Designing for High Frequencies

The higher the frequencies, the more Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) occurs within the PCB traces
and components. Every device, trace and via acts as a source of EMI. The EMI coupling arises in many
forms: capacitive, inductive, galvanic and radiated power.

Clock signals

The waveform of a clock signal is typically thought of as a square wave. However, in reality, it is not
possible for the electrons to change from a low voltage signal to a high voltage signal in a short amount of
time. Capacitance, impedance and inductance of the circuit causes square pulses to become trapezoid as
the frequency goes up. The designer will use various technical designs, such as micro strip design to
lower the capacitance and control impedance of a circuit. An important aspect in the frequency domain is
the amplitude of the higher frequency harmonics depends on the rise and fall time of the signal. The
higher the frequency, the larger the magnitude of the harmonics will be, especially the third and fifth. If
the lengths of the traces are in the range of the signal's harmonic wavelength, the designer has to consider
the use of transmission lines. The problems a designer must overcome include time delay, reflections and
crosstalk; all of which affect the signal as it transverses the PCB.

Transmission lines

Many different structures of trace routing are possible on a high frequency PCB. The two most common
structures are a microstrip and a stripline circuit. A microstrip has one ground plane and a trace separated
by a dielectric. A stripline has two ground planes with a trace in the middle surrounded by dielectric.
There are many good software tools available to calculate the properties of the various transmission lines.

A signal cannot pass along a trace with infinite speed, so it therefore needs time to travel the length of the
trace, i.e. propagation delay time. The dielectric Dk of a PCB will determine the actual speed. Newer high
frequency, lower Dk materials from Isola and Rogers are allowing higher speed designs. Variables such
as the width of the microstrip, the distance to the ground plane, the trace width and its distance to the
ground plane all need to be calculated.

Any impedance changes in a trace as it travels through the PCB will cause reflections at the change point.
These changes occur in open areas of a ground plane as the trace is routed over, or in layers and through
vias, as well as when the trace passes areas of higher glass concentration in the PCB.

The electrical influence between two parallel, nearby located traces due to inductive and capacitive
coupling is called crosstalk. In a microstrip design, the forward current of the inductive coupling tends to
be larger than the influence of the capacitive coupling. To minimize the effects of crosstalk on adjacent
traces, they need to be kept at least two times the trace width apart. In differential signal circuits, the
electromagnetic fields cancel each other out. However, the traces for both signals must have the same
length to keep the propagation delay times equal. To keep the signal levels of the differential circuit the
same, route the differential traces as close as possible and maintain the same length.
Power and Grounds

Electrical circuits must always be a closed loop. The return current takes the lowest resistance path back.
With higher frequency, the return current flows along the lowest impedance close to the signal. Slots and
open areas of a ground plane force the return path to detour, causing radiation and EMI problems.

A good PCB design starts with the location of each functional block. Keep the devices and their traces
together. The designer must think about the following: controlled impedance, termination, propagation
delay on a trace, deciding on a simple microstrip or an extra layer for stripline technique, accommodating
for different supply voltages if they exist and, if necessary, supplying each supply voltage with its own
power plane.

Try to keep the devices together to avoid crosstalk between two separate blocks (such as input/output or
analog/digital). With high-speed designs, it is important to have at least one complete ground plane as a
return for microstrip traces. Design a power plane as close as possible to the ground plane to create
capacitive coupling low impedance at high frequencies, which will reduce the amount of decoupling
capacitors needed. Specify the minimum trace width, separation, height of a trace and especially the
laminate material to use on each layer.

A complete power plane is recommended for all high-speed circuits’ return path, as several regulated
voltages can be present. Every voltage should have its own layer and its own ground plane if allowed by
the number of layers. Do not route a signal referenced to digital ground over analog ground and vice
versa. If possible, use a continuous ground plane; do not split them. Connect split ground planes only to
one point. Multiple common ground connections create ground loops, which increases EMI. The return
current of an analog circuit should not be in the path of the digital circuit. The return current should flow
directly to the common ground point.

Decoupling capacitors

Decoupling capacitors between the power pin and ground pin of the device ensures low AC impedance to
reduce noise. To achieve low impedance over a wide frequency range, several capacitors with different
values must be used to achieve low AC impedance over a wide frequency range. Place the lowest valued
capacitor as close as possible to the device power pin to minimize the inductive influence of the trace.

Traces

A sharp right angle in a trace causes more EMI. The capacitance and impedance increases in the corner
which causes reflections. Route traces with 45° corners or a round bend to minimize any impedance
change. Separate or route at 90° high-speed signals from low-speed signals and digital from analog
signals, to minimize crosstalk between two signals on one layer but also between adjacent layers. The use
of vias is essential in PCB design, but good designers are careful when using them. They add additional
trace length, inductance and capacitance, causing reflections due to the change in the characteristic
impedance. Avoid using a single via in only one of the two differential traces. Rather, use vias in both
traces to create the same delay. Place extra ground vias around the signal via to make sure that the return
current can flow close to the signal and control impedance. Via stubs, blind vias and buried vias all
reduce impedance.
The higher the signal frequency, the more complicated the PCB design will be, which requires
knowledge, experience and simulation tools. The designer must know the sensitive parts in the circuit or
where problems due to reflections can occur.