outer covering) is absent; eg bacteria; fig

eukaryoute: when nucleus membrane is present
- prokaryote vs eukaryote

defn/defn
size: 1-10 pm / 5-500 pm
nuclear region: not well defined+ nuclear membrane is absent / well-defined+nuclear membrane is present
membrane-bound organelles: absent/ present
chromosome: single/ multiple
eg: bacteria, blue-green algae / fungi, plant & animal cell
- animal cell vs plant cell

cell wall: absent / present

rigidity is provided by: plasma membrane/ cell wall
vacuole size: small/ large
plastids: present/ absent
nucleus position: at centre/ on side
- ribosome (aka protein factory of cell)

is inter-cellular struc made of RNA+protein; convers messenger RNA (m-RNA) into proteins; no cell-membr
- endoplasmic reticulum ER
large network of membrane bound tubules & vesicles
- types

smooth ER (SER): produces fat; is smooth cuz ribosomes are not attached on surface
rough ER (RER): produces protein; is rough cuz ribosomes are attached on surface
- golgi body (aka golgi complex)
packages protein into membr bound vesicles b4 they are sent; is part of endomembrane sys in cytoplasm
- vacuoles

strong sac for solid & liquid content; small in animal; large in plants; occupies 50-90% of cell volume;
gives turgidity+rigidity to cell; stores amino acid, sugars, proteins etc; amoeba has food vacuole
- lysosome

sac with strong digestive sys; contains membrane-bound enzyme to break down waste material
aka suicide bag cuz when cell is damaged, its lysosome release enzyme which breakdown other organelles
- plastids

present in plant cells only

 - types
chromoplast: store pigments; gives color to flowers, fruits
chloroplast: contains chlorophyll; causes photosynthesis
- leucoplast

colorless plastid; stores starch, lipid & protein; has covering of 2 membranes; enzyme actn occurs in
stroma
reason for producing protein> cuz it has its own DNA & ribosome
- gk (question- ans)
without layer- ribosome (smallest structure in cell; aka protein factory)
single layered- vacuole + golgi body (traffic police) + ER + lysosome (scavenger of cell; has hydrolytic enzyme)
double layered- nucleus (largest struc in a cell)+ mitochondria (powerhouse of cell)+ plastids (kitchen of cell)
another name for cell membrane - plasma membrane
vacuole types- central (store water+nutrient+waste) & contractile vacuole (regulate water balance)
largest cell organelles in plant cell- nucleus + plastid
2nd largest- mitochondria
smallest cell- mycoplasma bacterium; has diameter of 200 nanometer
largest cell- ostrich's egg
longest cell- nerve cell (100cm)
oval shaped RBC in- camel
body formation in - 270 days or 36 weeks
living (plasma membrane) | non-living (cell wall)
SER (makes fat) | RER (makes protein)
eukaryotic cell (well developed cell like human cell) | prokaryotic cell (smaller in size like bacteria)
- organisms
- unicellular

organism made up of single cell; eg amoeba, bacteria, paramecium

- multicellular
organisms made up of multiple cells; eg human beings
- tissue
defn: group of similar cells that work together to perform similar function; eg blood, phloem, muscle etc
term coined by N.Grew; histology (study of tissue)
- types

- plant cell (based on division capacity)

- meristematic tissue

- features

divides throughout life; increases in length & girth; has dense cytoplasm+nucleus+active cells; lack vacuole
has thin cellulose wall; lack of reserve food (cuz of high metabolism);
aka compact tissue (cuz they lack intercellular spaces)
- further types

- apical meristematic tissue

presence (at tips of roots+stem); func (elongate root+stem)
- intercalary meristematic tissue

presence (at base of internode, below node, base of leaves); func (elongate internode+leave+organs)
 - gk
node- place along stem of a plant from where leaves, branch or buds emerge
- lateral meristematic tissue
presence (at side of root+stem; also beneath the bark); func (increases thickness of roots+stem)
- permanent tissue
- features

derived from meristematic tissue; loses division ability later; perform specific function
has large vacuoles, fixed position, permanent shape+size; cell wall thickness can be both thin or thick
- gk

differentiation: process where meristematic tissue changes into permanent tissue & performs specific func
- further types

- simple permanent tissue (has structurally similar cell)

