The giant BOOK 1000 pages on

The Mysteries of NUSUNTARA

Dr Uday Dokras
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’
COLLECTIVE

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 I N T R O D U C T I O N

Southeast Asia, vast region of Asia situated east of the Indian subcontinent and south
of China. It consists of two dissimilar portions: a continental projection (commonly called
mainland Southeast Asia) and a string of archipelagoes to the south and east of the mainland
(insular Southeast Asia). Extending some 700 miles (1,100 km) southward from the mainland
into insular Southeast Asia is the Malay Peninsula; this peninsula structurally is part of the
mainland, but it also shares many ecological and cultural affinities with the surrounding
islands and thus functions as a bridge between the two regions.

Mainland Southeast Asia is divided into the countries

of Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Vietnam, and the small city-state
of Singapore at the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula; Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam,
which occupy the eastern portion of the mainland, often are collectively called the
Indochinese Peninsula. Malaysia is both mainland and insular, with a western portion on the
Malay Peninsula and an eastern part on the island of Borneo. Except for the small sultanate
of Brunei (also on Borneo), the remainder of insular Southeast Asia consists of the
archipelagic nations of Indonesia and the Philippines.

Southeast Asia stretches some 4,000 miles at its greatest extent (roughly from northwest to
southeast) and encompasses some 5,000,000 square miles (13,000,000 square km) of land
and sea, of which about 1,736,000 square miles is land. Mount Hkakabo in northern
Myanmar on the border with China, at 19,295 feet (5,881 metres), is the highest peak of
mainland Southeast Asia. Although the modern nations of the region are sometimes thought
of as being small, they are—with the exceptions of Singapore and Brunei—comparatively
large. Indonesia, for example, is more than 3,000 miles from west to east (exceeding the
west-east extent of the continental United States) and more than 1,000 miles from north to
south; the area of Laos is only slightly smaller than that of the United Kingdom; and
Myanmar is considerably larger than France.

All of Southeast Asia falls within the tropical and subtropical climatic zones, and much of it
receives considerable annual precipitation. It is subject to an extensive and regular monsoonal
weather system (i.e., one in which the prevailing winds reverse direction every six months)
that produces marked wet and dry periods in most of the region. Southeast Asia’s landscape
is characterized by three intermingled physical elements: mountain ranges, plains and
plateaus, and water in the form of both shallow seas and extensive drainage systems. Of
these, the rivers probably have been of the greatest historical and cultural significance, for
waterways have decisively shaped forms of settlement and agriculture, determined
fundamental political and economic patterns, and helped define the nature of Southeast
Asians’ worldview and distinctive cultural syncretism. It also has been of great importance
that Southeast Asia, which is the most easily accessible tropical region in the world, lies
strategically astride the sea passage between East Asia and the Middle Eastern–
Mediterranean world.

Within this broad outline, Southeast Asia is perhaps the most diverse region on Earth. The
number of large and small ecological niches is more than matched by a staggering variety of
economic, social, and cultural niches Southeast Asians have developed for themselves;
hundreds of ethnic groups and languages have been identified. Under these circumstances, it
often is difficult to keep in mind the region’s underlying unity, and it is understandable that

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Southeast Asia should so often be treated as a miscellaneous collection of cultures that simply
do not quite fit anywhere else.

Yet from ancient times Southeast Asia has been considered by its neighbours to be a region in
its own right and not merely an extension of their own lands. The Chinese called it Nanyang
and the Japanese Nan’yō, both names meaning “South Seas,” and South Asians used such
terms as Suvarnabhūmi (Sanskrit: “Land of Gold”) to describe the area.

Modern scholarship increasingly has yielded evidence of broad commonalities uniting the
peoples of the region across time. Studies in historical linguistics, for example, have
suggested that the vast majority of Southeast Asian languages—even many of those
previously considered to have separate origins—either sprang from common roots or have
been long and inseparably intertwined. Despite inevitable variation among societies, common
views of gender, family structure, and social hierarchy and mobility may be discerned
throughout mainland and insular Southeast Asia, and a broadly common commercial and
cultural inheritance has continued to affect the entire region for several millennia. These and
other commonalities have yet to produce a conscious or precise Southeast Asian identity, but
they have given substance to the idea of Southeast Asia as a definable world region and have
provided a framework for the comparative study of its components.
William H. Frederick

Physiography of SE Asia

The physiography of Southeast Asia has been formed to a large extent by the convergence of
three of the Earth’s major crustal units: the Eurasian, Indian-Australian, and Pacific plates.
The land has been subjected to a considerable amount of faulting, folding, uplifting,
and volcanic activity over geologic time, and much of the region is mountainous. There are
marked structural differences between the mainland and insular portions of the region.
Mainland Southeast Asia

The mainland is characterized by a series of generally north–south-trending mountain ranges

separated by a number of major river valleys and their associated deltas. In many ways these
ranges resemble ribs in a fan, where the interstices are deep trenches carved by the rivers.
Although the mainland as a whole is similar in a structural sense, its various geologic
components and the time periods of their orogenic (mountain-building) episodes differ. Much
of the region has been affected by the gradual, continuing collision of the Indian
subcontinent with the Eurasian Plate over roughly the past 50 million years, an event that—
with diminishing intensity from west to east—has been responsible for deforming the land.
Nonetheless, mainland Southeast Asia is relatively stable geologically, with no active or
recently active volcanoes and, except in the northwest and north, little seismic activity.

The ranges fan out southward from the southeastern corner of the Plateau of Tibet, where
they are tightly spaced. A major rib of this system extends through the entire western margin
of Myanmar (Burma); describing an elongated letter S, it consists of (from north to south) the
Pātkai Range, Nāga Hills, Chin Hills, and Arakan Mountains. Farther to the south the same
rib emerges from beneath the sea to become the Andaman and Nicobar Islands of India.

Another major system extends along a straight north-south axis from eastern Myanmar east
of the Salween River through northwestern Thailand to south of the Isthmus of Kra on the
Malay Peninsula. It consists of a series of elongated blocks rather than one continuous ridge.

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The core of these blocks is granite, which has intruded into previously folded and
faulted limestone and sandstone. The altitudes of the ranges diminish from above 8,000 feet
(2,440 metres) on the Chinese border in the north to below 4,000 feet on the Isthmus of Kra,
and the ranges are spread farther apart toward the south.

The easternmost major mountain feature on the mainland is the Annamese Cordillera (Chaîne
Annamitique) in Laos and Vietnam. In the portion between Laos and Vietnam, the chain
forms a nearly straight spine of ranges from northwest to southeast, with a steep face rising
from the South China Sea to the east and a more gradual slope to the west. The mountains
thin out considerably south of Laos and become asymmetrical in form. The upland zone is
characterized by a number of plateau remnants.

The rather neat fanlike pattern of the mountain ranges is interrupted occasionally by several
old blocks of strata that have been folded, faulted, and deeply dissected. These ancient
massifs now form either low platforms or high plateaus. The westernmost of these, the Shan
Plateau of eastern Myanmar, measures some 250 miles (400 km) from north to south and 75
miles from east to west and has an average elevation of about 3,000 feet. The largest of these
features is the Korat Plateau in eastern Thailand and west-central Laos. This area actually is
more of a low platform, which on average is only a few hundred feet above the floodplains of
the surrounding rivers. It consists of a string of hills that direct surface drainage eastward to
the Mekong River. The hills range in elevation from 500 to 2,000 feet, with the highest
altitudes occurring near the southwestern rim.

The broad river valleys between the uplands and the even wider deltas at the southernmost
points contain most of the mainland’s lowland areas. These regions generally are covered
with alluvial sediments that support much of the mainland’s cultivation and, in turn, most of
its population centres. The most extensive coastal lowland is the lower Mekong basin,
which encompasses most of Cambodia and southern Vietnam. The Cambodian portion is a
broad, bowl-shaped area lying just above sea level, with numerous hill outcrops jutting above
the landscape; at its centre is a large freshwater lake, the Tonle Sap. To the south the river’s
vast, flat delta occupies the entire southern tip of Vietnam. Outside the river deltas, the
coastal lowlands are little more than narrow strips between the mountains and the sea, except
around the southern half of the Malay Peninsula.

The Malay Peninsula stretches south for some 900 miles from the head of the Gulf of
Thailand (Siam) to Singapore and thus extends the mainland into insular Southeast Asia. The
narrowest point, the Isthmus of Kra (about 40 miles wide), also roughly divides the peninsula
into two parts: the long linear mountain ranges of the northern part described above give way
just south of the isthmus to blocks of short, parallel ranges aligned north-south, so that the
southern portion trends to the southeast and becomes much wider. In areas such as the west
coast between southern Thailand and northwestern Malaysia, distinctive karst-limestone
landscapes have developed. Peaks on the peninsula range from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in
elevation.
Insular Southeast Asia

Characteristic of insular (or archipelagic) Southeast Asia are the chains of islands—
the Malay and Philippine archipelagoes—that have been formed along the boundaries of the
three crustal segments of the Earth that meet there. Crustal instability is marked throughout
the region. Earthquakes and volcanic activity are quite common along the entire southern and

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eastern margin. One consequence of the seismic activity is that a large number of lakes are
found in the region.

Dominating the region is the Sunda Shelf, the portion of the Asian continental shelf that
extends southward from the Gulf of Thailand to the Java Sea. Where the shelf meets and
overrides the oceanic crust to the south, the vast volcanic arc of the Greater and Lesser Sunda
islands have been formed. The islands are characterized by highland cores, from which flow
short rivers across the narrow coastal plains. The shallow waters of the Sunda Shelf are as
important to the inhabitants as the land, since the sea has facilitated communication and trade
among the islands. At one time, sea levels were considerably lower than now, and land
bridges existed on the Sunda Shelf that connected the islands and allowed plants and animals
to migrate throughout the region.

The extreme southeastern islands of Southeast Asia—the eastern Moluccas (Maluku) and the
island of New Guinea—lie on the Sahul Shelf, a northwestern extension of Australia, and
structurally are not part of Asia. In the east the Philippine Islands rise between two blocks of
sinking (subducted) oceanic crust at the boundary of the Eurasian and Pacific plates.
Fluvial destiny of Southeast Asia

Mainland Southeast Asia is drained by five major river systems, which from west to east are
the Irrawaddy, Salween, Chao Phraya, Mekong, and Red rivers. The three largest systems—
the Irrawaddy, Salween, and Mekong—have their origins in the Plateau of Tibet. These three
rivers are somewhat atypical: their middle and upper drainage basins are not broad catchment
areas with many small tributaries feeding larger ones but rather consist of a few streams
confined to narrow, closely spaced valleys.

The Irrawaddy River flows through western Myanmar, draining the eastern slope of the
country’s western mountain chain and the western slope of the Shan Plateau. Although the
river itself is shorter than either the Salween or the Mekong rivers, its lowland areas are more
extensive. Most conspicuous is its delta, which is about 120 miles wide at its base and is
expanding rapidly into the Andaman Sea.

The Salween River flows for several hundred miles through southern China before entering
eastern Myanmar. In contrast to the Irrawaddy, the Salween is a highlands river throughout
nearly all of its course. Its drainage basin is highly restricted with few tributaries, and its delta
area is small. Even though the Salween’s catchment area is limited and is sheltered from
seasonal rains, its water volume fluctuates considerably from season to season.

The Mekong—one of the world’s great river systems—is the longest river of mainland
Southeast Asia and has the largest drainage basin. After flowing for some 1,200 miles
through southern China, the Mekong flows for nearly 1,500 more miles through Laos (where
it also forms much of the western border of the country), Cambodia, and Vietnam. The Tonle
Sap in Cambodia, the largest lake in Southeast Asia, drains into the vast Mekong delta. The
area of the lake varies greatly with the precipitation cycle of the region.

The Chao Phraya River is the major river of Thailand and the shortest of the great rivers of
the mainland. Rising in the northwestern highlands of Thailand, it drains the western portion
of northern Thailand. The densely populated delta contains Bangkok, Thailand’s capital and
the largest city on the mainland. The Red River of northern Vietnam has the smallest

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drainage basin of the major rivers. The river follows a narrow valley through southern China
and northwestern Vietnam before flowing into a relatively small lowland.
Soils

Southeast Asia, on balance, has a higher proportion of relatively fertile soils than most
tropical regions, and soil erosion is less severe than elsewhere. Much of the region, however,
is covered by tropical soils that generally are quite poor in nutrients. Often the profusion of
plant life is more related to heat and moisture than to soil quality, even though these climatic
conditions intensify both chemical weathering and the rate of bacterial action that usually
improve soil fertility. Once the vegetation cover is removed, the supply of humus quickly
disappears. In addition, the often heavy rainfall leaches the soils of their soluble nutrients,
hastens erosion, and damages the soil texture. The leaching process in part results in laterites
of reddish clay that contain hydroxides of iron and alumina.

Laterite soils are common in parts of Myanmar, Thailand, and Vietnam and also occur in the
islands of the Sunda Shelf, notably Borneo. The most fertile soils occur in regions of volcanic
activity, where the ejecta is chemically alkaline or neutral. Such soils are found in parts
of Sumatra and much of Java in Indonesia. The alluvial soils of the river valleys also are
highly fertile and are intensively cultivated.
Climate

All of Southeast Asia falls within the warm, humid tropics, and its climate generally can be
characterized as monsoonal (i.e., marked by wet and dry periods). Changing seasons are more
associated with rainfall than with temperature variations. There is, however, a high degree of
climatic complexity within the region.
Temperatures

Regional temperatures at or near sea level remain fairly constant throughout the year,
although monthly averages tend to vary more with increasing latitude. Thus, with the
exception of northern Vietnam, annual average temperatures are close to 80 °F (27 °C).
Increasing elevation acts to decrease average temperatures, and such locations as
the Cameron Highlands in peninsular Malaysia and Baguio in the Philippines have become
popular tourist destinations in part because of their relatively cooler climates. Proximity to
the sea also tends to moderate temperatures.
Precipitation

Much of Southeast Asia receives more than 60 inches (1,500 millimetres) of rainfall
annually, and many areas commonly receive double and even triple that amount. The rainfall
pattern is distinctly affected by two prevailing air currents: the northeast (or
dry) monsoon and the southwest (or wet) monsoon.

The northeast monsoon occurs roughly from November to March and brings relatively dry,
cool air and little precipitation to the mainland. As the southwestward-flowing air passes over
the warmer sea, it gradually warms and gathers moisture. Precipitation is especially heavy
where the airstream is forced to rise over mountains or encounters a landmass. The east coast
of peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, and parts of eastern Indonesia receive the heaviest
rains during this period.

The southwest monsoon prevails from May to September, when the air current reverses and
the dominant flow is to the northeast. The mainland receives the bulk of its rainfall during

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this period. Over much of the southern Malay Peninsula and insular Southeast Asia there is
little or no prolonged dry season. This is especially marked in much of the equatorial region
and along the east coast of the Philippines.

While the dry and wet monsoons are important in explaining rainfall patterns, so too are such
factors as relief, land and sea breezes, convectional overturning and cyclonic disturbances.
These factors often are combined with monsoonal effects to produce highly variable rainfall
patterns over relatively short distances. While many of the cyclonic disturbances produce
only moderate rainfall, others mature into tropical storms—called cyclones in the Indian
Ocean and typhoons in the Pacific—that bring heavy rains and destruction to the areas over
which they pass. The Philippines are particularly affected by these storms.
Plant life

Religions
Today, Buddhism, Islam, and Christianity are all practiced within Southeast Asia. Buddhism,
particularly the more orthodox Theravada form, dominates the religious pattern of most of the
mainland; only in northern Vietnam is the more liberal Mahayana Buddhism more common.
Hinduism, once much more widespread, now is practiced by many people in the region’s
Indian communities. In addition, this religion, modified by animism and other influences, is
the primary faith on the island of Bali in Indonesia. Various forms of animism also are
practiced in the region’s more remote areas, particularly in central Borneo, northern Laos,
and northern Myanmar.

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 II
What’s in a Name ?

Nusantara most commonly refers to:

Nusantara (archipelago), an Old Javanese term which initially referred to the conquered
territories of the Majapahit Empire, corresponding to present-day Indonesia.

Nusantara is an Indonesian word for the Indonesian archipelago. It is originated from Old
Javanese and literally means "archipelago". In Malay, Nusantara bears the meaning of Malay
World.

The word Nusantara was taken from an oath by Gajah Mada in 1336, as written on an old
Javanese manuscript Pararaton and Negarakertagama. Gajah Mada was a powerful military
leader and prime minister of the Majapahit Empire who was credited with bringing the
empire to its peak of glory. Gajah Mada delivered an oath called Sumpah Palapa, in which he
vowed not to eat any food containing spices until he had conquered all of Nusantara under the
glory of Majapahit.

Today, Indonesian historian believed that the concept of Nusantara was not an idea coined by
Gajah Mada for the first time in 1336. It was coined earlier in 1275 as Cakravala Mandala
Dvipantara by Kertanegara, king of Singhasari. Nusantara is the Indonesian/Malay name of
Maritime Southeast Asia. It is an Old Javanese term which literally means "outer islands". In
Indonesia, it is generally taken to mean the Indonesian archipelago, while in Malaysia the
term has been adopted to mean the Malay Archipelago.

Dvipantara is a Sanskrit word for the "islands in between", the synonym to Nusantara as
both dvipa and nusa in Sanskrit means "island". The concept Nusantara is derived from two
Sanskrit words: nusa meaning 'island' and antara meaning 'in between' or 'including'. It made
its way into old Javanese texts, where nūsāntara can be translated as 'other islands'. 1 The
meaning of the term has, however, changed over time. The term is used to describe the
Southeast Asian Archipelago. Kertanegara envisioned the union of Southeast Asian maritime
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kingdoms under Singhasari against the rising of expansive Mongol Yuan Dynasty in
mainland China.

More on etymology: According to others, Nusantara originates from Indonesia and refers to
the part of the Maritime Waters in Southeast Asia. It means "outer islands" in old Javanese
and is better known as the Indonesian Archipelago.

However, in the Malay realm, Nusantara is better known as the Malay archipelago which also
involves several countries in Southeast Asia including Malaysia, Indonesia, Southern
Thailand, the Philippines, and so on.

Negarakertagama manuscripts have recorded that the archipelago today covers Sumatra, Kalimantan, Nusa Tenggara, part of
Sulawesi, and the surrounding islands/ A book Negarakertagama Kawi: In Kawi Script, 2017 by M. P. U.
Prapanca (Author), Mahisa Graphic (Author)

Negarakertagama is Indonesian old manuscript written manuscripts MPU Prapanca and completed in
1365. (Information year completed and the profile is written in the author's own

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And at that time, parts of Maluku Island, West Papua, Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, Southern
Thailand, and even Southern Philippines were also included in the archipelago.

NUSANTARA IN MODERN USAGE

For Indonesia, Nusantara is an area of waters/islands that are under the Indonesian state
only.This means that it is not included with other countries such as Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, and so on.Nusantara is also proposed by the President of Indonesia Joko Widodo in
2017 to be used as the name of the new future capital of Indonesia that is set to be
inaugurated in 2024.

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Nusantara has a broader meaning than just national borders.

However, in contrast to its use in the Malay world, Nusantara does not involve the influence
of national borders, but it refers to the influence of the Austronesian cultural line and the
linguistic archipelago that involves the countries within its area.

It means that Nusantara has a broader meaning than just national borders.

If we dive into more details, countries that are in the Nusantara have some common points in
various aspects such as culture, beliefs, language, lore, and even food.
Combining them, the Nusantara is rich with a uniqueness that is able to divert the world's
attention toward us.

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 Maps By Gunawan Kartapranata –
All said and done the term is commonly erroneously translated as "archipelago" in modern
times. Based on the Majapahit concept of state, the monarch had power over three areas:

1. Negara Agung, or the Grand State – the core realm of the kingdom where Majapahit
formed before becoming an empire.

2. Mancanegara, the areas surrounding Negara Agung – this traditionally referred to the
Majapahit provinces of East and Central Java ruled by the Bhres (dukes), the king's
close relatives. This included the rest of Java as well as Madura and Bali. These areas
were directly influenced by Majapahit court culture and obliged to pay annual
tributes; their rulers might have been directly related to, allied with, and/or
intermarried with the Majapahit royal family.

3. Nusantara, areas which did not reflect Javanese culture, but were included as
colonies which had to pay annual tribute. This included the vassal kingdoms and
colonies in Malay peninsula, Borneo, Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Maluku,
and Sulu archipelago. These regions enjoyed substantial autonomy and internal
freedom, and Majapahit officials and military officers were not necessarily stationed
there; however, any challenges to Majapahit oversight might have drawn a severe
response.

The first instance of the term Nusantara appeaed after it had been written
into Pararaton manuscript was in In 1920, Ernest Francois Eugene Douwes Dekker (1879–
1950), also known as Setiabudi, proposed Nusantara as a name for the independent country
of Indonesia which did not contain any words etymologically related to the name of India or
the Indies.