- parenchyma

presence (roots, stem, leaf, flower, fruit); func (stores food in form of starch, protein, fat)
char: large intercellular space; is isodiametric; living; has thin wall made of cellulose
- further types

chlorenchyma (contains chloroplast; performs photosynthesis)

aerenchyma (in aquatic plants only; has large air cavities responsible for floating)
- collenchyma
presence (in leaf stalk below epidermis); func (allows bending without breaking; adds support)
char: small intercellular space; living; elongated cell which are unevenly thick @ corner; cell wall made
of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin
- sclerenchyma
presence (in stem around vascular bundle+ hard seed-covering); func (makes plant hard; eg coconut
husk);
char (has no intercellular space; has dead cells, long+narrow cells, thick cell-wall made of lignin)
- gk
- epidermis

protects plant from injuries by secreting cuticle (wax-like water resistant substance) on plant
surface
is outermost layer of cell covering plant body; has no intercellular space; is flat
cell wall is thin> may become thick (to retain water); has hair-like structure for water
absorption
- stomata
used for gaseous exchange & transpiration; are pore like struc in leaf-epidermis
- complex permanent tissue (has structurally different types of cell)
- xylem
conducts water+minerals unidirectionally (from roots to all parts of plant)
- components
- trachieds

conducts water from roots to leaves; are enlongated tubules made of dead cell without
protoplasm;
cell wall made of lignin; lumen is white
 - vessels (works mainly in flowering plants aka angiosperm)
conducts water+minerals throughout plant; are elongated tubules made of dead cell; cell wall
made of lignin
- types

xylem sclerenchyma (dead cells, thick cell wall made of lignin)

xylem parenchyma (living cells; thin cell wall made of cellulose)
xylem fiber
xylem parenchyma
- phloem
bidirectionally transports food from leaf to all parts of plant
- components

- living components
- sieve elements

transports food bidirectionally; types: sieve tube & sieve plate)

tube struc; stacked; thin walled; presence of sieve plates at both ends
- component cell

maintains pressure gradient for food transportation; has cell wall made of cellulose
- phloem parenchyma

store food in form of starch & protein; is living; cell with thin cell wall made of
cellulose
- dead component
- phloem fibre
gives strength; is dead cell with thick cell wall made of lignin
- gk
vascular bundle/ tissue: xylem + phloem
- animal cell
- epithelial tissue (protection by covering)

- intro
are protective tissue; cover organs & cavities lying inside body
locatn: skin, lining of blood vessel & alimentary canal, lung alveoli, kidney tubules etc
struc: tightly packed; continuous; permeable; separated through {basement membrane (gives struc support)}
func: provide protectn to body from injury & infectn; separates organs; regulate material exchange like sweat
- types
- squamous epithelial tissue

- further types
- simple
single layered cells; flat; makes delicate lining
locatn: alveoli (air bag); bowman''s capsule (nephron in kidney); mouth & esophagus
- stratified

multiple layered cells; undergoes wear & tear; eg: skin

- cuboidal epithelial tissue

cube like cells; cell width inc with cell length; func- protectn, secretn, absorptn
locatn: salivery gland, thyroid gland, lining of kidney tubule
 - columnar epithelial tissue
pillar like cell; length is more than cell width; func- protectn, secretn, absorptn
locatn: lining of intestine, stomach, gall bladder
- ciliated epithelial tissue
cuboidal or columnar cells; have cilia (hair like struc for movement) on surface; func- moves mucus, urine etc.
locatn: respiratory tract, fallopian tube, urinary tubules
- glandular epithelial tissue
are gland cells that secrete substance; locatn: sweat gland, sebaceous gland
- muscular tissue (for movement/ locomotion)
- intro

aka muscle fibre due to more length; uses contractile protein (actin & myosin) for movement
composed of muscle cells; present in muscles;
- types
- striated (presence of alternate dark & light bands)
aka skeletal muscle (attached to bones); aka voluntary muscle (we can control it)
is fast; quickly fatigues; long, cylindrical, unbranched, multinucleated; eg muscles in hands, legs, biceps
- unstriated/ smooth/ involuntary muscle

involuntary (not under our control); spindle shaped (long & pointed); single nucleus; unbranched cells;
slow movement; do not fatigue; no striation
- cardiac/ involuntary muscle
only in heart; cylindrical shaped; uninucleated; branched; is striated; do not fatigue
func: contractn & dilatn of wall of heart ( makes lub dub sound)
- connective tissue (for bonding, support, protectection of tissues)
- intro

loosely spaced cells; present in intercellular matrix (like glue/ gel); matrix may be fluid or dense
- types