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The definition of Nusantara introduced by Setiabudi is different from the 14th century
definition of the term. During the Majapahit era, Nusantara described vassal areas that had
been conquered. Setiabudi defined Nusantara as all the Indonesian regions
from Sabang to Merauke, without the aggressive connotations of its former imperial usage.
Today in Indonesian, Nusantara is synonymous with the Indonesian archipelago or the
national territory of Indonesia.

In this sense, the term Nusantara excludes Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei, East Timor, and the
Philippines.

In 1967, it has transformed into the concept of Wawasan Nusantara or "archipelagic

outlook", which regards the archipelagic realm of Indonesia, the islands and seas surrounding
them, as a single unity of several aspects, mainly socio-cultural, language, as well as political,
economic, security and defensive unity.
In Malaysia, the term is generally used to refer to the Malay archipelago or the Malay
realm (Malay: Alam Melayu) which includes those countries.
In a more scholarly manner without national borders, Nusantara in a modern language usage
"refers to the sphere of influence of the Malay cultural and linguistic islands that
comprise Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, the southernmost part of Thailand,
the Philippines, Brunei, East Timor and perhaps even Taiwan, but it does not involve the
areas of Papua New Guinea.

Difference between the concept of Nusantara for Malaysia, Indonesia, Singapore, the
Philippines and Majapahit?

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Before Majapahit happened, there was Singhasari (Singosari) - this kingdom was the first to
conceptualize the idea of the islands that make up modern Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore,
Brunei, East Timor and Southern Philippines as one cultural and political entity named
"Nusantara". Interestingly, the reason was purported to be political - Singosari have heard
about the mysterious rise of the brutal Mongolians, which affected both China and Middle
East - the two main source of trading goods that passed through Indonesian waters. Fearing
an incursion to South East Asia, the Singosari king Kertanegara sent envoys to the nearby
Malay Kingdoms in Sumatra and the Peninsula to consolidate alliance against the
Mongols - Kertanegara planned this as the first step towards the "Nusantara" he envisioned,
that may easily repulse the Mongolians or their satellite states should they ever come south.

However Kertanegara never saw his vision realized - it was his descendant Hayam Wuruk
together with his admiral Gadjah Mada, with the newly born Majapahit Kingdom that saw
this thing become true; this time it was not only political but also cultural. Like any other
empires, their time will soon come in the late 1400s.

But Majapahit's influence was so huge that many kingdoms after it, particularly Malay and
Javanese kingdom, sought to re-establish the glory of Majapahit and claim themselves its
legitimate successor - just like how European kingdoms vie to become "the successor of
Rome". Hence also the usage of Majapahit red-and-white banner in various kingdoms in the
region, later absorbed by Indonesia, Singapore, and Malaysia (and in the meantime also by

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British East India Company, which in turn absorbed by USA - look up my answer on M
Arkandiptyo's answer to What are the world's coolest looking flags? )

For the Majapahit it was a continuation of the mandate of Kertanegara; they have known of
the term before, it simply was because of Gadjah Mada this quite abstract and out-of-the-
bounds concept started to roll into an action plan, in which we can say he and Emperor
Hayam Wuruk, aided by prince Adhityawarman in Sumatera, had definitely worked the thing
out pretty well, like the map below.

Descriptions from Negara Kretagama which outlined this picture was definitely a state-
endorsed propaganda of its time. But we can say that Majapahit had, by the end of Hayam
Wuruk's reign, controlled or at least influenced much of the territories pictured - they had
Sumatera and the Malayan Peninsula all subdued under Adhityawarman's rule centered in
Minang and Jambi. After the invasion of Sunda, they controlled Java and Bali brought under

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their control, so does consequently southern coast of Kalimantan. They also gained the trusts
of the Bruneian pirates who controlled all of north Kalimantan up to Sulu archipelago. While
in Sulawesi and Maluku their control, although nominal, is still influential that every year
people from the area paid homage to the Majapahit capital.

Nusantara was, for the Majapahit, a manifestation of Kertanegara's idea which then, become
the crowning glory that cemented them as the next-in-line of the unifying Javanese kingdoms
which stretched back to Old Mataram times (7th-10th century AD), and continued later on
the way until Islamic Mataram kingdom (16th-18th century).
To understand this, one should also know that in Javanese history and culture, the Javanese
people has always seek to be united under a single banner. Where periods of the Javanese
being under different rulers, are seen as "times of uncertainty". Like between the fall of
Airlangga's kingdom and the rise of Kediri, or after the dissolution of Mataram Sultanate into
Yogyakarta, Surakarta and Mangkunegara.

So Nusantara for Majapahit is their "crowning glory" that adds to their legitimacy as the
sucessor of Singhasari, as the next-in-line on unifying Javanese kingdoms.

Now on to the modern counterparts of Majapahit, starting from the ones that used the idea the
most.

Indonesia
By the time of Dutch colonial administration (1800s), the notion of Nusantara was long dead
– the regional powers that tried to legitimize themselves as Majapahit’s successor like
Mataram, Banten, Malacca, Johor, Aceh and Brunei – have all been surpressed by Europeans.
But as soon as early 20th century came, and the Dutch started their Dutch Ethical
Policy policies, western-style education came to the urban and noble class native Indonesians.
And with it also the messages of Romantic Nationalism and European nation-state idea.
These newly-educated youth then sought to unify the call for independence under a single
banner. And, collaborating with some Indologists (Dutch scholars studying Indonesian
culture and history) they finally rebranded the long lost Nusantara into a feasible idea that
they can propagate to achieve unity and independence.

And it is well know how that went – how succesful was the unifying idea, that Indonesians
remained steady and united under the Japanese and after independence, defending the lands
from the Dutch assisted by the British.

In Soekarno times, this Nusantara idea was expanded for a short time to also include
unifying these territories (incl. Singapore, Malaysia and Philippines) into a single entity. But
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as the Konfrontasi against Malaysia failed, and Soekarno deposed, this idea was by default
dead.Ever since then, from Soeharto up to now, the idea of Nusantara is basically refering to
Indonesian archipelago, which includes also Malaysia, Brunei, East Timor and Singapore, but
without anymore the need to unite all of this under one single banner. It’s just a cultural unit
from Indonesian perspective. But of course, we also use the term interchangeably with the
territory of Indonesia. As most of Nusantara is in Indonesia.

A. Malaysia : I think the idea of Nusantara in Malaysia is much of a smaller influence,

as the thing that moved Malaysian nationalist ideas was the idea of Alam
Melayu (Malay world). This makes Malaysians not really giving any attention to non-
Malay territories like Javanese or Eastern Indonesians. In fact, It was one of the most-
resembling European nation-state building into action. But... as we know, it didn’t
bode well with the significant but unfortunately, sidelined Chinese and Indian
minorities. This even made the idea of Nusantara much more obsolete, since these
three groups (Malay-Indian-Chinese) are then forced to cooperate more on the inside,
rather than thinking of Nusantara/the archipelago as a whole.

B. Singapore : Meh. As a Chinese-majority country nowadays, Nusantara is just the

jargon Indonesians and Malaysians use to describe the archipelago.

C. Brunei : Although not asked in the question, I think Bruneian view on the concept is
also integral to the southern filipino views.One of my colleagues attended an
ASEAN/Southeast Asia-level conference in Brunei once. There he conversed with
some of the Brunei officials working for the monarchy government. And there he got
the inside that Brunei was definitely inside the Majapahit sphere-of-influence,
reflecting from the discussions.Even, the Bruneian Sultanate, already existing since
the 15th century, claimed its inheritance and legitimacy also from the Majapahit – and
it is still evident in birth names of the Bruneian royal or nobility, containing some
Javanese influence inside.

The Nusantara idea may have been long dead also in Brunei. But since they also
acclaim their inheritance from Majapahit, they still acknowledge Nusantara as one
cultural sphere of its own, one independent from Chinese or Indian.

D. Filipino islands are never in contact with the Javanese Majapahit in particular.
However, some evidence suggested that the Visayans and Luzonese have been in
trading relations with both the Chinese and the Maluku kingdoms (Ternate-Tidore)
for long time. But why the divide then? Because Mindanao and Sulu was under the
control of Bruneian seafarers for a long time. And the Bruneians, being a group inside
the Malay people, was of course also inside of this sphere the Majapahit called
Nusantara. And why does the Bruneians or Majapahits didn’t care to expand north?
Maybe because of natural conditions, since we all know Philippines is the land of
perennial hurricanes. Thus Sabah’s (North Borneo) motto “Negeri di Bawah Bayu” or
“Land under the winds”. But also possible, is the lack of niche tradeable natural
resources in the Philippines during the medieval eras – no spices were grown there,
which of course, was the number one tradeable goods of the areas.

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E. Philippines : As I said in my comment to Steven de Guzman , the concept of
Nusantara only applies to Southern Filipinos - particularly in Mindanao and Sulu. The

Northern

F. But, for majority of Philippines Nusantara means nothing.And for Southern Filipinos,
although the term Nusantara maybe unknown. But the idea of them being culturally
linked to Bruneians, Malaysians, and Indonesians – is nothing new.

So in conclusion, for Indonesians Nusantara is a vital historical idea from which we

carved our national identity.

1. For Malaysians and Bruneians, it was a historical idea, but now evolved into the
consciousness that they are in the same culture sphere – that the insular southeast Asia
have a culture group of their own.
2. For Singaporeans it is a native insular southeast Asian concept, but have nothing to do
with their modern nation,
3. and for Filipinos... it means nothing for those from Luzon and Visayas, but for
Southern Filipino, it is the idea that they are much more culturally close to their
Malay counterparts.

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 II
How come Java came to traditionally dominate the other islands in Nusantara?

There might be several reasons, but these are I can think of.

Population
Java holds about 56% of the Indonesia's populations. For an archipelago consists of 17,000
islands, that number alone can be the reason.

Movements
The independence movements of Indonesia almost all started in Java and initiated by
Javanese thinkers. Let's say Boedi Oetomo, Sarekat Islam, and Indische Partij, Partai
Nasional Indonesia during early 20-th century.
Even the declaration of independence was prepared and declared in Java by Javanese
charismatic leader, Soekarno. Sumatra played second-fiddle to Java in this aspect.

Kingdoms
Thousands of kingdoms have established and died across the archipelago for centuries.
Javanese kingdoms also dominated the political scenes since pre-independence era, through
Majapahit, Mataram, Demak, Pajajaran, Tarumanagara, Singosari, etc.
Sure. There were mighty Srivijaya, Samudra Pasai, Indrapura, Pagaruyung in Sumatera,
Kutai in Kalimantan, Gowa in Sulawesi, etc. But the kingdoms are not regularly dominated
from one region. While the Javanese kingdoms are more continuous (i.e. after Kediri fell,
Singorasi directly replaced them, succeeded by Majapahit, and then Mataram as
uninterrupted chains of big and dominating kingdoms).

Colonialism
The Dutch choose Batavia (present-day Jakarta) as the command center of the whole
archipelago. This asserted the dominance for about 350 years.

Dominance of Java
Java does not dominate all of sudden. It has been like that for centuries.
But in today's Indonesia, ethnicity is no longer as important as before and the phrase
'Javanese dominance' does not ring a bell in younger generation. Nusantara” is hardly used in
Malaysia for sibling-rivalry political reasons.
Malaysia is adik (younger brother) in Nusantara but insists on being abang/kakak (elder
brother). So better not expose the anxiety lest thunder and lightning comes falling down.
One day in the future, I envision Indonesia changing its name to Nyusantara and Malaysia
and Nyusantara will be part of a Greater Nyusantara region where Nyusantaran nyaman is the
first and last principle. Ngopi di nyamannya Nyusantara. Nyusantarans will be able to
pronounce this until more relearn the precious uniqueness of #SpiceTradeAsia & The Straits
of Malacca — the magnet from where almost all post SpiceTradeAsia empires, the
Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, English (thus American too), French & German, began.

21
Terengganu Perhentian islands an ‘off the beaten path’, a hippie hideaway to completely
disconnect from bustling city life. Limited accommodations and no ATMs, a tranquil
isolation away from the world.

A generous dose of greenery drapes the Taiping Lake Garden, a dream surround to reflect, to
breathe in the beauty of nature.(pic to the right).
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

SEE FOR INSTANCE THE JOURNAL ARTICLE=Nusantara,Hans-Dieter Evers,Journal of

the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society,Vol. 89, No. 1 (310) (June 2016), pp. 3-14 (12
pages),Published By: Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society

Why was the name Indonesia chosen over Nusantara even though the latter was more
suitable?

Nusantara is no more suitable than Indonesia as a geographical name. Although “nusantara”

is an older term—the first known mention of the term dates to a 1305 copperplate inscription
—it had fallen out of use for hundreds of years when the term was reintroduced into the
vocabulary in the late 19th century.
In a 1973 comprehensive study into the origin of the name “Indonesia”, the British orientalist
Russell Jones found that throughout the 19th century, European explorers and scholars had
been calling the archipelago by a multitude of names.

The British naturalist Joseph Banks called it the “East India Islands”, “Eastern Islands”, “East
Indies”, “Indies”, “Eastern Isles”, and even at one point “India”. Stamford Raffles called it
“the Eastern Islands”, the “East-Indies”, “the Indian Islands”, the “Asiatic Isles”, “Malayan
Archipelago”, the “Archipelago”, and the “Malay islands”. The Dutch simply referred to it as
“Indië” (“India”, whereas the subcontinent was called “Britsch-Indië”). Eventually, the Dutch
settled on the official name of Nederlandsch-Indië (“Dutch India”).

22
“Nusantara” re-entered the vocabulary of the modern world in 1894 when Dutch
philologist Jan Laurens Andries Brandes discovered manuscripts of the Majapahit-era
eulogy Nagarakretagama (above) during a military expedition to Lombok. The term was
then adopted by Dutch–Indonesian nationalist Ernest Douwes Dekker in the 1920s, after he
returned from exile in the Netherlands, as an alternate name to Nederlandsch-Indië. However,
it never really caught on, and the term did not experience a resurgence again until the 1990s.
The original meaning of “nusantara” itself is rather Java-centric. This finding is outlined by
Dutch historian Bernard Vlekke in one of his most well-known publications, Nusantara: A
History of Indonesia (1959). In the introduction to his book, Vlekke writes that “nusantara”
as used in 15th-century Javanese texts had the original meaning of “the other islands” as seen
from Java or Bali. Therefore, the word had a more general meaning of “the outside world” or
“abroad” in relation to the Majapahit society which created it, excluding Java from its
meaning.

Furthermore, by the time “nusantara” was rediscovered by Brandes, the term “Indonesia” had
been in existence for a few decades. George Earl, an English navigator who traveled
throughout the archipelago in the 1830s, first coined a prototype form of “Indonesia” in 1850
in The Journal of the Indian Archipelago and Eastern Asia:

Nevertheless the time has arrived when a distinctive name for the brown races of the Indian
Archipelago is urgently required, and it should be made to accord as closely as possible with
the terms by which that portion of the world is most generally known, namely “Indian
Archipelago” or “Malayan Archipelago.”

By adopting the Greek word for “islands” as a terminal, for which we have a precedent in the
term “Polynesia,” the inhabitants of the “Indian Archipelago” or “Malayan Archipelago”
would become respectively Indu-nesians or Malayu-nesians.

Earl ultimately rejected his own creation, and he never used “Indu-nesians” in subsequent
writings. However, another individual took Earl’s creation and converted it into the form we
know today—”Indonesia”. That individual was lawyer James Logan, who edited
the Journal in which Earl wrote his proposal. In the same Journal issue, Logan wrote his own
article on the topic:

The name Indian Archipelago is too long to admit of being used in an adjective or in an
ethnographical form. Mr Earl suggests the ethnographical term Indunesians but rejects it in

23
favour of Malayunesians. For reasons which will be obvious on reading a subsequent note, I
prefer the purely geographical term Indonesia, which is merely a shorter synonym for the
Indian Islands or the Indian Archipelago. We thus get Indonesian for Indian Archipelagian or
Archipelagic, and Indonesians for Indian Archipelagians or Indian Islanders. I have no
affection for the multiplication of semigrecian words, and would gladly see all nesias wiped
off the map if good Saxon equivalents could be substituted. The term has some claim
however to be located in the region, for in the slightly different form of nusa it is perhaps as
ancient in the Indian Archipelago as in Greece.

It is clear from both passages by Earl and Logan that, in their opinion, there exists no suitable
name for the archipelago which is friendly to readers and writers. Neither was satisfied with
his own creation.

Despite this hesitancy, “Indonesia” was adopted by other European scholars. In 1884, the
German scholar Adolf Bastian began publishing a comprehensive study based on his travels
in Nederlandsch-Indië. Bastian, having come across Logan’s writings years earlier, adopted
“Indonesia” to be used as the title of his collection—Indonesien oder die Inseln des
Malayischen Archipel (“Indonesia, or the Islands of the Malay Archipelago”). This event is
considered to be the moment when “Indonesia” entered into popular use.
“Nusantara” would not be re-discovered by Brandes for another decade, and it would take a
few more decades before that term entered the general lexicon. By that time, “Indonesia” had
become a term of convenience, and given that “nusantara” did not possess an alternate
meaning that is more fulfilling, “Indonesia” was adopted by the nationalist movement as a
political idea.

Should Indonesia be renamed Nusantara? Why or why not?

From a historical perspective, Nusantara is not interchangeable with Indonesia. The two
words have different meanings but have been fused together in modern times for a variety of
purposes, often political.
As a concept, “nusantara” first gained traction in the 14th and 15th centuries and can be
found in Javanese inscriptions and manuscripts from that period. The earliest known mention
of the term dates to a 1305 copperplate inscription, even before Gajah Mada’s 1334 Palapa
oath. The concept eventually spread throughout the Malay archipelago, and the term is also
found in copies of the Malay Annals (the Sejarah Melayu) from the 15th and 16th centuries.
Today, “nusantara” is often equated with the entire Malay archipelago, but its original
meaning is rather Java-centric. This is outlined by Dutch historian Bernard Vlekke in one of
his most well-known publications, Nusantara: A History of Indonesia (1959). In the
introduction to his book, Vlekke writes that “nusantara” as used in 15th-century Javanese
texts had the original meaning of “the other islands” as seen from Java or Bali. Therefore, the
word had a more general meaning of “the outside world” or “abroad” as seen by the society
which first created the concept.

It should also be noted that Vlekke’s 1959 book is an updated edition of the original 1943
publication, Nusantara: A History of the East Indian Archipelago. Unlike many Dutch
scholars who typically wrote in Dutch, Vlekke wrote his 1943 book in English thanks to his
affiliation with Harvard University. This writing, along with his focus on an Indonesian-
centric approach rather than a colonialist approach, drew praise from American scholars.

24
In a comprehensive study into the history of the term “nusantara” published in 2016, the
German academic Hans-Dieter Evers found that when “nusantara” re-emerged as a concept in
the early 20th century as part of an anticolonial vocabulary, the term had not been used for a
very long time. Evers indicates that “nusantara” may have survived as an oral tradition, but it
was largely absent from historical texts after the demise of Majapahit society.
As “nusantara” entered the Malay lexicon, Evers found that the term developed two different
meanings in Indonesia and Malaysia. In Indonesia, “nusantara” is often equivalent to
Indonesia and its archipelago, but the term in Malaysia encompasses the entire Malay sphere
of influence (including the Philippines and beyond). However, beginning in the 1990s, both
definitions appear to have converged on the idea of a greater “Malay world”.

With this modern definition, “nusantara” has been used to promote religious, cultural, and
political ideas. For example, in 2015, the chairman of the Islamic organization Nahdlatul
Ulama reinforced the idea of a moderate Islam Nusantara to counter radical Islam. In the
cultural lexicon, the 1989 song “Balada Nusantara” by Malaysian composer Manan Ngah is
an example of the term’s entrance into popular culture. Furthermore, the term also emerged in
the debate over the South China Sea because that body of water is traditionally included in
the maritime concept of “nusantara”.
As a term, “nusantara” has evolved from a geographical concept into something different.
It is used by many different parties in maritime Southeast Asia for a variety of purposes and
carries a lot of baggage. Most importantly, in the context of Indonesia, “nusantara” is merely
a dream of returning to an imagined glory of the former Majapahit society. Nusantara and the
Malay Archipelago are the exact same thing, one is what the people living within calls it, the
other is what the European call it. Both terms refer to the Maritime region of Southeast Asia,
and Malaya (sometimes).

The concept of Nusantara is a bit different for Indonesian and Malaysian, for Indonesian,
there are only two versions of Nusantara
Nusantara=Indonesia

or Nusantara= Indonesia+Malaysia+Singapore+Brunei+East Timor

For Malaysian, from what I know their concept of Nusantara is the entire Maritime Southeast
Asia

25
Both concepts aren’t ethnocentric, although the naming of “Malay Archipelago” is indeed
ethnocentric. The areas that Nusantara and Malay archipelago refers to has one of the highest
cultural diversity in the world, due to them being separated by the oceans. Malay Archipelago
is mostly based on geography while Nusantara is mostly based on Linguistic and cultural
areas.