- areolar
loosely spaced cells; present in matrix gel;
locatn: bw skin & muscles, around blood vessels, nerves, in bone marrow
func: fills empty space inside organ, gives physical support, connects skin with muscle, helps in tissue repair
- adipose

made of fat cells (aka adipocyte); is oval or round shaped; has fat globule (droplet);
locatn: under skin, bw internal organs
func: acts as fat storage for energy; acts as insulator to maintain body temp; protection from mech shocks
- supporting/ dense conncective tissue
cells & fibres are compactly arranged in matrix; fibre count is more than cell count; types: [tendon & ligament]
- skeletal
made of solid matrix; func: to give support & protectn; types: bone & catilage
- fluid
cells present in fluid matrix; eg WBC & platlets in plasma; func- transports O2, nutrient, hormone, waste
locatn: in blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries) and heart; types: blood & lymph
- gk: blood
- blood cell 45%
 - red blood cell RBC (erythrocyte)
red due to haemoglobin (has iron Fe; carries O2 & brings CO2); is oval shaped; no nucleus;
lifespan 120 days
- white blood cell WBC (leucocyte) aka soldier of body as it fights infection

types: neutrophils (60-65%); eosinophil (2-3%); basophil (0.5-1%); lymphocyte (has B & T
cell); monocyte
blood platelests: helps in blood clotting
- plasma 55%
90% water
10% plasma protein (Na, Ca, Mg etc)
transports hormones, waste etc
- nervous tissue (for control & coordination)
main tissue of nervous sys; locatn: in brain, spinal cord & nerves
- gk

- nerve-cell aka neuron

defn: structural & functional unit of nervous system; longest cell in human body
- structure
- dendrite

long, thin branch which comes out from cell body; func- recieves info, increases surface area of
neuron
- cell body

is largest & main part of neuron; controls neuron; has cytoplasm & nucleus
- axon

is long thin part of neuron;

func: transmits msgs, acts as myelin sheath MS (made of protein & fats); node for ranvier (is gap
bw 2 MS)
- diff bw
- parenchyma/ chollenchyma/ sclerenchyma

living cell / living cell / dead cell

thin cell-wall/ mostly thin cell-wall/ thick cell-wall
large intercellular spaces/ little intercellular spaces/ no intercellular spaces
stores food in form of starch, protein, fat/ provides flixibility/ makes plant hard
cell wall made of cellulose; are isodiametric/ made of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin; are elongated thick at corner/ made of
lignin; very thick; are elongated + narrow
- xylem vs phloem

made of: dead cell/ living cell

cell wall thickness: thick/ thin
cell wall material: lignin/ cellulose
cytoplasm: absent/ present & alive
transports: water & minerals/ food
transportation passage: unidirectional/ bidirectional
- tendon vs ligament

connective tissue attaches: muscle to bone/ bone to bone

 helps in: bone movement/ stability of bones
contains: collagen fibre/ collagen & elastin fibre
color: white/ yellow
- bone vs cartilage

is hard, inelastic & tough/ is soft, plastic & flexible

cells aka: astocytes/ chondrocytes
- blood vs lymph

color: red / colorless

flows in: blood vessels/ lymph vessels
flow direction: bir-directional (bw tissue & heart)/ unidirectional (from tissue to heart)
part of: circulatory system/ lymphatic sys
- improvement in food resources (res)
- food

is an organic substance which is necessary for survival of all living organism

contains carbohydrate, fat, protein, vitamins, minerals etc; major sources- plant & animal;
plants are primary producer as they serve as food to others
importance (imp): it gives energy; makes us strong & healthy; gives resistance to diseases
- crop
is plant that is grown in field on large scale; eg cereal crops, pulses, fruits; major crop season: kharif & rabi
- kharif crops vs rabi crops

aka: winter season crop / summer season crop

crops season: monsoon/ non-monsoon
suitable climatic condition: hot & wet/ cold & almost dry
sown period: at beginning of rainy season in june-july/ during retreating monsoon in oct-nov
harvest period: sept-oct / march-apr
eg: rice, maize, cotton / wheat, barley, mustard, pea
- zaid crop

crop season (spring); suitable climatic condition (warm, dry weather & longer day);
growth period (bw rabi & kharif season; mar to june); eg cucumber, pumpkin, tomato, bitterguard etc
has high water content (good for hydratn after harvesting during summer season)
- efforts made to meet the increase in food demands

- green revolution (father: Norman Borlaug; MS Swaminathan in India)

increase crop productn by using (modern technology + equipment), fertilizer & quality seeds
yellow revolution: increasing oil production
golden revolution: pulse productn
blue revolution: fish productn
white revolutn: milk productn
- activities to improve crop-yield

- crop variety improvement

defn: process where crops are selected on basis of their characteristics
- objectives

improve crop resistance to biotic & abiotic stress; make crops mature quickly; wider adaptabilityu
increase yield & improve quality of crop plant
 - methods used
- hybridization

defn: process (proc) of crossing bw genetically dissimilar plants

- types
inter-varietal crossing (bw 2 different varieties of crops)
inter-specific crop (bw 2 diff species of same genus)
inter-generic (bw 2 different genera)
- introduction of genes

proc of introducing a gene that gives it desired characteristics (char) in form of genetically modified crop GMF
- crop production management (mgt)
- includes

- nutrient mgt

nutrients are substance that provide energy, helps in growth & maintenance of body; sources- air, water, soil
- types: macronutrient vs micronutrient
defn: nutrients needed in large qty are called macronutrient/ nutrient needed in less qty are called micro...
eg. N2, P, K, Ca, Mg, S/ Fe, Mn, B, Zn, Cu etc
- sources
air (CO2, O2)
water (H2, O2)
soil ( macronutrients & micronutrients)
- factors on which crop field generally depends
availability of seeds with similar high yield variety; of water; of crops that can survive diff climatic
condition
- manure
defn: organic substance made from decomposition of plants & animals and their waste
manuring: proc of adding manure to soil
- green manure

manure made when green plants r grown & plowed back while they are still growing to improve
soil fertility
- types of manure

- compost
manure made from decomposition of dead plants & animals (p & a)
method of composting: farmers dump p & a into pits> bacteria & fungi in soil decompose it
vermicompost: proc where compost is made by using red earthworm to increase decomposition of p
&a
- green manuring

proc where green plants r grown & plowed back into soil while they are still growing to
improve soil fertility
- fertilizer

- intro

is chemical that are added to soil to increase its fertility;

has nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium (NPK) for better yield (fast growth in large size)
- types
 - organic fertilizer
derived from p & a
- types
- nitrogenous fertilizer

removes nitrogen (N) deficiency in plants; N is essential for protein

manufacturing in plants
eg. urea, sodium nitrate, calcium nitrate, ammonium sulphate
- potash fertilizer

removes potassium (K) deficiency in plants; needed for early growth stage in
plants;
gives resistance against disease & adverse climate
eg. potassium nitrate, potassium sulphate, potassium chloride
- phosphatic fertilizer
removes phosphorus (P) deficiency; needed for root development during early
growth stage in plants
also needed for cell division; eg. super phosphate, trimmonium phosphate
- mixed or complex fertilizer

fertilizer which have at least 2 or more nutrients; eg. urea, ammonium

phosphate, nitro phosphate
advantages (adv): good vegetative growth; produces more food; makes plants healthy
disadv: water pollutn; costly; changes soil's nature; reduces soil fertility; harms micro-
organisms in soil
- inorganic fertilizer
derived from chemicals; has macronutrients like NPK
types
- organic farming

defn: proc of farming using less or no amount of fertilizer (herbicide & pesticide)
adv: prevent environment (env) pollutn; improves soil health; food is free from toxic chemicals
- irrigation mgt
proc of supplying water to crop plant; includes wells, canals, tanker, river etc
irrigation methods used in India: tubewell, river, pond, persian wheel, rain, dam
- cropping pattern
defn: arrangement of different crops grown on land for specific duration
- types
- mixed cropping

practice of growing 2 or more crops at same time in same field with no definite pattern; eg wheat &
mustard
criteria: crop shud have different maturation time, nutrient need, water need & root-length
- adv

reduced risk of crop failure; multiple variety can be harvested at same time
better yield; soil is used properly
- inter cropping
 practice of growing 2 or more crops at same time in same field with definite rows; eg. soyabean &
maize
- adv

better yield; maintain soil fertility; max use of nutrients present in soil
- crop rotation
practice of growing different crops in same field alternately
- crop protection management