Nusantara was already:

1. A region full of prominent trade routes alongside the Malaccan and Sunda Straits,
Java Sea and South China Sea.
2. Rich with natural resources
3. Has a stable population and geopolitical arena and this is nusantra under majapahit
empire and this is Republic of Indonesia

Add Phillipines into it… it will become the Maphilindo Federation (Malaysia Phillipina Indonesia) :

26
They have many things in common. Indonesians and Malaysian speak very similar languages
and can understand each other with little to no effort as long as slang and other stuff is thrown
out the window.

They share similar history and before borders were drawn people from those areas moved
between place to place spreading their culture around. That's why Malaysia has things like
Rendang from Padang, and Batik from Java. They also fell within the borders of Singhasari,
Srivijaya, and Majapahit.
Malays occupy not just the Malay peninsula but also in Places like Sumatra, Riau islands, and
parts of Kalimantan (Borneo) so Indonesia has things like Nasi lemak and other Malay dishes
and customs.

People who say that things like Rendang and Gamelan originate from Malaysia need to
educate themselves and Indonesians who say that everything Malay is Indonesian need to
shut up and realize their strong historical bond.
We Indonesians and Malaysians being sister nations fight a lot but deep down, and for some
people even deeper, we know that we are jealous of each other…

"Nusantara and Filipinos: The concept of the Philippines as a geographical and political
space is a product of Spanish colonialism. Previously, the different indigenous societies of
Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao did not view themselves as part of a common whole.
Additionally, it can be argued that the Bangsamoro still don’t completely ascribe to this idea
since their history remains distinct from the colonized, Christianized majority.

27
The ‘coming together’ of much of the archipelago was a byproduct of Spain imposing a
common political and economic system for native communities. Even the conveners of the
First Philippine Republic couldn’t agree on any other name than the one the Spanish
bequeathed the islands - Las Islas Filipinas.

Contrast this with Nusantara - an idea space already mentioned in the 1300s - that
encompassed the Majapahit polity and its clients. Ancient Nusantara predates concepts of
Maritime Southeast Asia. Modern Nusantara meanwhile can be a blanket term describing the
greater Malay world or the collection of islands forming Indonesia.Incidentally, Majapahit
records mention Solot and Selurong as part of the ancient Nusantara realm. Some argue that
these refer to Sulu and Manila, but these are still up for discussion by scholars.Because
Malaysia has never been under Indonesia’s sphere of influence thanks to the Brits & the
Dutch carving up their dominions under the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824. In exchange for the
British holding of Bencoolen in Sumatra, the Dutch will give Malacca to the British, thus
forming the Straits Settlement of Penang, Malacca & Singapore.

Independent Indonesia under Sukarno did try to scupper the formation Malaysia in the 1960s
by launching a guerrilla war, first through Borneo and later on the Malay peninsula. But
Commonwealth forces managed to break that attack. Subsequently with Sukarno’s ouster the
Indonesian-Malaysian conflict was ended and Malaysia enjoyed a cordial relationship with
Indonesia from that point on.

How were the names Malaysia and Indonesia established?

28
We need to go back nearly 200 years. Enter the 19th century after Napoleon was defeated in
Europe. European colonial powers started delineating their colonies in Asia (and later Africa)
properly. Together with it was the rise of naval explorers, cultural anthropologist & scientists
trying to document findings from these “less charted lands”, as they view it (even though
there are already established societies for hundreds and thousands of years here).

One of these explorers was Jules Dumont d’Urville - A French Naval Officer who took great
interest about the Pacific Islands. Between 1822 and 1835 he ventured twice to the Pacific
Islands, first with the expedition La Coquille and second named Astrolabe. The expedition
itself had quite a wide geographic extent - ranging from New South Wales in Australia to
Moluccas in Indonesia to New Caledonian islands in the South Pacific.
He later came up with four names to categorize the pacific islands according to their cultures,
as seen on this map

 Micronesia *in green*- from greek words Micro (small) and Nessos (Island),
referring to the various atolls (reef islands) that only form small lands over the sea
surface, in the northeast pacific/south of Japan.
 Polynesia *in Red* - from greek words Poly (many) and Nessos (Island), referring
to the many islands scattered wide across southern pacific, from New Zealand in
the west to Easter Island in the East.
 Melanesia *in Yellow* - from Melan (black) and Nessos (Island), he refers to the
complexion of the skin of people in Papua/New Guinea, Australia & neighboring
islands which are darker than the other Pacific Islanders.
and finally
 Malaisia *in blue* - from Malay and Nessos, meaning “the Malay Islands”. Like
many other explorers of the enlightenment era, d’Urville was influenced by
monogenist view: a view that all human race came down from 1 gene pool but later

29
 branched out into different cultural adaptation, but these cultures can be identified
through races which are biological adaptation of the human species across longer
time scales.
And one of the most prominent monogenist was Johann Friedrich Blumenbach from central
Germany. He argued that there are 5 basic races in the world - the white race (Caucasian), the
black race (African), the red race (Americans), the yellow race (Mongoloid/East Asia) and…
the brown race, aka Malays & Pacific Islander.
Today this theory has been definitely debunked. Race doesn’t always correlate with
biological differences. But the idea was stuck.
Across the 19th century, many more European cultural anthropologist, historian and scientist
looked further into this “Malay race” concept in Southeast Asia & the Pacific, and hence
other names were conceived -
 Insulinde, from the latin “Insula” (Island) and “Inde” India
 Indunesia, from greek “Indus” (India) and “Nessos” Island
But why does it all give reference to India? Because during the colonial era, the area was
known more as “East Indies” due to its geographical location relative to India. Hence also
the term in Indonesian “Hindia Belanda” - Dutch (East) Indies.
And slowly but surely, the term Indonesia won out in scientific communities as they learnt
more, that Malay wasn’t really a race, and not everyone in the area was Malay. One of the
biggest advocate in the European scientific community for the name was another German,
Adolf Bastian, who wrote the book “Indonesien oder die Inseln des Malayischen Archipel”
(Indonesia or the Islands of Malayan Archipelago).

Then came the 1900s.

The Socialists won power in Dutch Parliament, and they pushed for a colonial policy
called “Etische Politiek / Politik Etis”, basically seeing that after centuries of Dutch
influence, the natives of Indonesia should be given some “give back” in a transactional way -
where the Dutch would educate the natives and give some leeway in agriculture and internal
movements (transmigrate), so that the Dutch could also use the natives as civil employees
(ambtenaar), and hence making a much more efficient colonial state.

Out of this policies, many Indonesian families from noble or rich background went to the
Netherlands for higher education. They got wind of this idea of “one culture” and tried to find
political movements around this idea, to unite all natives under Dutch rule.
One of the earliest natives who used the name was Soerjadi Surjaningrat / Ki Hadjar
Dewantara, an educator and writer. Later on, Hatta, while in his college years in the
Rotterdamse Handelschool (Rotterdam School of Trade), changed the name of the student
organization “Indische Vereeniging” (Indies Association) to become “Indonesische
Vereeniging” (Indonesian Association).

This association became the breeding ground for romantic nationalist thoughts, and when the
students come back to Dutch East Indies, they started parties bearing the name Indonesia
such as PNI / the Nationalist Party or PKI / the Communist Party of Indonesia.
And hence the name Indonesia was carried on, by these student-activist-turned-party-
founders.

Malaysia
However, the name Malaysia that was coined by d’Urville was pretty much dead for many
years except in scientific/anthropologist communities in Europe.
Then what happened?

30
In 1957, Federation of Malaya gained independence from the British. At that time, the
Federation didn’t encompass the same region as today’s Malaysia.
They had the 9 Malay sultanate/states, and then the crown colony of Penang & Malacca,
basically today’s western Malaysia.

And then the Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman went on with the idea to unite all British
colonies on the area under one state.

This includes Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo (today: Sabah), and Brunei.

To assure that this would not be a “neocolonialist” effort of Malayan dominance over North
Borneo & Singapore, they agreed to change the name from “Federation of Malaya” to
“Malaysia”. This “neocolonialist” argument was heated for a few years, especially with
Soekarno in Indonesia supporting such point-of-views.
And hence when Singapore joined the Federation in 1963, its PM Lee Kuan Yew argued for a
“Malaysian Malaysia” and the idea of “I am a Malaysian”, other than the Malay’s idea of still
dividing roles across the three British-based ethnic lines
(Chinese-Indians-Malays/Bumiputera (natives) ).

Apparently disagreements were still evident, and Singapore was then expelled from the
federation in 1965.

And UMNO in Malaysia continued the British-based policies of dividing roles, and
prioritizing Malays and Bumiputeras (other natives) as they were in power.
But the name “Malaysia”, which was supposed to assure that the Malays in West Malaysia
wouldn’t dominate the politics, remained. Timor Leste used to be part of Indonesia from
1976–1999. Timor Leste shouldn't be part of Indonesia in the first place since she's not part of
Dutch Indies. However, fear of the rise of communism in East Timor urged Soeharto, with
silent approval from USA, to take over East Timor with military action.

Did this country have another name besides its official name (i.e. Japan with Nippon,
Indonesia with Nusantara, etc.)?

Nusantara is actually Malay and it refers both to the Malay and Indonesian Archipelago. In
bahasa Indonesia (the standardised language form) the country is known as Republik
Indonesia. However, I wouldn’t make a different between official an unofficial name, but
between local (which is the official name) and foreign.If there's no Dutch East Indies, then
there's no Indonesia. So how come Indonesia can be split, when it's not exist ? Just like if
there's no British India, there will be no Pakistan and India. If there's no British Malaya, there
will be no Malaysia and Singapore.Most countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America come
to being in present form are due to colonialism. Without that, the form of most present
nations in the world will be different.If no colonialism, Malayan Peninsula and Sumatra (or
big part of it) can create one Political entity due to similarities on Ethnics and religion for
example. Other parts can work out different entities based on the similarities of their culture,
or historical background.However put it this way, like it or not colonialism gave ways toward
globalisation today. For better or worse, it open the path for present Global community today.

31
Nusantara was actually an Old Javanese concept. It literally means 'other islands'. In
Javanese concept the area around the capital was called nagara agung, then the area around
it mancanagara and finally the other islands as nusantara.Well enough about Nusantara.
Let's talk about the Netherlands. This country was called the Batavian Republic (de Bataafse
Republiek) between 1795 and 1806. Coincidentally the capital of the Netherlands-Indies was
called Batavia until 1942.

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Chapter 3
NUSUNTARA IN GREATER INDIA

Greater India, or the Indian cultural sphere, is an area composed of many countries and
regions in South and Southeast Asia that were historically influenced by Indian culture,
which itself formed from the various distinct indigenous cultures of these regions.
Specifically Southeast Asian influence on early India had lasting impacts on the formation of
Hinduism and Indian mythology. Hinduism itself formed from various distinct folk religions,
which merged during the Vedic period and following periods. The term Greater India as a
reference to the Indian cultural sphere was popularised by a network of Bengali scholars in
the 1920s. It is an umbrella term encompassing the Indian subcontinent, and surrounding
countries which are culturally linked through a diverse cultural cline. These countries have
been transformed to varying degrees by the acceptance and induction of cultural and
institutional elements from each other. Since around 500 BCE, Asia's expanding land
and maritime trade had resulted in prolonged socio-economic and cultural stimulation and
diffusion of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs into the region's cosmology, in particular in
Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka. In Central Asia, transmission of ideas were predominantly of a
religious nature. The spread of Islam significantly altered the course of the history of Greater
India.

By the early centuries of the common -era, most of the principalities of Southeast Asia had
effectively absorbed defining aspects of Hindu culture, religion and administration. The
notion of divine god-kingship was introduced by the concept of Harihara, Sanskrit and other
Indian epigraphic systems were declared official, like those of the south Indian Pallava
dynasty and Chalukya dynasty. These Indianized Kingdoms, a term coined by George
Cœdès in his work Histoire ancienne des états hindouisés d'Extrême-Orient, were
characterized by surprising resilience, political integrity and administrative stability.

To the north, Indian religious ideas were assimilated into the cosmology of Himalayan
peoples, most profoundly in Tibet and Bhutan and merged with indigenous traditions.
Buddhist monasticism extended into Afghanistan, Uzbekistan and other parts of Central Asia,
and Buddhist texts and ideas were readily accepted in China and Japan in the east. To the
west, Indian culture converged with Greater Persia via the Hindukush and the Pamir
Mountains.

The concept of the Three Indias was in common circulation in pre-industrial Europe. Greater
India was the southern part of South Asia, Lesser India was the northern part of South Asia,
and Middle India was the region near the Middle East. The Portuguese form

32
(Portuguese: India Maior) was used at least since the mid-15th century. The term, which
seems to have been used with variable precision, sometimes meant only the Indian
subcontinent; Europeans used a variety of terms related to South Asia to designate the South
Asian peninsula, including High India, Greater India, Exterior India and India aquosa.

In late 19th-century geography, Greater India referred to a region that included:

"(a) Himalaya, (b) Punjab, (c) Hindustan, (d) Burma, (e) Indo-China, (f) Sunda Islands,
(g) Borneo, (h) Celebes, and (i) Philippines." German atlases distinguished Vorder-
Indien (Anterior India) as the South Asian peninsula and Hinter-Indien as Southeast Asia.
Greater India, or Greater India Basin also signifies "the Indian Plate plus a postulated
northern extension", the product of the Indian–Asia collision. Although its usage in geology
pre-dates Plate tectonic theory, the term has seen increased usage since the 1970s. It is
unknown when and where the India–Asia (Indian and Eurasian Plate) convergence occurred,
at or before 52 million years ago. The plates have converged up to 3,600 km (2,200 mi) ±
35 km (22 mi). The upper crustal shortening is documented from geological record of Asia
and the Himalaya as up to approximately 2,350 km (1,460 mi) less.

Hinduism in Southeast Asia, Buddhism in Southeast Asia, and Balinese Hinduism

The concept of the Indianized kingdoms, a term coined by George Coedès, describes
Southeast Asian principalities that flourished from the early common era as a result of
centuries of socio-economic interaction having incorporated central aspects of Indian
institutions, religion, statecraft, administration, culture, epigraphy, literature and architecture.
Iron Age trade expansion caused regional geostrategic remodeling. Southeast Asia was now
situated in the central area of convergence of the Indian and the East Asian maritime trade
routes, the basis for economic and cultural growth. The earliest Hindu kingdoms emerged in
Sumatra and Java, followed by mainland polities such as Funan and Champa. Adoption of
Indian civilization elements and individual adaptation stimulated the emergence of
centralized states and the development of highly organized societies. Ambitious local leaders
realized the benefits of Hinduism and Indian methods of administration, culture, literature,
etc. Rule in accord with universal moral principles, represented in the concept of
the devaraja, was more appealing than the Chinese concept of intermediaries.

33
 B
uddhism spread

Theories of Indianization

Two Indian ships from Eastern Indian coast, 1st–3rd century AD. /A Siamese painting depicting the
Chola raid on Kedah

As conclusive evidence is missing, numerous Indianization theories of Southeast Asia have

emerged since the early 20th century. The central question usually revolves around the main
propagator of Indian institutional and cultural ideas in Southeast Asia.One theory of the
spread of Indianization that focuses on the caste of Vaishya traders and their role for
spreading Indian culture and language into Southeast Asia through trade. There were many
trade incentives that brought Vaishya traders to Southeast Asia, the most important of which
was gold. During the 4th century C.E., when the first evidence of Indian trader in Southeast
Asia, the Indian sub-continent was at a deficiency for gold due to extensive control of

34
overland trade routes by the Roman Empire. This made many Vaishya traders look to the seas
to acquire new gold, of which Southeast Asia was abundant. However, the conclusion that
Indianization was just spread through trade is insufficient, as Indianization permeated through
all classes of Southeast Asian society, not just the merchant classes. Another theory states
that Indianization spread through the warrior class of Kshatriya. This hypothesis effectively
explains state formation in Southeast Asia, as these warriors came with the intention of
conquering the local peoples and establishing their own political power in the region.
However, this theory hasn't attracted much interest from historians as there is very little
literary evidence to support it.

The most widely accepted theory for the spread of Indianization into Southeast Asia is
through the class of Brahman scholars. These Brahmans brought with them many of the
Hindu religious and philosophical traditions and spread them to the elite classes of Southeast
Asian polities. Once these traditions were adopted into the elite classes, it disseminated
throughout all the lower classes, thus explaining the Indianization present in all classes of
Southeast Asian society. Brahmans were also experts in art and architecture, and political
affairs, thus explaining the adoption of many Indian style law codes and architecture into
Southeast Asian society

Angkor Wat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu temple in the world

It is unknown how immigration, interaction, and settlement took place, whether by key
figures from India or through Southeast Asians visiting India who took elements of Indian
culture back home. It is likely that Hindu and Buddhist traders, priests, and princes traveled
to Southeast Asia from India in the first few centuries of the Common Era and eventually
settled there. Strong impulse most certainly came from the region's ruling classes who invited
Brahmans to serve at their courts as priests, astrologers and advisers. Divinity and royalty
were closely connected in these polities as Hindu rituals validated the powers of the monarch.
Brahmans and priests from India proper played a key role in supporting ruling dynasties
through exact rituals. Dynastic consolidation was the basis for more centralized kingdoms
that emerged in Java, Sumatra, Cambodia, Burma, and along the central and south coasts of
Vietnam from the 4th to 8th centuries.

Art, architecture, rituals, and cultural elements such as the Rāmāyaṇa and
the Mahābhārata had been adopted and customized increasingly with a regional character.
The caste system, although adopted, was never applied universally and reduced to serve for a
selected group of nobles only. Many struggle to date and determine when Indianizaton in
Southeast Asia occurred because of the structures and ruins found that were similar to those
in India.

35
States such as Srivijaya, Majapahit and the Khmer empire had territorial continuity, resilient
population and surplus economies that rivaled those in India itself. Borobudur in Java
and Angkor in Cambodia are, apart from their grandeur, examples of a distinctly developed
regional culture, style, and expression.

Southeast Asia is called Suvarnabhumi or Sovannah Phoum – the golden land and
Suvarnadvipa – the golden Islands in Sanskrit. [ It was frequented by traders from eastern
India, particularly Kalinga. Cultural and trading relations between the powerful Chola
dynasty of South India and the Southeast Asian Hindu kingdoms led the Bay of Bengal to be
called "The Chola Lake", and the Chola attacks on Srivijaya in the 10th century CE are the
sole example of military attacks by Indian rulers against Southeast Asia. The Pala
dynasty of Bengal, which controlled the heartland of Buddhist India, maintained close
economic, cultural and religious ties, particularly with Srivijaya.
Religion, authority and legitimacy

Balinese Ramayana dance drama, performed in Sarasvati Garden in Ubud.

The pre-Indic political and social systems in Southeast Asia were marked by a relative
indifference towards lineage descent. Hindu God kingship enabled rulers to supersede
loyalties, forge cosmopolitan polities and the worship of Shiva and Vishnu was combined
with ancestor worship, so that Khmer, Javanese, and Cham rulers claimed semi-divine status
as descendants of a God. Hindu traditions, especially the relationship to the sacrality of the
land and social structures, are inherent in Hinduism's transnational features. The epic
traditions of the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa further legitimized a ruler identified with a
God who battled and defeated the wrong doers that threaten the ethical order of the world.
Hinduism does not have a single historical founder, a centralized imperial authority in India
proper nor a bureaucratic structure, thus ensuring relative religious independence for the
individual ruler. It also allows for multiple forms of divinity, centered upon the Trimurti the
triad of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, the deities responsible for the creation, preservation, and
destruction of the universe.

The effects of Hinduism and Buddhism applied a tremendous impact on the many
civilizations inhabiting Southeast Asia which significantly provided some structure to the
composition of written traditions. An essential factor for the spread and adaptation of these
religions originated from trading systems of the third and fourth century. In order to spread
the message of these religions Buddhist monks and Hindu priests joined mercantile classes in
the quest to share their religious and cultural values and beliefs. Along the Mekong delta,
evidence of Indianized religious models can be observed in communities labeled Funan.
There can be found the earliest records engraved on a rock in Vocanh. The engravings
consist of Buddhist archives and a south Indian scripts are written in Sanskrit that have been
dated to belong to the early half of the third century. Indian religion was profoundly absorbed

36
by local cultures that formed their own distinctive variations of these structures in order to
reflect their own ideals.
The indianized kingdoms had by the 1st to 4th centuries CE adopted Hinduism's cosmology
and rituals, the devaraja concept of kingship, and Sanskrit as official writing. Despite the
fundamental cultural integration, these kingdoms were autonomous in their own right and
functioned independently.

Waning of Indianization

Map of South-east Asia c. 900 AD, showing the Khmer Empire in red, Srivijaya in green, and Champa in yellow.

Khmer Kingdom
Beginning shortly after the 12th century, the Khmer kingdom, one of the first kingdoms that
began the dissipation of Indianization started after Jayavarman VII in which expanded a
substantial amount of territory, thus going into war with Champa. Leading into the fall of the
Khmer Kingdom, the Khmer political and cultural zones were taken, overthrown, and fallen
as well.[47] Not only did Indianization change many cultural and political aspects, but it also
changed the spiritual realm as well, creating a type of Northern Culture which began in the
early 14th century, prevalent for its rapid decline in the Indian kingdoms. The decline of
Hinduism kingdoms and spark of Buddhist kingdoms led to the formation of orthodox
Sinhalese Buddhism and is a key factor leading to the decline of Indianization. Sukhothai and
Ceylon are the prominent characters who formulated the center of Buddhism and this became
more popularized over Hinduism.

Rise of Islam
Not only was the spark of Buddhism the driving force for Indianization coming to an end, but
Islamic control took over as well in the midst of the thirteenth century to trump the Hinduist
kingdoms. In the process of Islam coming to the traditional Hinduism kingdoms, trade was
37
heavily practiced and the now Islamic Indians started becoming merchants all over Southeast
Asia.
Moreover, as trade became more saturated in the Southeast Asian regions wherein
Indianization once persisted, the regions had become more Muslim populated. This so-called
Islamic control has spanned to many of the trading centers across the regions of Southeast
Asia, including one of the most dominant centers, Malacca, and has therefore stressed a
widespread rise of Islamization.

Chapter 4
List of Hindu empires and dynasties Mainland kingdoms

Stone lingam found in Cát Tiên, southern Vietnam//The 10th-century tympanum of the dancing Shiva in Champa, Vietnam

 Funan: Funan was a polity that encompassed the southernmost part of the Indochinese
peninsula during the 1st to 6th centuries. The name Funan is not found in any texts of
local origin from the period, and so is considered an exonym based on the accounts of
two Chinese diplomats, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying who sojourned there in the mid-3rd
century CE. It is not known what name the people of Funan gave to their polity.
Some scholars believe ancient Chinese scholars transcribed the word Funan from a
word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning
"mountain"); while others thought that Funan may not be a transcription at all, rather
it meant what it says in Chinese, meaning something like "Pacified South". Centered
at the lower Mekong, Funan is noted as the oldest Hindu culture in this region, which
suggests prolonged socio-economic interaction with India and maritime trading
partners of the Indosphere. Cultural and religious ideas had reached Funan via
the Indian Ocean trade route. Trade with India had commenced well before 500 BC
as Sanskrit hadn't yet replaced Pali. Funan's language has been determined as to have
been an early form of Khmer and its written form was Sanskrit.

 Chenla was the successor polity of Funan that existed from around the late 6th century
until the early 9th century in Indochina, preceding the Khmer Empire. Like its
predecessor, Chenla occupied a strategic position where the maritime trade routes of
the Indosphere and the East Asian cultural sphere converged, resulting in prolonged
socio-economic and cultural influence, along with the adoption of the
Sanskrit epigraphic system of the south Indian Pallava dynasty and Chalukya dynasty.
[52][53]
Chenla's first ruler Vīravarman adopted the idea of divine kingship and deployed

38
 the concept of Harihara, the syncretistic Hindu "god that embodied multiple
conceptions of power". His successors continued this tradition, thus obeying the code
of conduct Manusmṛti, the Laws of Manu for the Kshatriya warrior caste and
conveying the idea of political and religious authority.
 Langkasuka: Langkasuka (-langkha Sanskrit for "resplendent land" -sukkha of "bliss")
was an ancient Hindu kingdom located in the Malay Peninsula. The kingdom, along
with the Old Kedah settlement, are probably the earliest territorial footholds founded
on the Malay Peninsula. According to tradition, the founding of the kingdom
happened in the 2nd century; Malay legends claim that Langkasuka was founded
at Kedah, and later moved to Pattani
 Champa: The kingdoms of Champa controlled what is now south and central Vietnam.
The earliest kingdom, Lâm Ấp was desbribed by Chinese sources around 192. CE The
dominant religion was Hinduism and the culture was heavily influenced by India. By the
late fifteenth century, the Vietnamese – proponents of the Sinosphere – had eradicated
the last remaining traces of the once powerful maritime kingdom of Champa. The last
surviving Chams began their diaspora in 1471, many re-settling in Khmer territory.
 Kambuja: The Khmer Empire was established by the early 9th century in a mythical
initiation and consecration ceremony by founder Jayavarman II at Mount Kulen (Mount
Mahendra) in 802 CE A succession of powerful sovereigns, continuing
the Hindu devaraja tradition, reigned over the classical era of Khmer civilization until the
11th century. Buddhism was then introduced temporarily into royal religious practice,
with discontinuities and decentralisation resulting in subsequent removal. The royal
chronology ended in the 14th century. During this period of the Khmer empire, societal
functions of administration, agriculture, architecture, hydrology, logistics, urban
planning, literature and the arts saw an unprecedented degree of development,
refinement and accomplishment from the distinct expression of Hindu cosmology
 Mon kingdoms: From the 9th century until the abrupt end of the Hanthawaddy
Kingdom in 1539, the Mon kingdoms (Dvaravati, Hariphunchai, Pegu) were notable for
facilitating Indianized cultural exchange in lower Burma, in particular by having strong
ties with Sri Lanka.
 Sukhothai: The first Tai peoples to gain independence from the Khmer Empire and start
their own kingdom in the 13th century. Sukhothai was a precursor for the Ayutthaya
Kingdom and the Kingdom of Siam. Though ethnically Thai, the Sukhothai kingdom in
many ways was a continuation of the Buddhist Mon-Dvaravati civilizations, as well as
the neighboring Khmer Empire.
Island kingdoms

39
Golden Avalokiteśvara from Malayu-Srivijaya, Indonesia/
Statue Durga dated to the 9th-century Mataram from Central Java/ Ganesha shrine in Bali, a widely present custom
from Majapahit

 Salakanagara: Salakanagara kingdom is the first historically recorded Indianized

kingdom in Western Java, established by an Indian trader after marrying a local
Sundanese princess. This Kingdom existed between 130 and 362 CE.
 Tarumanagara was an early Sundanese Indianized kingdom, located not far from modern
Jakarta, and according to Tugu inscription ruler Purnavarman apparently built a canal that
changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and
settlement. In his inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and
Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.
 Kalingga: Kalingga (Javanese: Karajan Kalingga) was the 6th century Indianized kingdom
on the north coast of Central Java, Indonesia. It was the earliest Hindu-Buddhist kingdom
in Central Java, and together with Kutai and Tarumanagara are the oldest kingdoms in
Indonesian history.
 Malayu was a classical Southeast Asian kingdom. The primary sources for much of the
information on the kingdom are the New History of the Tang, and the memoirs of the
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing who visited in 671 CE, and states that it was "absorbed"
by Srivijaya by 692 CE, but had "broken away" by the end of the eleventh century
according to Chao Jukua. The exact location of the kingdom is the subject of studies
among historians.
 Srivijaya: From the 7th to 13th centuries Srivijaya, a maritime empire centered on the
island of Sumatra in Indonesia, had adopted Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhism under a
line of rulers from Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa to the Sailendras. A stronghold
of Vajrayana Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of
Asia. I Ching reports that the kingdom was home to more than a thousand Buddhist
scholars. A notable Buddhist scholar of local origin, Dharmakirti, taught Buddhist
philosophy in Srivijaya and Nalanda (in India), and was the teacher of Atisha. Most of the
time, this Buddhist Malay empire enjoyed cordial relationship with China and the Pala
Empire in Bengal, and the 860 CE Nalanda inscription records that
Maharaja Balaputra dedicated a monastery at Nalanda university near Pala territory. The
Srivijaya kingdom ceased to exist in the 13th century due to various factors, including the
expansion of the Javanese, Singhasari, and Majapahit empires.

40
 Tambralinga was an ancient kingdom located on the Malay Peninsula that at one time
came under the influence of Srivijaya. The name had been forgotten until scholars
recognized Tambralinga as Nagara Sri Dharmaraja (Nakhon Si Thammarat). Early
records are scarce but its duration is estimated to range from the seventh to the fourteenth
century. Tambralinga first sent tribute to the emperor of the Tang dynasty in 616 CE. In
Sanskrit, Tambra means "red" and linga means "symbol", typically representing the
divine energy of Shiva.
 Mataram: The Mataram Kingdom flourished between the 8th and 11th centuries. It was
first centered in central Java before moving later to east Java. This kingdom produced
numbers of Hindu-Buddhist temples in Java, including Borobudur Buddhist mandala and
the Prambanan Trimurti Hindu temple dedicated mainly to Shiva. The Sailendras were
the ruling family of this kingdom at an earlier stage in central Java, before being replaced
by the Isyana Dynasty.
 Kadiri: In the 10th century, Mataram challenged the supremacy of Srivijaya, resulting in
the destruction of the Mataram capital by Srivijaya early in the 11th century. Restored by
King Airlangga (c. 1020–1050), the kingdom split on his death; the new state of Kediri, in
eastern Java, became the centre of Javanese culture for the next two centuries, spreading
its influence to the eastern parts of Southeast Asia. The spice trade was now becoming
increasingly important, as demand from European countries grew. Before they learned to
keep sheep and cattle alive in the winter, they had to eat salted meat, made palatable by
the addition of spices. One of the main sources was the Maluku Islands (or "Spice
Islands") in Indonesia, and so Kediri became a strong trading nation.
 Singhasari: In the 13th century, however, the Kediri dynasty was overthrown by a
revolution, and Singhasari arose in east Java. The domains of this new state expanded
under the rule of its warrior-king Kertanegara. He was killed by a prince of the previous
Kediri dynasty, who then established the last great Hindu-Javanese kingdom, Majapahit.
By the middle of the 14th century Majapahit controlled most of Java, Sumatra and the
Malay peninsula, part of Borneo, the southern Celebes and the Moluccas. It also exerted
considerable influence on the mainland.
 Majapahit: The Majapahit empire, centered in East Java, succeeded the Singhasari empire
and flourished in the Indonesian archipelago between the 13th and 15th centuries. Noted
for their naval expansion, the Javanese spanned west–east from Lamuri in Aceh to Wanin
in Papua. Majapahit was one of the last and greatest Hindu empires in Maritime
Southeast Asia. Most of Balinese Hindu culture, traditions and civilisations were derived
from Majapahit legacy. A large number of Majapahit nobles, priests, and artisans found
their home in Bali after the decline of Majapahit to Demak Sultanate.
 Galuh was an ancient Hindu kingdom in the eastern Tatar Pasundan (now west Java
province and Banyumasan region of central Java province), Indonesia. It was established
following the collapse of the Tarumanagara kingdom around the 7th century.
Traditionally the kingdom of Galuh was associated with the eastern Priangan cultural
region, around the Citanduy and Cimanuk rivers, with its territory spanning from Citarum
river on the west, to the Pamali (present-day Brebes river) and Serayu rivers on the east.
Its capital was located in Kawali, near present-day Ciamis city.
 Sunda: The Kingdom of Sunda was a Hindu kingdom located in western Java from 669
CE to around 1579 CE, covering the area of present-day Banten, Jakarta, West Java, and
the western part of Central Java. According to primary historical records, the Bujangga
Manik manuscript, the eastern border of the Sunda Kingdom was the Pamali River (Ci
Pamali, the present day Brebes River) and the Serayu River (Ci Sarayu) in Central Java.

41
Kutai
Location of Kutai in the island of Borneo, present Indonesia.

Kutai is a historical region in East Kalimantan, Indonesia on the island of Borneo and is also
the name of the native ethnic group of the region (known as Urang Kutai or "the Kutai
people"), numbering around 300,000 who have their own language known as the Kutainese
language which accompanies their own rich history. Today, the name is preserved in the
names of three regencies in East Kalimantan province which are the Kutai Kartanegara
Regency, the West Kutai Regency and the East Kutai Regency with the major river flowing
in the heart of the region known as the Mahakam River. Kutai is known to be the place of the
first and oldest Hindu kingdom to exist in Indonesia, the Kutai Martadipura
Kingdom which was later succeeded by the Muslim Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate.
Historically, there have been two kingdoms which ruled in the region of Kutai which are:
 Kutai Martadipura Kingdom (399–1635), a Hindu kingdom
 Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate (1300-now), a Muslim kingdom
Kingdom of Kutai Martadipura

An ancient yūpa of Mulawarman, king of Kutai\ A yūpa with inscription in the National Museum of Indonesia in
Jakarta

The Kutai Martadipura Kingdom (locally known as Kerajaan Kutai Martadipura) is a 4th-
century or perhaps much earlier Hindu kingdom located in the Kutai area, East Kalimantan.
Its capital is believed to be the current Muara Kaman district located in Kutai Kartanegara
Regency and is one of the earliest ancient kingdoms in Indonesian history. Muara Kaman
district which is currently one of the many districts in Kutai Kartanegara regency is proven to
be the place where the capital of the kingdom once stood, it is proven by an ancient remnant

42
of a megalith stone known as Lesong Batu, believed to have been used to make the Yupa
inscriptions during the 4th century AD. The seven stone pillars, or yūpa (“sacrificial posts”),
have been found in Kutai, Kaman Estuary, near the Mahakam River. The plinths bear an
inscription in the Pallava script of India reading "A gift to the Brahmin priests" in Sanskrit.
The style of the script has been dated to the last half the 4th century. It is believed these
religions were brought to Indonesia around the 2nd and 4th centuries, respectively, when
Indian traders arrived on the islands of Sumatra, Java and Sulawesi.

The names of three rulers are known from the inscriptions. The first ruler mentioned
is Kuḍungga, the “lord of men” (narendra), his son Aśwawarman, styled the “founder of the
dynasty” (vaṇśa-kartṛ) and grandson of the first and son of the later, Mulavarman called the
“lord of kings” (rājendra). As the name "Kuṇḍungga" does not seem to be a name of
Sanskrit-Hinduistic origin while the other two are, it is presumed he was a leader of local
origin (Dayak people) and it was his son Aśwawarman that adopted the Hinduistic belief.
[3]
The origin of Kudungga has long been debated, some sources also argue that he was of
Indian origin, presumably a descendant from the royalties of the Magadha empire,[5] as Dayak
people back then lived in the inner jungle parts of Borneo not in the coastal areas, while
others argued that the name is similar to Bugis name of Kadungga, with several inscriptions
similar to what is found in Kutai were found in Sulawesi. [6] During the reign of King
Mūlawarman, he is the one who let the Yūpa inscriptions be made, and it was believed to be
made by the Brahmins which received alms from Mulavarman. While nothing of the military
actions of his two predecessors is known, "Raja" Mūlawarman is stated to have conquered
his neighbors in battle. He is also said to have increased the land of Kutai by a Vedic ritual
known as the "Asvaredjwa", a ritual also performed by Indian rulers of the past. This ritual
required a horse released to his land. The footsteps of the freely roaming horse were taken as
evidence that this land belonged to his kingdom. Mulawarman was also known for his tribute
of gold to his God. The name of his kingdom is not mentioned on the inscriptions nor do any
other documents in other countries relate to a kingdom at this time in this region. It is not
known what became of the kingdom after these pillars had been erected. It may be possible
that the name Kutai, as in Tuñjung Kute of the 1365
Javanese Majapahit poem Nāgarakṛtāgama is as ancient and reflects the original name used a
thousand years earlier.

Lesong Batu Megalith stone

The Lesong Batu stone located in Muara Kaman district, the remnants of the Kutai Martadipura kingdom// The golden crown of
Kutai Sultan, part of the regalia of Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate. Collection of the National Museum of Indonesia, Jakarta.

43
The Lesong Batu is a megalith stone located in Muara Kaman district, Kutai Kartanegara
Regency believed to be the remnants to make the ancient Yupa inscriptions during the 4th
century AD.

Sultanate of Kutai Kartanegara

The Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate (locally known as Kesultanan Kutai Kertanegara ing
Martadipura) was established around the end of the 13th century AD in the region of Tepian
Batu or Kutai Lama. The first known ruler is known to be Aji Batara Agung Dewa Sakti, who
was thought to have ruled from 1300 to 1325. Aji Pangeran Sinum Panji Mendapa, who ruled
1635–1650, was able to conquer the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura and merged the two
realms thus becoming "Kutai Kartanegara Ing Martadipura".

In 1667, the Dutch V.O.C. attacked Makassar on the island of Sulawesi leading to the
downfall of the Bugis Kingdom of Gowa. Some of the Bugis under the leadership of
Lamohang Daeng Mangkona or Pua Ado I immigrated to Kutai on neighboring Borneo
(Kalimantan) and the ruler of Kutai allowed them to settle in Kampung Melantai around the
Karang Mumus River, now known as Kampung Selili. This settlement eventually developed
into the modern town of Samarinda.

Islam took hold in the region since the 17th century (most of the Bugis were Muslims) and
Aji Muhammad Idris, ruling 1732–1739 was the first ruler to have an Islamic name.

After a civil war Aji Imbut, after finally becoming the ruler as Aji Muhammad Muslihuddin
in 1780, moved the capital in 1782 from Pemarangan to Tepian Pandan. The name of the
capital city eventually developed from Tangga Arung to its present form of Tenggarong.
In 1844, following the repulse of James Erskine Murray's expedition and attempt to settle,
[7]
the Dutch defeated the Sultan Aji Muhammad Salehudin, forcing him into exile, and took
direct control of Kutai.

The Japanese invaded the region in 1942 and acknowledged a "Kooti Kingdom", that was a
subject of the Tenno. In 1945 Kutai joined, along with its neighbours, into the East
Kalimantan federation.

In 1949 Kutai finally became part of the Republic of Indonesia.

Currently, the region of Kutai is part of the Kutai Kartanegara Regency headed by a regent
(known locally as Bupati) which is under the auspices of the regional government of East
Kalimantan Province. Meanwhile, the Sultan of Kutai currently still exists and resides in the
Kutai Palace (Kedaton), but administratively, the governance is conducted by the regional
government of the Republic of Indonesia, not the sultanate. The Sultan holds an honorary
status in Kutai and is highly respected by Kutai people. During the festival of Erau, he will be
the guest of honour accompanied by the local government officials such as the governor of
East Kalimantan and the Regent of Kutai Kartanegara.

Kutai people of east Borneo

The Kutai people, or known locally as Urang Kutai is the ethnic group which their ancestors
are believed to be descendants of the Dayak Ot Danum people that have already
embraced Islam and currently live on the banks of the great Mahakam River, East

44
Kalimantan. They are native to the city of Tenggarong, Kutai Kartanegara Regency, the West
Kutai Regency and the East Kutai Regency.

Chapter 5
Tamil inscriptions
A number of medieval inscriptions written in Tamil language and script that have been found
in Southeast Asia and China, mainly in Sumatra and peninsular Thailand. These texts arose
directly from trade links between south India and certain parts of Southeast Asia and China,
which involved the residence in those regions of Tamil-speaking Indians. Several of these
overseas Tamil inscriptions mention well-known medieval Indian merchant associations.
A good number of Tamil inscriptions, as well as Hindu and Buddhist icons emanating
from South India, have been found in Southeast Asia (and even in parts of south China). On
the Malay Peninsula, inscriptions have been found at Takuapa, not far from
the Vishnuite statues of Khao Phra Narai in Southern Thailand. It is a short inscription
indicating that an artificial lake named Avani-naranam was dug by Nangur-Udaiyan, which
is the name of an individual who possessed a military fief at Nangur, being famous for his
abilities as a warrior, and that the lake was placed under the protection of the members of the
Manikkiramam (which according to K. A. Nilakanta Sastri, was a merchant guild) living in
the military camp. Since Avani-narayana is a surname of the Pallava King Nandivarman
III who reigned from 826 to 849, we can deduce the approximate date of this inscription.
In the capital of Tabralinga there is a sanctuary in which there is a bronze image
of Ganesa bearing a Tamil inscription Majapisedesa in modern characters.