- weeds
unwanted plants in cultivated field; eg xanthium, parthenium
harmful effects: poor yield; low quality yield; wastage of land, soil nutrients, fertilizer & water
protection method: protection method: hand pulling, chemical herbicide, better cropping, tillage
insect: they attack plants in 3 ways: cut root+stem+leaf; bore into stem & fruits; suck out sap
- pathogen

organism that causes disease in plants; eg. fungi, virus; can be present & transmitted through soil
protection: use pesticide (herbicide, insecticide,fungicide, bactericide)
- storage of food grains

food grain are first dried under sunlight to reduce moisture before storage to prevent fungal growth
done by govt agency like Food Corporation of India FCI; buys grains in large scale & store it in large godown
- ways to protect food grain b4 they are stored
drying (under sunlight); maintain godown hygiene (clean walls, close cracks in roof, shield wall,
fumigation (kills pest & pathogens)
- storage devices
devices used to store grains; characteristics- clean, dried, air-tight, moisture & temperature resistant
- animal husbandry
scientific management of domestic animals in efficient manner to get food & other useful products
- cattle farming
process of raising cattle from birth until the point in which they provide food or milk
purpose: milk productn, ploughing fields, transportation using bullock-carts
types: cow & buffalos
milch animal aka dairy animal: milk producing female animal
drought animal aka work animal: used in field-ploughing and transportation
dual purpose animal: combination of milk-yielding cows & field-working bullocks; eg. sahiwal
lactation period: period of milk production bw virth of calf & next pregnancy
- breed

foreign/ exotic breeds: eg. jersey, brown swiss

local breeds: eg. red sindhi, sahiwal
- caring for cattle

maintain cleanliness; regularly brush its skin; give roofed shelter with good ventilatn to protect from weather
- food requirement

for maintenance: enables animals to live a healthy life

- for milk-producing

enables animals to produce more milk during lactation period

- types
 roughage: has more fibre; less nutrients; eg. hay, straw, grass, silage
concentrate: has less fibre, more nutrients like protein, vitamin, minerals; eg. corn, soybean, etc
- parasitic disease in cattles (occurs due to parasite)

- parasite
small organism which gets nutrients from & live inside or outside of host organism
- types

ectoparasite (external parasite): live on skin; causes skin disease

endoparasite (internal parasite): live in stomach, intestine, liver & damage them; eg. liver fluke
infectious disease: disease that transmit from infected animal to healthy animal
- poultry farming
done for egg & meat; includes chicken & ducks
- objective

low cost & maintenance; more & better yield; cheap feed; summer adaptatn capacity
- process of poultry management
select disease free & suitable poultry breed> give proper food, water & housing> ensure hygiene & health care
- types of poultry

broiler: bird grown for obtaining meat; used after 6-8 week after birth; can tolerate heat; reduce cost by 80%
layers: bird grown for obtaining eggs; used after 20 weeks after birth
- fish farming (pisciculture or aqua culture)
includes catching, processing & selling of fishes & other aquatic animals
- adv
employment; cheaply availabe; available in high volume for growing poulatn
- ways of obtaining fish

capturing fish: fishing from natural resources like sea, river

culture fishing: fishing from confined area where fishes r cultivated with care for max yield
- edible fishes

fresh water fishes: cutla, rohu, common carp, grass carp, mrigal
marine water or sea/salt water fishes: hilsa, sardine, tuna, mackerel, bombay duck, butter fish
- composite fish culture

5-6 varieties of fishes with different food requirement are cultivated in a pond; fishes don't compete for food
eg: cutla in upper part of water, rohu in middle part, common carp at bottom part of water
- problem faced
fish breed only in monsoon; lack of quality food & quality seed
- adv

fish dont compete over food due to different food habit; max use of available food
- economic importance

employment; gives cheap source of animal protein; used to make fish-oil; used for export
- bee-keeping (apiculture)
practice of bee-keeping & their management for commercial production of honey
- honey

sweet aromatic liquid which is obtained from flower-nectar; almond honey of kashmir is the best honey
contains glucose, fructose, enzymes, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, etc
- uses of honey
 sweetening food & beverages; natural remedy for sore throat & cough; heals wounds & burns
preserve food & vegetable; helps in growth (nutrient rich); blood purificatn; improves digestn
- varieties of honey bee
apis india (indian), apis mellifera (italian), apis dorsala (rock), apis florae (little), apis adansonii (south africa)
- castes among honey-bee
- queen (supreme bee)
mother of whole colony; largest body size; lays eggs; workers from fertilized eggs; drone from unfertilized eggs
- drones

male bees; hatches from unfertilized eggs; mates with queen bee; depends on worker bee for food
- workers
sterile female bees; most active member of bee colony; lives 6-10 months; functn: guarding, nursing, foraging
- advantage of italian bee over other bees
gives more honey yield; are stingless; stay active outside hive for long period
- factors in management for high yield of honey
- pasturage crop

are crops cultivated mainly to feed nectar to honey bees; affects honey quality & quantity
eg. mango, litchi, apple, guava, mustard etc
apiary location: it should be near a good pasturage crop
- swarming

is process of division of honey colony to form new colonies; leads to reduced honey yield
- phy
- 1 motion
- rest

objt doesn't change position wrt to surrounding; eg sitting person on chair

- motion
objt changes position wrt to surrounding; eg walking man
- distance
total length of path covered by an objt; unit m
- displacement
shortest distance bw initial and final position of objt
- uniform motion
objt covers equal distance in equal time interval; eg movemnt of watch/s hands + obj covering 5 m each sec
- non-uniform motion
objt covers unequal distance in equal time interval; eg car moving in traffic; person walking in park
- speed
distance covered by an objt per unit time; speed = distance/time; SI unit is m/s; scaler quantity
- types

uniform speed: objt covers equal distance in equal time interval

non-uniform speed: objt covers unequal distance in equal time interval
avg speed: ratio of (total distance) covered by an objt to (total time); avg speed = (total distance)(total time)
instantaneous speed: objt speed at a particuar instant; shown by speedometer in bikes and cars
- velocity (vel)
displacement (disp) of an objt per unit time; velocity = disp/time; unit is m/s; vector quantity
 - types
uniform vel: objt covers equal disp in equal time interval
non-uniform vel: objt covers unequal disp in equal time interval
avg vel: ratio of (total disp) covered by an objt to (total time); avg speed = (total disp)(total time)
- acceleration (acce)
change in vel per unit time; acce = (change in vel)/time = (final vel - initial vel)/ time = (v-u)/t
unit is m/s^2; vector qty; can be 0, +ve, or -ve
- magnitude value may be

zero acce: objt is in uniform motion (v = u); a = (v-u)/t = (v-v)/t = 0/t = 0

+ve acce: if objt vel inc with time (v>u); eg rocket launch
-ve acce (retardatn/ deceleratn): if object vel dec with time (v<u); eg paratrooper open parachute; brake
- types
uniform acce: objt vel changes equally in equal interval of time; eg freely falling obj under eff of gravity
non-uniform acce: objt vel changes unequally in equal interval of time; eg car motion in a traffinc
- graphical represntatn

- distance-time graph
for an objt (at rest + in uniform motion + in non-uni motion)
- vel-time graph

for an objt (in uni + uniformly accelerated + uni-retarded + non-uni accelerated) motion
- eqn of motion

1st: v = u+at
2nd: s = (ut + 1/2 at^2)
3rd: v^2 - u^2 =2as
- circular motio

objt motion along a circular path with a centre

- uniform circular motion (ucm)
objt motion with uniform speed along a circular path with a centre; ucm speed (v) = (2 pi r)/t
- diff bw

- distance vs displacement

defn/ defn
scaler/ vector
+ve/ both +ve and -ve
can be > displacemnt/ can be < distance
- speed vs vel

defn/ defn
scaler/ vector
is never -ve or zero/ can be -ve or zero
avg speed is always finite & non zero/ avg vel can be zero
- 2 forces and laws of motion
- force F
external effort in form of push, pull, stretch, compress etc; SI unit is newton N
- types

balanced: net force acting on body is 0; eg objt kept on a table

 unbalanced: net force acting on body in non-zero; eg boat floating in water
- inertia
objt property to resist change in state of rest, motion and dirctn
- types
- of rest

objt at rest moves only due to external force; eg person fall backward when train moves; mango falls down
- of motion
objt in motion stops due to ext force; eg person fall forward due to brake or while falling out of moving train
- of direction
objt in motion moves in straight line until ext force acts on it; eg person moves outward on road turns in bus
- newton's law