45
Neusu inscription found in Banda Aceh, now kept at Aceh Museum

Neusu Aceh, Banda Aceh

A slightly later Tamil language inscription has recently been found at Neusu Aceh, Banda
Aceh. The date of the inscription is illegible, but it has been dated palaeographically to about
the 12th century, The entire front of the stone is illegible, aside from the isolated
word mandapam, presumably relating to a temple foundation or endowment. A provisional
translation of the legible portion of the back reads:
"[....] that [we] would not hold (kaikkollakadavadalla); for this decision. [If any violation
comes or situation arises against it (?)...those] who put the [royal] emblem (ilachchinal,
Sanskrit lancana) will come to take and go (seize?) [....] that [we] would not get or collect
(kolludal) interest [in kind] (polisai) [...even] afterwards our people (makkal) would do in
accordance with this inscription (ikkalvettuku kokka[okka]). Let there be prosperity."
This provisional reading suggests that the inscription dealt with trading regulations covering
losses of goods, the waiving of collection of interest, and perhaps of royal fees. The legible
portion of the text does not bear the name of any merchant association, but a reference to "our
people" (makkal) may indicate that an association was involved: several inscriptions of this
period in southern India connect merchant associations - particularly the Ainnurruvar - with
the construction of mandapa or other additions to both Hindu and Buddhist foundations.
Kedah Inscription
In ancient Kedah there is an important and unmistakably Hindu settlement which has been
known for about a century now from the discoveries reported by Col. Low and has recently
been subjected to a fairly exhaustive investigation by Dr. Quaritch Wales. Dr. Wales
investigated no fewer than thirty sites round about Kedah. The results attained show that this

46
site was in continuous occupation by people who came under strong South
Indian influences, Buddhist and Hindu, for centuries.
An inscribed stone bar, rectangular in shape, bears the ye-dharmma formula . in South Indian
characters of the 4th century AD, thus proclaiming the Buddhist character of the shrine near
the find-spot (site I) of which only the basement survives. It is inscribed on three faces
in Pallava script, or Vatteluttu rounded writing of the 6th century AD, possibly earlier.
Lobu Tua or Barus Inscription
An inscription in the Tamil language, the Lobu Tua Inscription dated 1088 AD, has been
found on the western coast of Sumatra island at Lobu Tua, North Sumatra province,
Indonesia. It was erected by a Tamil merchant guild, the Ayyavole 500 (“the 500 of the
thousand directions”) which enjoyed the patronage of the Chola rulers. The inscription
mentions the guild as “having met at the velapuram in Varocu “Varocu” is Barus, an ancient
port located not far from Lobu Tua, which had played a major role in
the camphor and benzoin trade since the 9th century. These valuable products were in high
demand in China, India and the Middle East and came from the forests in the northern
Sumatra hinterland. From there, they were brought to Barus and exported. Tamil were among
the foreign merchants who would come to Barus and buy the camphor and benzoin from
local traders.
In 1017 and 1025, the Chola kings had sent fleets to raid ports controlled by Sriwijaya in
the Malacca Straits. After these successful attacks, the Chola seem to have been in a position
to intervene in the region for the rest of the 11th century. This allowed for an increased
presence of Tamil merchant guilds in Sumatra.[7]
In the ancient city of Tanjore (Thanjavur - ancient name) in Tamil Nadu are inscriptions
dating from 1030. which contain a list of the ports in the Malacca Strait raided by a fleet sent
by King Rajendra Chola I. A large stone makara found in Jambi province in Sumatra, dated
1064 AD, bears testimony to the reemergence of a significant power in Jambi, with a strong
link to Java, in the 11th century. [8] The following are the places that Rajendran claims to have
raided:

 Sriwijaya (Palembang)
 Malaiyur (the Malayu of the 7th century, i.e. Jambi) (referring to the ancient Melayu
Kingdom. Known as Jambi today.)
 Mayuradingan (the Je-lo-ting of the Chinese on the Malay Peninsula)
 Ilangosagam (Langkasuka)
 Mappapalam, (Papphaal, placed by the Sinhalese chronicle Mahavamsa on the coast
of Pegu in Burma)
 Mevilimbangan (identified with Karmaranga or Kamalanka on the isthmus
of Ligor in Southern Thailand)
 Valaippanaduru (Pandurang, in Champa)
 Talaittakkolam (Takkola of Ptolemy and the Milindapandha, On the isthmus of Kra)
 Madalingam (Tambralinga, Chinese Tan-ma-ling, of which the center was
at Ligor in Southern Thailand)
 Ilamuridesam (Lamuri of the Arabs, Lambri of Marco Polo at northern Sumatra)
 Kadaram (Kedah)
 Mavimbangam (Identified as being the Philippines).

47
 Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world
The oldest known Sanskrit inscriptions in the Malay world are those on seven stone pillars,
or Yūpa (“sacrificial posts”), found in the eastern part of Borneo, in the historical area
of Kutai, East Kalimantan province. They were written by Brahmins using the early Pallava
script, in the Sanskrit language, to commemorate sacrifices held by a generous mighty king
called Mulavarman who ruled the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom, the first Hindu kingdom in
present Indonesia. Based on palaeographical grounds, they have been dated to the second half
of the 4th century CE. They attest to the emergence of an Indianized state in the Indonesian
archipelago prior to 400 CE.

In addition to Mulavarman, the reigning king, the inscriptions mention the names of his
father Aswawarman and his grandfather Kudungga (the founder of the Kutai Martadipura
Kingdom). Aswawarman is the first of the line to bear a Sanskrit name in the Yupa which
indicates that he was probably the first to adhere to Hinduism.

One of the yūpa Mulavarman inscriptions from Kutai, at the National Museum in Jakarta

Mulavarman inscription on a yūpa, 5th century CE//Mulavarman inscription on a yūpa, 5th century CE

 The word "Yūpo" in Brahmi in a Mulavarman Inscription, Muara Kaman, Kalimantan,

5th century CE

Text
The four Yupa inscriptions founded are classified as "Muarakaman"s and has been translated
by language experts as follows:

Muarakaman I Muarakaman II Muarakaman III Muarakaman IV

srimatah sri- srimad-viraja-kirtteh sri-mulavarmmano srimato
narendrasya, rajnah sri- rajnah nrpamukhyasya
kundungasya mulavarmmanah yad dattan tilla- rajnah sri-
mahatmanah, punyam parvvatam mulawarmmanah
putro svavarmmo srnvantu sadipa-malaya danam punyatame
vikhyatah, vipramukhyah sarddham ksetre
vansakartta ye canye sadhavah yupo 'yam likhitas yad dattam
yathansuman, purusah tayoh vaprakesvare

48
tasya putra bahudana-jivadanam dvijatibhyo'
mahatmanah, sakalpavrksam gnikalpebhyah.
trayas traya ivagnayah, sabhumidanan ca vinsatir
tesan trayanam tesam punyagananam ggosahasrikam
pravarah, yupo 'yan stahapito tansya punyasya yupo
tapo-bala-damanvitah, vipraih 'yam
sri mulawarmma krto viprair ihagataih.
rajendro,
yastva
bahusuvarnnakam,
tasya yajnasya yupo
'yam,
dvijendrais
samprakalpitah.

Translation
Translation according to the Indonesia University of Education:
Muarakaman I Muarakaman II Muarakaman III Muarakaman IV
The Maharaja Kudungga, Listen to all of This monument The Mulavarman, the
who was very noble, had you, was written for noble and eminent
a famous son, the eminent Brahmins, (commemorating) king, has given alms
Aswawarman his name, and all other good two (cases) that of 20,000 cows to
who like the Ansuman people, about the have been donated the brahmins who is
(the sun god) grew a very virtues of by like fire, (located) in
noble family. The the Mulavarman, King Mulavarman, the holy land (named)
Aswawarman had three the great king who namely a mountain Waprakeswara.[14] For
sons, like three (holy) is very noble. This of oil (thick), with (remembrance) of the
fire. The foremost of the kindness is in the lamps and flower kindness of the king,
three sons was form of a lot of panicles. this monument has
the Mulavarman, alms, as if the alms been made by the
a king who was civilized, of life or just a Brahmins who came
strong and powerful. kalpa tree (which to this place.
The Mulavarman has gives all desires),
held a feast (salvation with land alms
called) a lot of gold. For (which is given). It
commemoration of the is with this
feast (salvation) that this goodness that this
stone monument was monument was
erected by the brahmins. erected by
the Brahmins (for a
memorial).

The Yupas are now kept in the National Museum of Indonesia in Jakarta.

Ancient Kingdoms of NUSUNTARA-Kutai Martadipura kingdom

Kudungga (read: "Ku-ṇḍu-ṅga", honorific title: Maharaja Kudungga Anumerta

Devavarman) was the founder of the Kutai Martadipura kingdom who ruled around the year

49
350 AD or 4th century AD. Kudungga first ruled the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura as a
community leader or chieftain. Kutai Martadipura during Kudungga rule do not have a
regular and systematical system of governance. In contrary, the latest claim is said that
Maharaja Kudungga is possibly a king from ancient kingdom Bakulapura in Tebalrung (now
Tebalai Indah, Muara Kaman), and Asvavarman which his son-in-law rather his son, then
become the first king of Kutai Martadipura.

The discovery of the most reliable source stating that Kutai Martadipura is the oldest
kingdom in the nusantara archipelago is in yupa inscriptions. Seven pieces of yupa were
found in Muara Kaman. According to the results of a study conducted by J.G. de Casparis
(1949), yupa-yupa in Muara Kaman which allegedly a Kutai Martadipura civilization heritage
were found successively in 1879 and 1940.In yupa-yupa, there were inscriptions found
written using Pallava script in Sanskrit language. Letters engraved on the yupa was thought to
have come from the end of the 4th century or early 5th century AD. All of the monument
stone was issued at the command of a leader named
Maharaja Mulavarman Naladewa. Mulavarman is allegedly an Indianize name of the
indigenous people because the name of his grandfather, namely Kudungga (there is also a
mention kudunga or kundungga) is the original name of an indigenous Indonesian.
[6]
Kudungga is what is believed to be the forerunner of the first leader of the kingdom
of Kutai Martadipura, while Mulavarman is the successor Asvavarman (son of Kudungga)
who brought the kingdom of Kutai Martadipura to their glory.
R.M. Ng. Poerbatjaraka (1952) interpret the circuit Pallava inscriptions in Sanskrit recorded
on yupa about the genealogy of the kings who had ruled in the early days of the kingdom of
Kutai Martadipura in translation:

śrīmatah śrī-narendrasya; kuṇḍuṅgasya mahātmanaḥ; putro śvavarmmo vikhyātah;

vaṅśakarttā yathāṅśumān; tasya putrā mahātmānaḥ; trayas traya ivāgnayaḥ; teṣān trayāṇām
pravaraḥ; tapo-bala-damānvitaḥ; śrī mūlavarmmā rājendro; yaṣṭvā bahusuvarṇnakam; tasya
yajñasya yūpo ‘yam; dvijendrais samprakalpitaḥ.

Translation:
Mahārāja (emperor) Kundungga, most noble, has a famous son, his name Aśwawarmman,
who like Angśuman (the Sun God) cultivates a very noble family. The Aśwawarmman has
three sons, like (sacred) fire. The prominent of the three sons is the Mūlawarmman, a king of
good civil, strong and might. The Mūlawarmman held kenduri (salvation ceremony) with
gold-very-much. For the memorial kenduri (salvation ceremony) that stone pillar was
founded by the brahmanas.

From the inscriptions of the heritage above, it can be concluded that the first king of Kutai
Martadipura, is Kudungga. Kudungga had a son named Asvavarman who then passed the
leadership in the kingdom of Kutai. Asvavarman had three children. Of the three children
Aswawarman had, there was a child who was the most prominent, the child's name is
Mulavarman who was the crown prince.

Name Origin and Ancestry

The belief that Kudungga is indigenous Indonesian people based on the investigation that
Kudungga clearly not Indian name, although the names of his
descendants, Aswawarman and Mulawarman, containing elements of Indian name. [6] In this
case. Poesponegoro and Notosusanto (1993) states that there is a name that is similar
to Bugis, namely Kadungga. The resemblance of this name is considered not just a

50
coincidence given in South Sulawesi also found several inscriptions similar to what is found
in Kutai.

Poesponegoro and Notosusanto (1993) further concluded that the most likely, both Kudungga
who named his son Asvavarman and Asvavarman himself named his son Mulavarman, eager
to equate their degree and their descendant align with the knight caste as in India. [6] This
possibility based on the fact that the word "varman" is derived from the Sanskrit word which
is usually used to suffix the names of people in southern India. In the Hindu tradition that
comes from India, the social system of society is divided into classes, known as levels where
the warrior caste or aristocratic kingdom included in a respectable caste.

Latest Claim
The latest claim came from newly reestablished Kutai Mulawarman Kingdom (direct
descendant of Sultanate of Kutai Kartanagara) in Indonesia, Maharaja Kudungga is a king of
Bakulapura in Tabalrung. Kudungga is son of King Atwangga and King Atwangga is son of
Mitrongga, which is descendant of Emperor Pushyamitra Shunga from Shunga
Empire in Magadha, India. During Kudungga rule, Shunga Empire no longer exist, and his
successor Ashvavarman, use varman to state that his caste is kshatriya. These claims however
are one-sided, and unsubstantiated with no historical records proving Atwangga and
Mitrongga ever existed.

Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located

Sri Mulavarman Nala Dewa (spelled Mulawarman in Indonesian), was the king of
the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located in eastern Borneo around the year 400 CE. What
little is known of him comes from the seven Yupa inscriptions found at
a sanctuary in Kutai, East Kalimantan. He is known to have been generous
to brahmins through the giving of gifts including thousands of cattle and large amounts of
gold. [4]
He was the grandson of Kudungga, and the son of Asvavarman, according to one of his
inscriptions. The sanctuary bears the name of the founder of the dynasty, Vaprakesvara
The inscriptions of Mulavarman in Brahmi script on "yūpa" sacrificial posts are the earliest
known evidence of Indian influence in the Malay World, in the fourth century CE, long
before the region was Indianized. The inscriptions of Mulavarman were followed about fifty
years later by the inscriptions of another king, Purnavarman, in West Java.
Yūpa § Yūpa inscription in Indonesia
The inscriptions of Mulavarman in Brahmi script were found on "yūpa" sacrificial posts.

51
 One of the yūpa Mulavarman inscriptions from Kutai, at the National Museum in Jakarta

Mulavarman inscription on a yūpa, 5th century CE//Mulavarman inscription on a yūpa,

5th century CE/ The word "Yūpo" in Brahmi in a Mulavarman Inscription, Muara Kaman,
Kalimantan, 5th century CE

The name of the "Great King of Kings" Ku-ṇḍu-ṅga in the Brahmi script, in an inscription of
his grandson Mulavarman, 5th century CE.

Mulavarman inscription, where he mentions his grandfather Ku-ṇḍu-ṅga (beginning of 2nd

line).

The Seven Inscription

Yupa is the only inscription that contain information about the Kutai Martadipura kingdom.
Yupa is a large stone monument that they used to sacrifice animal and do the Hindu
sacrificial ceremonies. Ancient Hindu people used to sacrifice their animal as a respect and
gift to their god.

The Kutai Yupa inscription not only giving an information about the kingdom. It also
mentioned about the greatest king of the kingdom which is Maharaja Mulawarman.

This is the inscription text that already translated in English

"The Maharaja Kudungga very noble, has an outstanding son, Aswawarman is his name,
which as Ansuman (sun god) fosters a very noble family. The Aswawarman have three sons,
such as three fire (sacred). The famous from the three son is Mulawarman, the civilized king,
good, strong, and powerful. The Mulawarman have held receptions which call very much
gold. For this festivity, a memorial stone pillar then founded by the brahmin. "

Kutai Martadipura Kingdom Religious / Believe System

52
Based on the inscription it is certain that the Kudungga not yet follow Hinduism and still
retain the original culture of Indonesia. Aswawarman on the hand, have come to know Hindu,
it can be seen from his name. He is regarded as Wamsakarta (founder of the royal family).
Hindu culture was obtained from India. At Aswawarman time, was known a ceremony called
Vratyastoma,that is a ceremonial ablution (granting caste) which held every time someone
entered Hinduism in Indonesia. The importance of the influence of Brahmin in Kutai shows
the domination of Shiva religion influence, which also appears in sacrifice ceremony.

How was warfare like in Nusantara?

Since nusantara means a collection of many island with its variety of inhabitants and nature
condition. But… since the documentation is also scarce, answering this question would be
challenging. So i will try to answer based on available documentation.
Well, although Nusantara was filled with dense forest but that doesnt mean that there was no
wide open ground. We can conclude this by examining the byuha/ wyuha/gelaran from
Majapahit era or from text kakawin Bharatayudha. Byuha/ Wyuha/gelaran is a form or the
way a general position/arrange his troops on the field, usually based on the story
of Mahabharata.
These byuha of course was implemented when the opposing army stand head to head on the
battlefield. In a dense forest, formation would meant nothing since there would be many
obstacles and you cant see the opposition also.
1. Garuda byuha/garuda nglayang
2. Cakra byuha
3. Gelar gedong minep
4. Gelar jurang grawah
5. Gelar wukir jaladri
6. Gelar empit nebra
7. Gelar supit urang
8. etc

Was the keris significantly used in battle, or did it give way to straighter and longer swords?

53
I dont think keris was used widely during the battle. First, because it has a shorter range
than golok (machete) or spears and second, it is easier and cheaper to make spear rather than
to make keris.
So yes, other weapon with longer reach were more common in battle rather than keris.

DRESS
Malay used to wear selendang or kerikam in Malaysia long time ago.

Or Hijab with selendang/Brunei

ASEAN
ASEAN is the Association of SOUTH EAST ASIAN countries.Nusantara
from the Malay words NUSA meaning islands and ANTARA meaning across or in between
is the term used by the Majapahit Empire to describe Martitime Southest Asia under its sway.

During the heyday of British and Dutch Colonisation of the region the term Malay
Archipelago was used extensively to cover the Dutch East Indies,the British colonies and
protectorate( Singapore and Malaya and the Borneo territories),the Philippines as well as
Portuguese Timor.

ASEAN refer to the Association of 10 Southeast Asian States with a population of over 500
millions and comprise both Martime and Mainland countries of Southeast Asia to wit:

Fully independent and sovereign States that succeeded Dutch East Indies:The Republic of
Indonesia.

That succeeded British colonies and protectorates:Malaysia and Singapore and Brunei.

The Philippines,

Thailand,

Former French colonies on Mainland Southeast Asia: Cambodia Laos and Vietnam.

As well as the former Portuguese Colony of Timor Leste.

What is the difference between Nusantara and ASEAN?

Nusantara is SE Asian countries (most maritime SE Asian countries) whose indigenous

languages are Bahasa Melayu and its dialects.

54
Such as Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei.
Nusantara itself is a word in Bahasa Melayu / Indonesia. It was first made famous by the
greatest Prime Minister of Java-based SE Asian Empire Majapahit: Gajah Mada.
ASEAN is the Association of SOUTH EAST ASIAN countries.
ASEAN the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, is a political and economic union of
10 member states in Southeast Asia, which promotes intergovernmental cooperation and
facilitates economic, political, security, military, educational, and sociocultural integration
between its members and countries in the Asia-Pacific. The union has a total area of
4,522,518 km2 (1,746,154 sq mi) and an estimated total population of about 668 million. On
8 August 1967, five leaders – the Foreign Ministers of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines,
Singapore and Thailand – sat down together in the main hall of the Department of Foreign
Affairs building in Bangkok, Thailand and signed a document. By virtue of that document,
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was born.

The five Foreign Ministers who signed it – Adam Malik of Indonesia, Narciso R. Ramos of
the Philippines, Tun Abdul Razak of Malaysia, S. Rajaratnam of Singapore, and Thanat
Khoman of Thailand – would subsequently be hailed as the Founding Fathers of probably
the most successful inter-governmental organization in the developing world today. And
the document that they signed would be known as the ASEAN Declaration.

ASEAN's primary objective was to accelerate economic growth and through that social
progress and cultural development. A secondary objective was to promote regional peace and
stability based on the rule of law and the principle of UN Charter. With some of the fastest
growing economies in the world, ASEAN has broadened its objective beyond the economic
and social spheres. In 2003, ASEAN moved along the path similar to the European
Union (EU) by agreeing to establish an ASEAN community that consists of three pillars: the
ASEAN Security Community, the ASEAN Economic Community, and the ASEAN Socio-
Cultural Community. The ten stalks of rice in the ASEAN flag and insignia represents the ten
Southeast Asian countries bound together in solidarity.

ASEAN regularly engages other countries in the Asia-Pacific region and beyond. A major
partner of UN, SCO, PA, GCC, MERCOSUR, CELAC and ECO, ASEAN maintains a global
network of alliances and dialogue partners and is considered by many as a global
powerhouse, the central union for cooperation in Asia-Pacific, and a prominent and
influential organization. It is involved in numerous international affairs, and hosts diplomatic
missions throughout the world. The organization's success has become the driving force of
some of the largest trade blocs in history, including APEC and RCEP.
ASEAN was preceded by an organisation formed on 31 July 1961 called the Association of
Southeast Asia (ASA), a group consisting of Thailand, the Philippines, and the Federation of
Malaya. ASEAN itself was created on 8 August 1967, when the foreign ministers of five
countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand, signed the ASEAN
Declaration. As set out in the Declaration, the aims and purposes of ASEAN are to accelerate
economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region, to promote
regional peace, collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest, to provide
assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities, to collaborate for better

55
utilization of agriculture and industry to raise the living standards of the people, to
promote Southeast Asian studies and to maintain close, beneficial co-operation with existing
international organisations with similar aims and purposes.
The creation of ASEAN was initially motivated by the desire to contain communism.
Communism had taken a foothold in mainland Asia with the Soviet Union occupation of
the northern Korean peninsula after World War II, establishing communist governments
in North Korea (1945), People's Republic of China (1949) and portions of former French
Indochina with North Vietnam (1954), accompanied by the communist insurgency
"Emergency" in British Malaya and unrest in the recently independent Philippines from the U
S. in the early 1950s.

These events also encouraged the earlier formation of S.E.A.T.O. (South East Asia Treaty
Organization) led by the United States and United Kingdom along with Australia with several
Southeast Asian partners in 1954 as a "containment" extension and an eastern version of the
early defensive bulwark NATO in western Europe of 1949. However, the local member states
of ASEAN group achieved greater cohesion in the mid-1970s following a change in the
balance of power after the fall of Saigon and the end of the Vietnam War in April 1975 and
the decline of SEATO.
ASEAN's first summit meeting, held in Bali, Indonesia in 1976, resulted in an agreement on
several industrial projects and the signing of a Treaty of Amity and Cooperation, and a
Declaration of Concord. The end of the Cold War allowed ASEAN countries to exercise
greater political independence in the region, and in the 1990s, ASEAN emerged as a leading
voice on regional trade and security issues.
On 15 December 1995, the Southeast Asian Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone Treaty was signed to
turn Southeast Asia into a nuclear-weapon-free zone. The treaty took effect on 28 March
1997 after all but one of the member states had ratified it. It became fully effective on 21
June 2001 after the Philippines ratified it, effectively banning all nuclear weapons in the
region.[33]
Expansion
On 7 January 1984, Brunei became ASEAN's sixth member and on 28 July 1995, following
the end of the Cold War, Vietnam joined as the seventh
member Laos and Myanmar (formerly Burma) joined two years later on 23 July 1997.
Cambodia was to join at the same time as Laos and Myanmar, but a coup in 1997 and other
internal instability delayed its entry.[37] It then joined on 30 April 1999 following the
stabilization of its government.

56
In 2006, ASEAN was given observer status at the United Nations General Assembly.[39] In
response, the organisation awarded the status of "dialogue partner" to the UN.

Commonality
Besides sharing similar geographical location, Southeast Asian nations are considered to have
been at cultural crossroads between East Asia and South Asia, located at critical junctions of
the South China Sea as well as the Indian Ocean, as well as having had received much
influence from Islamic and Persian influences prior to the European colonial ages.
Since around 100 BCE, the Southeast Asian archipelago occupied a central position at the
crossroads of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea trading routes which stimulated the
economy and the influx of ideas. This included the introduction of abugida scripts to
Southeast Asia as well as the Chinese script to Vietnam. Besides various indigenous scripts,
various abugida Brahmic scripts were widespread in Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Indonesia,
Malay etc. Historically, scripts such as Pallava, Kawi (from ancient Tamil script)
and Rencong or Surat Ulu were used to write Old Malay, until they were replaced
by Jawi during Islamic missionary missions in the Malay Archipelago.
Historical European colonial influence to various ASEAN countries, including French
Indochina (present-day Vietnam, Laos & Cambodia), British
Burma, Malaya and Borneo (present-day Myanmar, Malaysia & Singapore,
and Borneo), Dutch East Indies (present day Indonesia), Spanish East Indies (present-
day Philipines and various other colonies), and Portuguese Timor (present-day Timor-Leste)
influenced all Southeast Asian countries, with only Thailand (called Siam then) being the
only Southeast Asian country not taken as a European colony. Siam (present-day Thailand),
served as a convenient buffer state, sandwiched between British Burma and French
Indochina, but its kings had to contend with unequal treaties as well as British and French
political interference and territorial losses after the Franco-Siamese War in 1893 and
the Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909. Relative to the history of Southeast Asia, European
influence is brief. European influence included the introduction of the Latin alphabet and
various European religions and concepts.
The Japanese Empire, in the vein of Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere concept, sought
to unite and create a pan-Asian identity against Western colonial occupation. However, this
ended poorly, as the intentions of the Japanese were not as altruistic as seemed (see Japanese
War Crimes) Atomic bombings of Japan eventuated in decolonization
movements throughout the Southeast Asian region, resulting in mostly independent ASEAN
states today.
The ASEAN Charter
On 15 December 2008, member states met in Jakarta to launch a charter, signed in November
2007, to move closer to "an EU-style community".The charter turned ASEAN into a legal
entity and aimed to create a single free-trade area for the region encompassing 500 million
people. President of Indonesia Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono stated: "This is a momentous
development when ASEAN is consolidating, integrating, and transforming itself into a
community. It is achieved while ASEAN seeks a more vigorous role in Asian and global
affairs at a time when the international system is experiencing a seismic shift". Referring to
climate change and economic upheaval, he concluded: "Southeast Asia is no longer the
bitterly divided, war-torn region it was in the 1960s and 1970s".

57
The financial crisis of 2007–2008 was seen as a threat to the charter's goals, and also set forth
the idea of a proposed human rights body to be discussed at a future summit in February
2009. This proposition caused controversy, as the body would not have the power to impose
sanctions or punish countries which violated citizens' rights and would, therefore, be limited
in effectiveness. The body was established later in 2009 as the ASEAN Intergovernmental
Commission on Human Rights (AICHR). In November 2012, the commission adopted
the ASEAN Human Rights Declaration.
Vietnam held the chair of ASEAN in 2020. Brunei held it in 2021.

Nusantara concept has been used throughout modern history in differing ways. It has been
instrumentalized for political reasons—Nusantara as Greater Indonesia—and for commercial reasons
(for example, Merpati Nusantara Airlines). In the present era, a ‘Nusantara model’ of sharing
resources, differentiated according the type of resource (such as fisheries, oil and gas, and rights of
passage) could be a blueprint for the governance of the South China Sea. The resurgence of the
concept of Nusantara in public consciousness, its intrusion into popular and youth culture, and its
transfer into a cultural concept appears to be an interesting topic for further observation. It could also
be of interest to the Malaysian and Indonesian governments to strengthen their claims to resources of
the South China Sea as part of an evolving Nusantara region.

Nusantara: History of a Concept/ Article in Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society January 2016
DOI: 10.1353/ras.2016.0004 Projectby Hans-Dieter Evers file:///C:/Users/Dell/Downloads/Evers2016-Nusantara-
JMBRAS.pdf

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0

58
 Chapter 6
he Pallava dynasty existed from 275 CE to 897 CE, ruling a significant portion
of the Deccan, also known as Tondaimandalam. The Pallavas played a crucial role
in shaping in particular southern Indian history and heritage as well as the
Hindunization of the polity of South East Asia- particularly Indonesia then called
NUSUNTARA.

59
 The dynasty rose to prominence after the downfall of the Satavahana Empire,
whom they had formerly served as feudatories.

The origins of the Pallavas have been debated by scholars. The available historical
materials include three copper-plate grants of Sivaskandavarman in the first quarter
of the 4th century CE, all issued from Kanchipuram but found in various parts
of Andhra Pradesh, and another inscription of Simhavarman I half century earlier in
the Palnadu (Pallava Nadu) area of the western Guntur district. All the early
documents are in Prakrit, and scholars find similarities in paleography and language
with the Satavahanas and the Mauryas. Their early coins are said to be similar to
those of Satavahanas. Two main theories regarding the origins of the Pallavas have
emerged based on available historical data. The first theory suggests that the
Pallavas were initially subordinate to the Satavahanas, a ruling dynasty in the
Andhradesa region (north of the Penna River in modern-day Andhra Pradesh).
According to this theory, the Pallavas later expanded their influence southward,
eventually establishing their power in Kanchi (modern-day Kanchipuram). The
second theory proposes that the Pallavas originated in Kanchi itself, where they
initially rose to prominence. From there, they expanded their dominion northward,
reaching as far as the Krishna River. Another theory posits that the Pallavas were
descendants of Chola Prince Ilandiraiyan and had their roots in Tondaimandalam,
the region around Kanchi. These theories provide different perspectives on the
Pallavas' early history and territorial expansion, but the exact origins of the Pallava
dynasty continue to be a subject of debate among historians.

The Pallavas became a major southern Indian power during the reign
of Mahendravarman I (600–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630–668 CE), and
dominated the southern Telugu region and the northern parts of the Tamil region for
about 600 years, until the end of the 9th century. Throughout their reign, they
remained in constant conflict with both the Chalukyas of Vatapi to the north, and the
Tamil kingdoms of Chola and Pandyas to their south. The Pallavas were finally
defeated by the Chola ruler Aditya I in the 9th century CE.

The Pallavas are most noted for their patronage of Hindu Vaishnava temple
architecture, the finest example being the Shore Temple, a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in Mamallapuram. Kancheepuram served as the capital of the Pallava kingdom.
The dynasty left behind magnificent sculptures and temples, and are recognized to
have established the foundations of medieval southern Indian architecture, which
some scholars believe the ancient Hindu treatise Manasara inspiredThey developed
the Pallava script, from which Grantha ultimately took form. This script eventually
gave rise to several other Southeast Asian scripts such Khmer. The Chinese

60
traveller Xuanzang visited Kanchipuram during Pallava rule and extolled their benign
rule.

The word Pallava means a creeper or branch in Sanskrit. Pallava also means arrow
or spruce in Tamil.

Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram, Tamil Nadu, considered as the oldest temple, glorified in
the Nalayira Divya Prabandham, the early medieval Tamil canon of the Alvar saints from the 500 to 800
CE. It is one among the 108 Divya Desams dedicated to Maha Vishnu//Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchi one
of the oldest temples in the city

Sculptures of the legends of pallavas in the Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram// Inner
court or the circumambulatory passage with 58 subshrines. Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram
Sculpture of Maha Vishnu as the Supreme deity in Vaikuntha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram

The proponents of the Andhra origin theory include S. Krishnaswami

Aiyangar and K. A. Nilakanta Sastri. They believe that Pallavas were originally
feudatories of the Satavahanas in the south-eastern part of their empire who became
independent when the Satavahana power declined. They are seen to be "strangers
to the Tamil country", unrelated to the ancient lines of Cheras, Pandyas and Cholas.
Since Simhavarman's grant bears no regal titles, they believe that he might have
been a subsidiary to the Andhra Ikshvakus who were in power in Andhradesa at that
time. In the following half-century, the Pallavas became independent and expanded
up to Kanchi.

S. Krishnaswami Aiyengar also speculates that the Pallavas were natives

of Tondaimandalam and the name Pallava is identical with the word Tondaiyar.
Chola Prince Ilandiraiyan is traditionally regarded as the founder of the Pallava
dynasty. Ilandiraiyan is referred to in the literature of the Sangam period such as

61
the Pathupattu. In the Sangam epic Manimekalai, he is depicted as the son
of Chola king Killi and the Naga princess Pilivalai, the daughter of king Valaivanan
of Manipallavam.

Another theory is propounded by historians R. Sathianathaier and D. C. Sircar,[27] with

endorsements by Hermann Kulke, Dietmar Rothermundand Burton Stein.[29] Sircar
points out that the family legends of the Pallavas speak of an ancestor descending
from Ashwatthama, the legendary warrior of Mahabharata, and his union with
a Naga princess. According to Ptolemy, the Aruvanadu region between the northern
and southern Penner rivers (Penna and Ponnaiyar) was ruled by a king Basaronaga
around 140 CE. By marrying into this Naga family, the Pallavas would have acquired
control of the region near Kanchi. While Sircar allows that Pallavas might have been
provincial rulers under the later Satavahanas with a partial northern lineage,
Sathianathaier sees them as natives of Tondaimandalam (the core region of
Aruvanadu). He argues that they could well have adopted northern Indian practices
under the Mauryan Asoka's rule. He relates the name "Pallava" to Pulindas, whose
heritage is borne by names such as "Pulinadu" and "Puliyurkottam" in the region.

According to some, the Pallavas were Kurumbas and Kurubas their modern
representatives This is supported by Marathi historian R. C. Dhere who stated that
Pallavas were originally pastoralists that belonged to Kuruba lineages.[34] The territory
of Pallavas was bordered by the Coromandel Coast along present Tamil Nadu and
southern Andhra Pradesh. Out of the coins found here, the class of gold and silver
coins belonging to the 2nd-7th century CE period contain the Pallava emblem, the
maned lion, together with Kannada or Sanskrit inscription which showed that the
Pallavas used Kannada too in their administration along with Prakrit, Sanskrit and
Tamil.

According to C. V. Vaidya, the Pallavas were Maharashtrian Aryans who

spoke Maharashtri Prakrit for centuries and hence retained it even in the midst of
surrounding Dravidian languages. They may even be said to have been 'Marathas'
for their name was said to be still preserved in the Maratha family name of 'Pālave'
(which is just Prakrit form of Pallava). And a further corroboration is that the gotra of
the Pālave Maratha family is Bharadwaja, same as the one which Pallavas have
attributed to themselves in their records.

Overlaid on these theories is another hypothesis of Sathianathaier which claims that

"Pallava" is a derivative of Pahlava (the Sanskrit term for Parthians). According to
him, partial support for the theory can be derived from a crown shaped like an
elephant's scalp depicted on some sculptures, which seems to resemble the crown
of Demetrius I.

Rivalries
With Cholas

South Asia 350 CE South Asian polities c. 350 CE.

1. YAUDHEYAS
2. ARJUNAYANAS

62
 3. MADRAKAS
4. MALAVAS
5. ANDHRA IKSHVAKUS
6. KALABHRAS
7. WESTERN
GANGAS
8. TOCHARIANS
9. KADAMBAS
10. PALLAVAS
11. LITTLE
KUSHANS
12. LICCHAVIS
13. WESTERN SATRAPS
14. SASANIAN HIND
15. NAGAS
16. KAMARUPA
17. GAUDA
18. SAMATATAS
19. DAVAKA
20. KIDARITES
21. ABHIRAS
22. VAKATAKAS
23.GUPTA EMPIRE
24. KUSHANO- SASANIANS
25. SAKASTAN
26. TURAN
27. MAKRAN
28.SASANIAN EMPIRE
The Pallavas captured Kanchi from the Cholas as recorded in the Velurpalaiyam
Plates, around the reign of the fifth king of the Pallava line Kumaravishnu IThereafter
Kanchi figures in inscriptions as the capital of the Pallavas. The Cholas drove the
Pallavas away from Kanchi in the mid-4th century, in the reign of Vishnugopa, the
tenth king of the Pallava line. The Pallavas re-captured Kanchi from the Kalabhras in
the mid-6th century, possibly in the reign of Simhavishnu, the fourteenth king of the
Pallava line, whom the Kasakudi plates state as "the lion of the earth". Thereafter the
Pallavas held on to Kanchi until the 9th century, until the reign of their last
king, Vijaya-Nripatungavarman.

With Kadambas
The Pallavas were in conflict with major kingdoms at various periods of time. A
contest for political supremacy existed between the early Pallavas and
the Kadambas. Numerous Kadamba inscriptions provide details of Pallava-Kadamba
hostilities.

With Kalabhras
During the reign of Vishnugopavarman II (approx. 500–525), political convulsion
engulfed the Pallavas due to the Kalabhra invasion of the Tamil country. Towards
the close of the 6th century, the Pallava Simhavishnu stuck a blow against the
Kalabhras. The Pandyas followed suit. Thereafter the Tamil country was divided
between the Pallavas in the north with Kanchipuram as their capital, and Pandyas in
the south with Madurai as their capital.

63
Birudas
The royal custom of using a series of descriptive honorific titles, Birudas, was
particularly prevalent among the Pallavas. The Birudas of Mahendravarman I are in
Sanskrit, Tamil and Telugu. The Telugu Birudas show Mahendravarman's
involvement with the Andhra region continued to be strong at the time he was
creating his cave-temples in the Tamil region. The suffix "Malla" was used by the
Pallava rulers. Mahendravarman I used the Biruda, Shatrumalla, "a warrior who
overthrows his enemies", and his grandson Paramesvara I was called Ekamalla "the
sole warrior or wrestler". Pallava kings, presumably exalted ones, were known by the
title Mahamalla ("great wrestler").

Languages used

Coin of the Pallavas of Coromandel, king

Narasimhavarman I. (630-668 AD).Obv Lion left Rev Name of Narasimhavarman with solar
and lunar symbols around.
Pallava inscriptions have been found in Tamil, Prakrit and Sanskrit.

Tamil was main language used by the Pallavas in their inscriptions, though a few
records continued to be in Sanskrit. At the time of the time of Paramesvaravarman I,
the practice came into vogue of inscribing a part of the record in Sanskrit and the
rest in Tamil. Almost all the copper plate records, viz., Kasakudi, Tandantottam,
Pattattalmangalm, Udayendiram and Velurpalaiyam are composed both in Sanskrit
and Tamil.

Many Pallava royal inscriptions were in Sanskrit or Prakrit, considered the official
languages. Similarly, inscriptions found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka State are
in Sanskrit and Prakrit. Sanskrit was widely used
by Simhavishnu and Narasimhavarman II in literature. The phenomenon of using
Prakrit as official languages in which rulers left their inscriptions and epigraphies
continued till the 6th century. It would have been in the interest of the ruling elite to
protect their privileges by perpetuating their hegemony of Prakrit in order to exclude
the common people from sharing power (Mahadevan 1995a: 173–188). The
Pallavas in their Tamil country used Tamil and Sanskrit in their inscriptions.

Writing system- Pallava alphabet

Under the Pallava dynasty, a unique form of Grantha script, a descendant of Pallava
script which is a type of Brahmic script, was used. Around the 6th century, it was
exported eastwards and influenced the genesis of almost all Southeast Asian scripts.

Religion
64
Pallavas were followers of Hinduism and made gifts of land to gods and Brahmins. In
line with the prevalent customs, some of the rulers performed the Aswamedha and
other Vedic sacrifices.[47] They were, however, tolerant of other faiths. The Chinese
monk Xuanzang who visited Kanchipuram during the reign of Narasimhavarman I
reported that there were 100 Buddhist monasteries, and 80 Hindu temples in
Kanchipuram. The semi-legendary founder of Zen Buddhism, Bodhidharma, is in an
Indian tradition regarded to be the third son of a Pallava king.

Pallava architecture

The Shore Temple at Mamallapuram built by Narasimhavarman II

The Pallavas were instrumental in the transition from rock-cut architecture to stone
temples. The earliest examples of Pallava constructions are rock-cut temples dating
from 610 to 690 and structural temples between 690 and 900. A number of rock-cut
cave temples bear the inscription of the Pallava king, Mahendravarman I and his
successors.

Among the accomplishments of the Pallava architecture are the rock-cut temples
at Mamallapuram. There are excavated pillared halls and monolithic shrines known
as Rathas in Mahabalipuram. Early temples were mostly dedicated to Shiva. The
Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram and the Shore Temple built
by Narasimhavarman II, rock cut temple in Mahendravadi by Mahendravarman are
fine examples of the Pallava style temples. [54] The temple of Nalanda
Gedige in Kandy, Sri Lanka is another. The famous Tondeswaram
temple of Tenavarai and the ancient Koneswaram temple of Trincomalee were
patronised and structurally developed by the Pallavas in the 7th century.

Pallava society
The Pallava period beginning with Simhavishnu (575 CE – 900 CE) was a
transitional stage in southern Indian society with monument building, foundation of
devotional (bhakti) sects of Alvars and Nayanars, the flowering of rural Brahmanical
institutions of Sanskrit learning, and the establishment of chakravartin model of
kingship over a territory of diverse people; which ended the pre-Pallavan era of

65
territorially segmented people, each with their culture, under a tribal chieftain. While
a system of ranked relationship among groups existed in the classical period, the
Pallava period extolled ranked relationships based on ritual purity as enjoined by
the shastras.[57] Burton distinguishes between the chakravatin model and
the kshatriya model, and likens kshatriyas to locally based warriors with ritual status
sufficiently high enough to share with Brahmins; and states that in south India the
kshatriya model did not emerge.[57] As per Burton, south India was aware of the Indo-
Aryan varna organised society in which decisive secular authority was vested in
the kshatriyas; but apart from the Pallava, Chola and Vijayanagar line of warriors
which claimed chakravartin status, only few locality warrior families achieved the
prestigious kin-linked organisation of northern warrior groups.

Pallava-Chola architecture of the Prambanan Temple Compounds.

Entrance to the Prambanan Temple Complex

The period roughly between 680 AD and 930 AD was the golden period of the Hindu-
Buddhist architecture or more commonly known as the Hindu-Javanese architecture. This
was the period that the Hindu-Buddhist Mataram Kingdom flourished (not to be confused
with the Mataram Sultanate) under couple of dynasties, Sailendra and Sanjaya, which
followed the two dharmic faiths, Hinduism and Buddhism.