- 1st
an object at rest stays at rest, & an object in uni-motion stays in uni-motion unless an ext f acts on it
in other words, inertia changes only due to ext f
- 2nd (law of action and rxn)
every actn has an equal & opp rxn; eg recoiling of gun; rocket launch; walking; swimming
- momemtum or linear-momentum (p)
defn: product of mass and velocity for an objt moving in straight line; p=mv; SI unit is kgm/s
- law of conservation of linear momentum

sum of total momentum of both bodies b4 & after collision remains same; (m1u1+m2u2) = (m1v1+m2v2)
- 3 gravitation
phenomenon of attraction bw any 2 objt in universe
- newton's universal law of gravitatn
- every obj attracts other obj with a force which is
directly proportional to product of their masses (F @ m1m2)
inversely prop to square of distance bw their centre (F @ 1/ r^2
Gravitational force, F = Gm1m2/ (r^2) ; where G is Universal Gravitational Constant
- kepler's law

1st: every planet revolves around sun in elliptical orbit

2nd: equal area is covered in equal interval of time bw centre of sun and planets
3rd: T^2/ r^3 = k (constant); it is used to find time-period of planets
- acceleration due to gravity (g)
- relatn bw g and G

g = GM/ (R^2)
- variation of acceleration due to gravity (g)
at poles g is maximum as distance R is min
at equator g is minimum as distance R is max
- weight
force with which the body is attracted towards the centre of earth; w = mg; unit is N
moon's weight is 1/6th of earth's weight
- mass vs weight
qty of matter contained in an objt/ force with which objt is attracted to earth's centre
scaler/ vector
 kg/ N
never 0/ is zero at centre of earth
- 4 floatation
- thrust
force acting normally (perpendicular) on a surface; unit is newton N; vector qty
- pressure (P)

thrust acting on unit area on a surface; P = F/A; unit is N/m^2 & Pascal (Pa)
- density

mass per unit volume; density = mass/volume; unit is kg/(m^3)

- fluid
substances which flow; eg. gas and liquids
- pascal's law
it states that pressure applied to fluid is equally transmitted in all dirctn & container-wall without loss
bouyant force: upward F acting on partially or wholly submerged objt; it causes objt to float
buoyancy: property of objt due to which objt float under upward F acting on partially or wholly submerged objt
- archimedes principle
a body immersed partially or wholly in a liquid experiences an upthrust which is = weight of liquid displaced
- 5 work energy
- work
- defn

work done (wd) by a F acting on an objt is = product of F & disp in dirctn of F; W = F x s;

unit is Nm or Joule J; scaler qty
- types
+ve work: if F and disp are in same dirctn
-ve work: if F and disp are in opposite dirctn
zero work: if F and disp are in perpendicular to each other
- energy
defn: capacity of doing work; unit is Joule J
- types
- kinetic energy KE:
energy due to motion; eg bullet fired from gun, wind energy; KE = 1/2 mv^2
- potential energy PE:
energy due to its position under gravity; eg lifted weight; water in reservoir; PE = mgh
- law of conservatn of energy

energy can neither be created or destroyed; it changes from one form to another
- energy transformatn

converting energy from one form to another; eg PE of water in reservoir is convertd into electricity thru dam
- 6 sound
- sound defn

mechanical energy in the form of vibratn which produces feeling of hearing sound
- compressn
region in longitudinal wave where particles are closer; occurs at crest
- rarefaction
 region in longitudinal wave where particles are farther away; occurs at trough
- basic terminologies
- amplitude (A)

magnitude of max disturbance in medium

- frequency (f or neu)
number of cycles per second; unit is Hertz (Hz)
- range of f
sound wave or audible wave: 20 Hz TO 20 KHz (or 20,000 Hz)
infrasonic wave or infrasound: below 20 Hz; audible to elephants
ultrasonic wave or ultrasound: above 20 KHz; audible to dog, dolphin, bat etc
- time-period (T)
time-taken to complete one cycle; SI unit is second
- wavelength (lambda)
min distance in which sound wave repeat itself
- relations
f vs T: f = 1/T
speed of sound (v), frequency f, wavelength (lambda): v = f x lambda; sound-speed most in solid>liquid>air
- characteristics (char)
- loudness
measure of sound energy reaching ear per second; more amplitude = more energy = more loud
unit is Decibal (db); audible range in human is 20Hz to 20,000Hz
- pitch
sound char which is used to differentiate bw sound of same loudness; depends on f
- quality (timbre) of musical instruments
sound char which is used to diff bw sound of same loudness & pitch; depends on shape of sound wave
- echo

when sound is reflected from an obstacle within 0.1 sec

- reverberatn

when sound is reflected from an obstacle after 0.1 sec; reduced by carpetting floor; upholstering furniture