What is Pallava Chola style of architecture?

66
Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art and architecture which
blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first stone and mortar temples of
South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based on earlier brick and timber
prototypes. Prambanan Temple Compounds is the largest Hindu temple complex in Indonesia
and one of the largest Hindu temples in south-east Asia. It is characterised by its tall and
pointed architecture, typical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the 47m high central
building inside a large complex of individual temples. The holy place of Chola temples were
both in a circular and square shape. Special vimanas were built on the upper side of the shrine
room where the idol of deity was placed. Dome-shaped shikhara and Kalash were placed on
the top of the Gopuram.

Prambanan as a Hindu Temple was made High and slim compared to Borobudur, with the
main Shiva shrine stands 47 meters in the middle of the complex surrounded with smaller
temples. Prambanan has a bas-relief on the inner side of the gate around the three main
shrine. the spectacular Brihadeeswarar temple in Tanjore in 2013 and was looking forward to
see the Prambanan.

The common relationship between them is that they share the same architectural style –
Pallava-Chola South Indian style. Though the geometrical pattern of the surrounding Perwara
temples (discussed later) of the Prambanan follow the Pala architecture as seen in the
Somapura Vihara ruins in Paharpur located in the present day Bangladesh.These various
structures represent different architectures such as Pallava-Chola architecture, Pala
architecture, Gupta architecture and indigenous Javanese architecture. In this article, I briefly
cover few of the architectural wonders in that region. But I would start with the disclaimer
that I cannot do justice to the places like my childhood favorite writer, Kalki, who can carry
you back in time to the place through his incantation.

Temples of Indonesia are of three different kinds - Pura, Candi and Koil. The Candi
(pronounced as Chandi) temples are more of Javanese temples, e.g., the Candi Prambanan
while Koil are those temples constructed by Indian traders from Tamil Nadu, e.g.,
Mariamman Koil in Aceh in the 19th century. The third type of temples are the ones
constructed by the Balinese and Tenggerese called Pura temples in Eastern Java and Bali,
e.g., Pura Luhur Poten in Mount Bromo. The temples here are called Candi. Candi itself is
derived from Candika, one of the manifestations of the goddess Durga and indicates the
temples built in Indonesia, during the ‘Indianized period’, between the seventh and fifteenth

67
centuries. Most of these structures are built in that period when Indian culture was at its peak
in these parts of the world.

Significance of Chola Architecture

Chola temples had a beautiful shikara stone at the top. It had elaborate and carefully made
carvings. It is a marvel how these structures weighing in tonnes is placed without the help of
cranes. During their reign, Cholas made temples in Nagaeshwvara, Brihadeshwvara,
Airavateshwara and Chidambaram. Other kingdoms in South India and Sri Lanka followed
their style.
Ever since the temple building process began, the architecture reflected a synthesis of arts,
the ideals of dharma, beliefs, values and the way of life cherished under Hinduism. Nagara,
Dravida, Vesara etc are different styles of temple architecture. Pallavas (7th century – 9th
century) and Cholas (9th century -11th century) were the major kingdoms which epitomized
the Dravidian Architecture. Chalukyas (7th century -11th century) followed Vesara style of
architecture in the Karnataka region. Their style is also known as Karnata Dravida
style. Chalukya art was followed by Hoysala art (13th century).
Dravidian Architecture : Pallavas and Cholas
Pallavas used bricks, lion motifs, dwarfed gopurams etc. Things changed at the hands of
Cholas. They used stones instead of bricks. Walls were decorated with sculptures and
paintings of deities, kings and queens (not lion motifs). Temples have enclosed decorative
walls and entrance (Gopuram). They also have an audience hall known as Mandap. The deity
room is known as Garbhgriha. The pyramid like storey above the deity room is known as
Vimana.
Chola Temple Architecture in detail

The Dravidian temple architecture started by the Pallavas got matured at the hand of the
Cholas. Some prominent features of temple architecture in the Chola dynasty are enunciated
here.
1. Niche- These are characteristic architectural designs of Chola temples carved in
temple walls.
2. Devakusthas- These are decorative niches of chola temple walls where deities are
sculpted.
3. Pilasters- These magnificent architectural designs are carved as projection in walls
with placing of deities within it. The pilasters are positioned in both sides of the main
devakusthas.
4. Kumbhapapanjara and kushtapan- These are narrow niches in chola temple walls with
special design for placing sculpted images.
5. Kudus- These are two lion heads which crowns the curved roof of the pilasters.
6. Mythical motif- Makar along with warrior heads positions below all the decorative
devices.
7. Torus- It is a rounded structure placed on the basement of temple sculpture or motiff
68
 sometimes decorated with ribs.
8. Yazhi- The base of the walls of chola temples are decorated with lines of mythical
animals called yazhi.
9. Mandapa features- Arthamandapa, nandi mandapa with special decoration are
characteristics of Chola temple architecture.
10. Parivardevatas- Besides the main shrine, Chola temples were evidences of subsidiary
shrines for other deities called parivardevatas which were highly decorative.
11. Dikapalas- These are some prominent directions transparent in Chola temple with
architectural design for placing of deities.
12. Inscription- The walls of Chola temples are seen with inscriptions with architectural
design.
Comparison between Pallava and Chola Architecture
 Yali – Pallava used yali or lion motif at the base of the pillar
Chola abandoned it and used yazhi at base or kudus in other parts of the pillar.
 Dwarapala – In pallava architecture dvarapalas are comparatively benign.
In chola architecture dwarapala became fierce with protruding tusk.
 Gopuram – The gopurams in pallava dynasties were comparatively dwarfed.
But in chola dynasty they became enlarged with high enclosure walls.
 Finial – The finial in Pallava dynasy was a little swelling in the top of the vimana.
But in Chola dynasty it became beautiful vase with artistic design.
Pallava art and architecture represent an early stage of Dravidian art
and architecture which blossomed to its fullest extent under the Chola Dynasty. The first
stone and mortar temples of South India were constructed during Pallava rule and were based
on earlier brick and timber prototypes. Starting with rock cut temples, built between 695AD
and 722AD, and archaeological excavations dated to the 6th century and earlier. Pallava
sculptors later graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola dynasty's
temples of a later age. Some of the best examples of Pallava art and architecture are
the Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram, the Shore Temple and the Pancha
Rathas of Mahabalipuram. Akshara was the greatest sculptor of their time.
Pallava architecture was sub-divided into two phases
1. rock cut phase
2. structural phase.
JAIN religious rock cut phase lasted from the 610 AD to 668 AD and consisted of two
groups of monuments, the Mahendra group and the Mamalla group. The Mahendra group is
the name given to monuments constructed during the reign of Mahendravarman I (610 AD-
630 AD). The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of mountain
faces. These pillared halls or mandapas follow the prototype of Jain temples of the period.
The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples at
Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
The second group of rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group in 630 to 668 AD.
During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas (chariots) were constructed
alongside pillared halls. Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Rathas
and Arjuna's Penance at Mahabalipuram.

69
The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-standing
shrines were constructed with stone and mortar brought in for the purpose. Monuments of
this phase are of two groups - the Rajasimha group (690 to 800 AD) and the Nandivarman
group (800 to 900 AD). The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the
Pallavas when a lot of experimentation was carried out. The best examples of this period are
the Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at Kanchipuram
both constructed by Narasimhavarman II who was known as Rajasimha. The best example of
the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon
which the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda
Cholapuram and various other architectural works of note were constructed.

Pallava Pillar Mandagappattu, 7th century

70
The temples of Prambanan itself are organized as per the Logam concept. The foot of each
temple represents the Boologam or the realm of the mortals. The middle realm or the body of
the temple represents Bhuvarlogam or realm for the holy people. The upper realm or the
holiest part of the temple or the topmost layer is the realm of gods called Swarkalogam. The
upper realm is completed by a Vajra (it can mean both thunderbolt or diamond) on the roof.

The Bas reliefs of Prambanan is very extensive and narrative. The narrative part is about
Ramayana epic and Bhagavata Puranam - stories about Vishnu and his avatars. The reliefs
also have depictions about Kalpataru, Apsaras, Devadas - all part of Hindu/Buddhist
mythology.
History
The temple is believed to have been built by Rakai Pikatan of Sanjaya dynasty around 850
AD and expanded by subsequent kings building the Perwara temples surrounding the
centerpiece in concentric squares.
At its peak, hundreds of Brahmins lived in the temple complex while the royal court with the
urban center was located nearby. The royal court was shifted either due to Mount Merapi
volcano eruption or due to power struggle throwing Prambanan into disuse. The locals knew
about the existence of the temple but did not know the background and so the folklore of
Roro Jonggrang was attached to the temple.
It was rediscovered in the early 19th century by archaeologists from Britain during its short
occupation.

Folklore of Roro Jonggrang

Candi Prambanan is also called as Candi Roro Jonggrang based on the folklore in these parts
of the island. Roro Jonggrang is the story of a princess by the same name and her love and
betrayal. The other architectural sites existing today, Ratu Boko, Candi Sewu temple complex
and the statue of Durga Mahishasuramardini within Prambanan temple complex all have their
mythical connections to this story.
Father of Roro Jonggrang, Prabu Boko was killed in a battle by neighboring kingdom’s
prince, Bandung Bondowoso. Prince Bondowoso along with his army captures the Ratu Boko
palace. On seeing Princess Roro Jonggrang, he falls in love with her and wishes to marry her.
Roro Jonggrang, not wishing to marry him for killing her father but at the same time does not
want to reject him for him being the victor, places an impossible condition to be fulfilled by
the prince - build 1000 temples in a night.
But Prince Bondowoso, has the magical powers to invoke demon spirits (kind of like Genies)
to build the 1000 temples. But the demon spirits can only work in the night as the sunlight
can burn these spirits during daytime. They proceed to build the temples and had completed

71
999 temples when the princess hears this news. She tricks the rooster in the Palace by having
the maids light candles on the eastern side. The rooster, thinking that the sun was rising, starts
to crow and the spirits rush back to below the earth.
Prince Bondowoso tries to build the 1000th temple but fails. In his anger at being tricked, he
curses the Princess, who becomes a statue in the Prambanan temple complex, that of the
statue of Durga.

Candi Bubrah
Thoroughly savouring the great architecture of Prambanan and wanting to visit the temple
another day (which I did two days later), I walked hundred or so meters to Candi Bubrah,
which is a Buddhist temple constructed in the 9th century by the Sailendra dynasty. It is
named as Bubrah as it was discovered in complete ruins. What exists today is a 12 meters x
12 meters platform where I could see works carried on to restore this temple. As per my
conversation with the workers, the temple is made up of volcanic rocks.

Candi Lumbung
As there was not much to be seen, I hardly spent fifteen minutes in Candi Bubrah and walked
to my next temple - Candi Lumbung. Candi Lumbung was built around the same time frame
as Candi Bubrah in the 9th century by Sailendra Dynasty but predates Prambanan temple.
The main temple is a Buddhist temple dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva. There are sixteen
Perwara temples similar to the Perwara temples of Prambanan. On top of the main temple is
the stupa, typical of a Buddhist temple. The main temple can be accessed from the 4 cardinal
points. Just like other temples in the compounds, Lumbung is going through renovation but is
in a better condition than Bubrah.

72
Candi Lumbung - Main temple renovation goes on with Perwara temples on the side
Candi Sewu
After visiting Lumbung, I walked few hundred meters to stop by Candi Sewu, which is a
large temple complex unlike the smaller ruins of Bubrah. As I mentioned above, it is the
second largest Buddhist temple complex in Indonesia after Borobudur with a total of 249
temples in its complex. The architecture resembles the Pala architecture due to the Perwara
temples arranged in a geometric fashion similar to Prambanan. But Sewu predates Prambanan
by at least a century. The original name for this temple was Manjusrigrha (meaning “house of
Manjushri”) and was dedicated to Manjushri Bodhisattva similar to the Lumbung temple
nearby.

Main chamber where the bronze statue of Manjushri is missing

The main temple itself is 30 meters in height and 29 meters in diameter and is in a 20 sided
Polygon shape. The temple was believed to have had a bronze statue of Manjushri. The main
temple is surrounded by four concentric rows of Perwara temples similar to Prambanan and

73
the temple complex itself follows the same Vaastu-based Mandala concept. Candi Sewu
shares its Folklore of Roro Jonggrang with the Prambanan as many associate it with this
temple complex.

000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

7
Impact of the Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th
century CE to late 6th century CE. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it
covered much of the Indian subcontinent. This period is considered as the Golden Age
of India by historians. The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king
Sri Gupta; the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta,
Chandragupta II and Skandagupta. The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits
the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside
India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in
the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.
The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place
primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I.
Many Hindu epics and literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were
canonised during this period. The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa,
[11]
Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many
academic fields. Science and political administration reached new heights during the
Gupta era. The period gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and
painting that "set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent
course of art, not only in India but far beyond her borders". Strong trade ties also
made the region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that
would influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia.
The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to have been
committed to written texts around this period.[15][17] Hinduism was followed by the
rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas tolerated
people of other faiths as well.
The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of territory
and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as the
invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia. After
the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by
numerous regional kingdoms.

GUPTA RELIGION

74
Both Buddhism and Hinduism were widely prevalent. The characteristic features of
Hinduism enabled it to survive till today; whereas the new features of Buddhism led to its
final decline. Although Buddhism still appealed in matters of ritual making it to be regarded
as a sect of the latter. Jainism escaped from this fate. It remained unchanged; and therefore it
continued to be supported by the merchant communities of western India. Added to this in
some areas of the Deccan royalty patronized Jainism although it ceased in the 7th century
A.D.
Although Buddhism gradually declined with in the country it spread beyond the frontiers of
India first to central Asia and then to China and also to South-East Asia.
A far more important development of the 5th century was the emergence of a curious cult
associated with the worship of women deities and fertility cults. These became the nucleus of
a number of magical rites which later came to be known as tantricism Buddhism too came
under this influence leading to the evolution or a new branch of Buddhism in the 7th century
called vajrayana of Thunderbolt Vehicle Buddhism. In this Buddhism female counterparts
came to be added to the male figures known as taras. This particular cult exists even tody in
Nepal and Tibet.

Devi worship - the cult of the mother goddess the oldest of all religious - also seems to have
received the imprimature of orthodoxy during this period. We have the avidence of Gunadhya
that tantric forms of worship were prevalent in the first century B.C. Kalidasa himself seems
to have been a worshipper of the Devi. His name itself proclaims it as it is obviously an
assumed one which means the servant of Kali. Besides the benedictory verse in Raghuvamsa
clearly states the Sakta doctrine of the indivisibility of Siva and parvati. The God Mahakala
of Ujjain whose worship the poet describes with manifest devotion was as we known from
Gunadhya's story incorporated in Kathasarit Sagara adorned with tantric rites. In fact not only
the different modes of Devi worship but the ceremonials of the tantric system in their various
forms were well-known in the Gupta period.

While the above developments occurred in Buddhism and Jainism Hinduism developed some
distinct characteristics which exist even till today. The first is the worship of images which
superseded sacrifices. The sacrifices of the olden days were transformed into symbolic
sacrifices into the images in the poojas. This naturally led to the decline of the priests who
were dominant in sacrifices. Worship of god indeed became the concern of the individual but
regulating individual social behaviour still remained the concern of the Brahmin. Man-made
traditions of the past began to be treated as sacred laws. Orthodoxy attempted to maintain its
power by rigid rules of exclusion. However seeing the difficulty of enforcing the sacred laws
a broad frame of difference came to be evolved as the four ends of man-religion and social
law (dharma) economic welfare, (artha) pleasure (kama) and salvation of the soul (moksha).
Then onwards it is being maintained that a correct balance of the first three could lead to the
fourth.

Among those who practiced religion in a serious manner two sects came into existence -
Vaishnuvism and Shaivism. Broadly speaking the first was mostly prevalent in northern India
while the second in southern India. At this time the tantric beliefs left their mark on
Hinduism. Shakti cults came into existence the subtle idea being that the male can be
activated only by being united with the female. It was thus that Hindu gods acquired wives
and both came to be
worshipped. Apart from tantricism the appearance of this feature of Hinduism was probably
promoted by the persistence of the worship of the mother Goddess which probably could be
traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization.

75
 Gupta COSMOLOGY
Along with these developments the ground was prepared for the concept of svataras also.
Hindu thinkers evolved the concept of cyclical theory of time. The cycle was called a kalpa.
The kalpa itself is divided into fourteen periods. At the end of each period, the universe re-
emerges with Manu, the primeval men. Each of these kalpas is further divided into great
intervals and ultimately into Yugas or periods of time. As per the concept of this theory of
time we are in the fourth of the Yugas, that is, the Kaliyuga with which the world will its end.
The Kaliyuga is also associated with which the world will reach its end 10 the 10th
incarnation of Vishnu.
All these developments in Hinduism were associated with disputations between Buddhists
and brahmins. These debates centred around six systems of thought which came to be known
as the six systems of Hindu philosophy –
1. Nyaya or analysis based on logci,
2. Vaisheshika or brood characteristics according to which the universe is composed of
atoms as

76
 3. distinct from the soul'
4. Sankhya or enumeration recognizing dualism between matter and soul or athemeis,
5. Yoga or application relying on control over the body in order to acquire knowledge of
the ultimate law of the Vedas as opposed to pose-
6. Vedic thought, and Vedanta to refute the theories of non-Vedas. As known from the
above analysis the first four schools are empirical in nature, whereas, the latter two
are metaphysical.

In later ages mimamasa and Vedanta gained over the others.The above discourses were at the
elite level and the generally of people came to possess their own books of knowledge. The
Puranas as known to us today were composed in this period historical traditions as recorded
by the brahmins. They were originally composed in parts but in this period they came to be
re-written in classical Sanskrit. Later, knowledge relating to Hindu sex, rites and customs
came to be added to them in order to make them sacrosanct.

GUPTA EFFLORESCENCE was not a golden age but it was a period consummation.
Administration was not found overnight. Began with Bimbisara and elaborated by the Nandas
and then inherited by the Mauryans. Such was the legacy of the Gupta's Mahamatras and the
provincial viceroys were inherited from the Mauryan system. Mauryan administrative system
became mellowed - less sever punishment one - sixth of the land produce.
ECONOMIC PROSPERITY

(a) Capitalism emerged in the Mauryan period along with the guilds and ports.
(b) Trad with west on a grand scale.
(c) Material prosperity was reflected in the art and architecture of the period.
(d) Use of the silk was common.
(e) Use of intoxicants by the rich was popular.
(f) Prosperity was not achieved overnight trade routes during the time of the Sakas and the
Kushanas.

BEFORE THE GUTPAS :

(a) Udayana of Kausambi, 6th century B.C. (Veena - Buddhist books talk of palaces, gardens
and Chaityas.
(b) Artistic tradition goes back -the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, the chaityas of Ajanta,
Nasik and Karle the rock-cutcaves of Barabar, and the vihara caves of Udaigiri, Khandagiri
and Ajanta.
(c) In the first century AD Mathura art became active. It was the Mathura school that first
created images of the Buddha. It was also patronized by the Kushanas as borne out by a series
of portraits of the Kushana kins.

DURING THE GUPTAS :

They key note of Gupta art is balance and freedom from convention - a ment between the
right of naturalism and the bizarre symbolism of medieval art. In the beginning, the temple
was in the form of leafy bower, than a hut of reeds, and then a cellarof wood and bricks. In
the Gupta period appears garbha-griha having a small door as entrance - interior walls are
bare whereas the exterior are richly carved - Tigowa temple in Jabalpur district, Narasimha
temple in Eran and the Udayagiri Sanctuary near Sanchi.

The Gupta sculpture was an improvement over the Gandhara sculpture. Their sculptures
show close fitting garments and decorated haloes, sculptures also appear in the form of relief

77
on temples. Carved brick work and the terracotta panels in the Bhitoragaon temple. Deogarh
temple - a panel representing Vishnu reclining or Ananta - Shiva as a Yogi in this temple is a
masterpiece - the same category of the cave temples in the Udayagiri hills. Buddhist
sculptures in thisperiod had grown typically India. The Buddha of alm repose and mild
serenity and abandonment of drpery of the Gandhara art, a floral decoration showing the
triumph of indigenous tradition, seated images of the Buddha preaching are of great delicacy.
Metal images of the Buddha at Nalanda.
The Gupta coins also reached classical levels : one side portrait of the king and there verse
side appropriate goddess with symbols. Monarchs in various postures : feeding a peacock,
shooting a tiger, playing on Veena.The quality of line drawn on the coins and their
metallurgical skill are of higher level.
Number 16 and 17 cave-paintings of the Ajanta, the finest belong to this period. These two
paintings constitute a culmination of classical Indian paintings - resemblance to Sigiriya
frescoes.

SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Before the Guptas :
Began with Panini - the Vakatakas and the Bharasivas (Nagas) patronized Sanskrit. The
mahabashya of Patanjali was patronized by Pushyamitra Sunga - Patanjali refers to dramatic
recitals of Kamasavadha. He also mentions of a poet of the second century B.C. Vararuchi
who wrote in Kavya style. Susruta and Nagarjuna were well-versed in Sanskrit - Asvaghosha
wrote Buddha Charita and Soundara Manda. Astadhyayi of Panini hints at the existence of
dramatic literature. Kalidasa alludes to Sanksrit writers like Saumilla. Asvaghosha of the first
century wrote dramas with Buddhist themes and this dramas were based on the norms laid
down in Bharata's Natyashastra.

During the Guptas :

Sanskrit ast he language of the elite Buddhists also used it. Kalidasa, the exponent of Kavya
style - Ritusamhara and Meghadoot during Chandragupta II's time. Kalidas was
contemporary of Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya or Kumara Gupta I, His Meghadoot is a
lyric of delicate beauty. Sahakuntalam in his great work. Vishakadatta is the author of Mudra-
Rakshasa. Mrichakataka appeared in this period. Panchatantra was probably elaborated.

RELIGION :
Before the Guptas : In religions filed also the Gupta age witnessed such standards which are
till today accepted. Religions, too, like the other filed did not originate during the Gupta
period but reached a donsummation. Worhip of Vasudeva in early fourth century B.C. - in the
middle second century B.C. Heliodours erected a garudadhwaja. Dharam shastras and
Grihyasutras emerged in the fourth century B.C. along with the laws of Manu. The
Bharasisvas and the Vakatakas contributed to the Re-establishment of Aryan society and
culture and performed Asvamedhas.

DURING THE GUTPAS :

(1) As idols became objects of worship, the sacrificial part of Hindu religion receded into the
background. Pujas gained in importance as opposed to Yajnas. Images worship captivated the
imagination of the people
(2) Redaction of thamajor Puranas and the Mahabharata. The Puranas created the necessary
mythology while sculpture brought the deities to the homes of the common man. The
essentials of the later day Hinduism appeared is a simple fashion in the Puranas.
(3) Vaishnavism and Shivism came into existence.

78
(4) Development of the tantric belief - emergence of the Shakti cult.
(5) With the development of the panthoon of gods in Hinduism the gods came to be attributed
wives.
(6) The concept of Yugas was postulate during this period - at the end of each Yuga, the
universe is recreated kaliyuga is associated with the coming of Kalikin, the would-be
incarnation of Vishnu.
(7) Also, the six system of Philosophy came into existence. Nyaya lays stress on logic.
Vaisheshika treats matter and soul as separate universes. Sankhya maintains the existence of
25 principles as the causes of creation - is essentially atheistic. Yoga stresses on the control of
the body and senses leading to eternity - required knowledge of human anatomy. Meemasa
ephasises the ultimate law of the Vedas and their rituals primarily supported by the brahmins.
Vednanta is the metaphysical interpretation of the Vedas - the should be reached by the
atman of each individual for salvation.
(8) Mahayana doctrine was the vogue of the day of this period. Buddhism developed its own
tantrics - in the 7th century the Thunderbolt school added female counterparts to Buddhist
pantheon known as Taras. Jainism was patronized by the merchant communities. A Jaina
council was held at Valabhi in the sixth century and it finalized the Jaina canon.
Science : In the field of science, too, the Gupta period witnessed a conusmmeratino. The
beginnings of science were far too ancient Metallurgical skill was known from the days of the
Mauryas. The scientific knowledge of the Greeks was admired in the post-Gupta era. These
beginnings reached a culmination during the Gupta period.
Most probably a few eminent ment of science belonged to his period. Aryabhatta was a
methematician and he probably conceived the concept of zero. Arterya was a surgeon and he
performed operations of Herina and catract. Varahminhira was as astronomer and he
anticipated Copernicus. Probably, Charakha and Susruta, two authorities on medicines,
belonged to this period.

SHORTCOMINGS :
(1) All was not well with the Gupta economic prosperity. After the Huna Invasions, trading
activity with north-west came to a stop. Also goods from the Gangetic region could not be
easily carried to the Western coast. This was one of the causes of the shift of trade towards
South-East Asia.
(2) The administration of the Guptas was not as successful as that of the Mauryas. Autonomy
granted to provinces, districts and villages. The local officials formed into cligues and very
often offices became hereditary. Corruption was known. Officials were expected to be treated
with rice, curd and flowers - the last time perhaps, had its own implications.
(3) Although Sanskrit drama attained great heights, some of the writings of the day show that
they were only for a select few of society. Good number of legal codes were prepared like
that of Yajnavalka, Narada, Barihaspati and Katyayand. The social system became very rigid.
(4) In matters of religion also decadent features started appearing. New cults emerged
worshipping female deities. This became the nucleus for a number of magical rites which
later came to be known as Tantricism.
(5) It was in the social field the institutionalization of difference between the castes had
begun. In the dramatic wrirings of the day, the characters belonging to the upper state of
society speak Sanksrit while those of the lower strapa and women speak Prakrit. The status of
women declined because of the practice of early marriages. And most of the legal codes of
the day reiterate the Brahmin view-point in all matters including the status of women. The lot
of Shudras which was downgraded in the Maurya period was legalized. And the institution of
untouchability was fully established.

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Temple architecture
Most Gupta-period architecture that survives in-situ is religious in nature and is built from stone and brick.
A modest temple structure known as number 17 at the sacred complex at Sanchi – famous for its great
stupa, and believed to date to the early fifth century, gives an idea of the early style of Indian temple
architecture.
Temple number 17 is flat-roofed, mostly unadorned, and has an attached portico marked by four pillars
topped with lion capitals. The temple is quite different from another fifth century brick-temple
at Bhitargaon that sits at the center of a square plan and would have once had an
impressive shikara (pyramidal roof). Although the temple is heavily reconstructed today, it still preserves
some of its sculptured terracotta panels, providing a glimpse of its original grandeur.

Temple number 17, Sanchi // Dashavatara Temple, 6th century C.E., Deogarh

Another Gupta period temple, the sixth century Dasavatara temple at Deogarh (above), also sits at the
center of a plinth (an architectural feature that becomes increasingly common in temple building). Like
Bhitargaon, Deogarh features sculptured panels, although here, three large niches containing sacred
imagery associated with the god Vishnu receive special prominence -each one featured on its own wall.
The panels may have originally been located within an ambulatory that is now missing.
By the end of the sixth-century hastened by military incursions and the loss of territories, the Gupta empire
fell into decline. Nevertheless, the Gupta period’s formative developments in art, architecture, and
religious iconography would have a lasting impact on the art and architecture of South and Southeast Asia.
Dr. Arathi Menon, "The Gupta Period," in Smarthistory, March 26, 2020, accessed April 1,
2023, https://smarthistory.org/gupta-period/.

Religious Cosmology of the Gupta Period

This period is called the “Golden age of India” or the “Classical Age of India” partially due
to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting
and literature.
During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked
the beginning of the Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of the temples built in the
Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of Vishnu and Lingams)

80
and Goddesses. The most important temple of Gupta era is Dasavatar Temple of Deogarh,
Uttar Pradesh.

Following is a brief description of the temples & Stupas of the Gupta Era:
Dasavatara temple, Deogarh Uttar Pradesh
Dasavatara temple is located in Deogarh Village in Lalitpur town in Uttar Pradesh. The
temple was discovered by Captain Charles Strahan and was named so by Alexander
Cunningham. It depicts the 10 avatara of Vishnu. It is a large and elaborate edifice with
typical temple art of Guptas (without Shikhara) and cubical Garbhagriha. This temple has
also been linked to the “Sarvatobhadra temple” mentioned in the Vishnudharmottara
Purana by several scholars.
Bhitargaon Temple
Bhitagaon Temple is located in Kanpur District of Uttar Pradesh. It is the oldest remaining
Hindu temple, and was built in the Gupta Era in 6th century.
Dhamekha Stupa
The Dhamekha stupa is located at Sarnath, 13 km away from Varanasi. It marks the deer park
or Rishipattana where Buddha gave his first sermon. As per an inscription dated 1026 AD,
recovered from the site, its older name is Dharmachakra Stupa. Archeologist, Alexander
Cunningham in search of a relic casket bored a vertical shaft through it center down to the
foundation and at a depth of around 91 centimeter he found a slab with an inscription …..Ye
Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu…..written in Brahmi script. This inscription is of 6th or 7th
century. Below this, one more stupa made of mauryan bricks has been found which gives in
indication that Asoka might have commissioned it.

Salient features of the Gupta Temples:

In Gupta period, the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple consisting of
a square sanctum sanctorum and a pillared porch had emerged.
 The Shikhara was not much prominent in the early Gupta temples but was prominent
in later Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa or Porch.
 Gupta style temple was modeled on the architectural norms of the Mathura school.
 Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples

81
  Sanchi temple at Tigwa has a flat roof.
 Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh , Bhitargaon temple and Mahadev Temple at Nachna
Kuthar have a square tower of Shikhara.
 Manyar Math at Rajgriha is a circular temple of Gupta Era.
 Main style of temple architecture in i.e. Nagara style and Dravida style actually began
from the Gupta era.
 The earliest stone temple with Shikhara is Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh.
 The Bhitargaon temple at Kanpur is entirely made up of Bricks.

Religious cosmology

Religious cosmology is an explanation of the origin, evolution, and eventual fate of the
universe, from a religious perspective. This may include beliefs on origin in the form of
a creation myth, subsequent evolution, current organizational form and nature, and eventual
fate or destiny. There are various traditions in religion or religious mythology asserting how
and why everything is the way it is and the significance of it all. Religious cosmologies
describe the spatial lay-out of the universe in terms of the world in which people typically
dwell as well as other dimensions, such as the seven dimensions of religion; these are ritual,
experiential and emotional, narrative and mythical, doctrinal, ethical, social, and material.

Religious mythologies may include descriptions of an act or process of creation by a creator

deity or a larger pantheon of deities, explanations of the transformation of chaos into order, or
the assertion that existence is a matter of endless cyclical transformations. Religious
cosmology differs from a strictly scientific cosmology informed by the results of the study
of astronomy and similar fields, and may differ in conceptualizations of the world's physical
structure and place in the universe, its creation, and forecasts or predictions on its future.

The scope of religious cosmology is more inclusive than a strictly scientific cosmology
(physical cosmology) in that religious cosmology is not limited to experiential observation,
testing of hypotheses, and proposals of theories; for example, religious cosmology may
explain why everything is the way it is or seems to be the way it is and prescribing what
humans should do in context. Variations in religious cosmology include those such as from
India Buddhism, Hindu, and Jain; the religious beliefs of China, Chinese
Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism, Japan's Shintoisim and the beliefs of the Abrahamic
faiths, such as Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Religious cosmologies have often developed
into the formal logics of metaphysical systems, such
as Platonism, Neoplatonism, Gnosticism, Taoism, Kabbalah, Wuxing or the great chain of
being.

Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and evolution of the Universe according
to the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries.

82
Wat Arun's pagodas were built and located to simulate the Buddhist Cosmology
It consists of temporal and spatial cosmology: the temporal cosmology being the division of
the existence of a 'world' into four discrete moments (the creation, duration, dissolution, and
state of being dissolved; this does not seem to be a canonical division, however). The spatial
cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, their bodies,
characteristics, food, lifespan, beauty and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these
world-systems into an "apparently" infinite sheet of “worlds”. The existence of world-periods
(moments, kalpas), is well attested to by the Buddha.

The historical Buddha (Gautama Buddha) made references to the existence of aeons (the
duration of which he describes using a metaphor of the time taken to erode a huge rock
measuring 1x1x1 mile by brushing it with a silk cloth, once every century) and
simultaneously intimates his knowledge of past events, such as the dawn of human beings in
their coarse and gender-split forms, the existence of more than one sun at certain points in
time, and his ability to convey his voice vast distances, as well as the ability of his disciples
(who if they fare accordingly) to be reborn in any one of these planes (should they so
choose).

The self-consistent Buddhist cosmology, which is presented in commentaries and works

of Abhidharma in both Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions, is the end-product of an analysis
and reconciliation of cosmological comments found in the
Buddhist sūtra and vinaya traditions. No single sūtra sets out the entire structure of the
universe, but in several sūtras the Buddha describes other worlds and states of being, and
other sūtras describe the origin and destruction of the universe. The synthesis of these data
into a single comprehensive system must have taken place early in the history of Buddhism,
as the system described in the Pāli Vibhajyavāda tradition (represented by today's
Theravādins) agrees, despite some minor inconsistencies of nomenclature, with
the Sarvāstivāda tradition which is preserved by Mahāyāna Buddhists.

83
Standing Buddha of the art of Mathura. Gupta Empire period, circa 5th century CE. Rashtrapati
Bhavan Presidential Palace, New Delhi, India./The three main schools of Gupta art were located
in Mathura, Varanasi and Nalanda.

Gupta art is the art of the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak
between about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta
period is generally regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North Indian art for all the
major religious groups.[2] Gupta art is characterized by its "Classical decorum", in contrast to
the subsequent Indian medieval art, which "subordinated the figure to the larger religious
purpose".
Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious
sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while
the production of the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the
latter often on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which
continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond
the northern border of Gupta territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged
during the period, especially at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to
other parts of northern India.
It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that
were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the Vakataka
dynasty who ruled the Deccan c. 250–500. Their region contained very important sites such
as the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora
Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories
by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across most of northern India until about
550, and arguably around 650 It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a
reducing extent over time) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.
In general the style was very consistent across the empire and the other kingdoms where it
was used. The vast majority of .
Gupta art was preceded by Kushan art, the art of the Kushan Empire in northern India, which
flourished between the 1st and the 4th century CE and blended the tradition of the Greco-
Buddhist art of Gandhara, influenced by Hellenistic artistic canons, and the more Indian art of
Mathura.[11] In Western India, as visible in Devnimori, the Western Satraps (1st–4th century
CE) developed a refined art, representing a Western Indian artistic tradition that was anterior
to the rise of Gupta art, and which may have influenced not only the latter, but also the art of
the Ajanta Caves, Sarnath and other places from the 5th century onward. In central India, the
art of the Satavahanas had already created a rich Indian artistic idiom, as visible in Sanchi,
which also influenced Gupta art.

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Vishnu, 5th century,Mathura/ One of the earliest dated Gupta statues, a Bodhisattva derived
from the Kushan style of Mathura art, inscribed "year 64" of the Gupta era, 384 CE, Bodh
Gaya.
With the conquests of Samudragupta (r.c. 335/350-375 CE) and Chandragupta II (r.c. 380 –
c. 415 CE), the Gupta Empire came to incorporate vast portions of central, northern and
northwestern India, as far as the Punjab and the Arabian sea, continuing and expanding on
these earlier artistic traditions and developing a unique Gupta style, rising "to heights of
sophistication, elegance and glory".Unlike some other Indian dynasties before and after them,
and with the exception of the imagery on their coins, the Gupta imperial family did not
advertise their relationship to the art produced under them by inscriptions, let alone portraits
that have survived.
Early chronology
There are several pieces of statuary from the Gupta period which are inscribed with a
date. They work as a benchmark for the chronology and the evolution of style under the
Guptas. These Gupta statues are dated from the Gupta era (which starts in 318–319 CE), and
sometimes mention the reigning ruler of that time. Besides statuary, coinage is also an
important chronological indicator
Although the Gupta Empire is reckoned to start after King Gupta in the late 3rd century CE,
the earliest known and dated sculptures of Gupta art come relatively late, about a century
later, after the conquest of northwestern India under Samudragupta. Among the earliest is an
inscribed pillar recording the installation of two Shiva Lingas in Mathura in 380 CE
under Chandragupta II, Samudragupta's successor.[23] Another rare example is a statue of a
seated Bodhisattva in the Mathura style with dhoti and shawl on the left shoulder, coming
from Bodh Gaya and dated to "year 64", presumably of the Gupta era, thought to be 384 CE.
[15]
This type remained a rare occurrence, as in most of the later Gupta statues the Buddha
would be shown with the samghati monastic robe covering both shoulders.
Coinage too was a relatively late development, also consecutive to Samugragupta's conquest
of the northwest. The Gupta coinage was initially in imitation of the Kushan types.

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Style
The Gupta style of statuary, especially as seen in the Buddha images, is characterized by
several formative traits: ornate halos with floral and gem motifs, clothes with thin diaphanous
drapery, specific hair curls, meditative eyes, elongated earlobes, relatively thick lower lips,
and often three lines across the neck.
Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based
in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda. The distinctively different
stones used for sculptures exported from the main centres described below aids identification
greatly.
Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the
major deities, respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu,
who now features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had
preferred Shiva. Minor figures such as yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding
periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes
illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare. [34] When scenes include one of
the major figures and other less important ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the
major figures many times larger. This is also the case in representations of incidents from the
Buddha's life, which earlier had showed all the figures on the same scale.
The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear,
including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed
on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta
heartland The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time, as in the
paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style, and there is a
"growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued
after the Gupta period.
The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified
planes" is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted
and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures. The detail of facial parts,
hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a
pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body. Deities of all the
religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it is this all-pervading
inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate
higher spiritual states".
Mathura school
The long-established Mathura school continued as one of the main two schools of Gupta
Empire art, joined by the school of Varanasi and nearby Sarnath. Mathura sculpture is
characterized by its usage of mottled red stone from Karri in the district, and its foreign
influences, continuing the traditions of the art of Gandhara and the art of the Kushans.
The art of Mathura continued to become more sophisticated during the Gupta Empire. The
pink sandstone sculptures of Mathura evolved during the Gupta period to reach a very high
fineness of execution and delicacy in the modeling, displaying calm and serenity. The style
become elegant and refined, with a very delicate rendering of the draping and a sort of
radiance reinforced by the usage of pink sandstone. Artistic details tend to be less realistic, as
seen in the symbolic shell-like curls used to render the hairstyle of the Buddha, and the orante
halos around the head of the Buddhas. The art of the Gupta is often considered as the
pinnacle of Indian Buddhist art, achieving a beautiful rendering of the Buddhist ideal.

86
Gupta art is also characterized by an expansion of the Buddhist pantheon, with a high
importance given to the Buddha himself and to new deities, including Bodhisattvas such
as Avalokitesvara or divinities of Bramanical inspiration, and less focus on the events of the
life of the Buddha which were abundantly illustrated through Jataka stories in the art
of Bharhut and Sanchi (2nd–1st centuries BCE), or in the Greco-Buddhist
art of Gandhara (1st–4th centuries CE).
The Gupta art of Mathura was very influential throughout northern India, accompanied by a
reducing of foreign influences; its style can be seen in Gupta statues to the east in areas as far
as Allahabad, with the Mankuwar Buddha, dated to the reign of Kumaragupta I in 448.
There are a number of "problematical" Buddhist and Jain images from Mathura whose dating
is uncertain; many are dated with a low year number, but which era is being used is unclear.
These may well come from the early Gupta period.
Buddha in Abhaya Mudra. Kushana-Gupta transitional period. Circa 3rd-4th century,
Mathura.

Standing Buddha, inscribed Gupta Era year 115 (434 CE), Mathura.
This Buddha image embodies the qualities of radiant inner calm and stillness,
the products of supreme wisdom. The figure once raised his right hand (now
missing) in the characteristic abhaya-mudra, a gesture dispelling fear and
imparting reassurance. The Buddha is robed in the simple, uncut cloth of a
monk, and his religiosity is further conveyed by a large halo and auspicious
markings (lakshanas), both natural and supernatural, denoting Buddhahood
(the state of perfect enlightenment), As the summation of stylistic

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development in a period of Buddhist expansion, this representation became
the benchmark for the Buddha image throughout Asia.

Head of a Buddha, 6th century./ A relief of the Trivikrama , "three strides of Vishnu", in the
art of Mathura during the Gupta period./ Vishnu in three incarnations
(Chaturvyuha): Vishnu himself or Vāsudeva-Krishna in human form, Varaha as a
boar, Narasimha as a lion. Mathura, mid-5th century CE. Boston Museum./Vishnu statue,
5th century, Mathura.

Sarnath school

The Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnath, a Gupta statue of the Buddha

from Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, last quarter of the 5th century CE. The Buddha is depicted
teaching in the lotus position, while making the Dharmacakra mudrā
The Varanasi/ Sarnath style produced mainly Buddhist art, and "Sarnath Buddhas are
probably the greatest single achievement of the Indian sculptor", largely setting the
representation of the Buddha that was followed in eastern India and South-East Asia for
many centuries, and the general representation of the human body in India. A number of
dated examples show that the mature style did not develop until 450–475. It is characterized
by its yellowish sandstone from the quarries of Chunar, and lacks the foreign influences seen

88
in Mathura. Folds on clothing have disappeared, and the clothing itself is extremely thin, to
the point of being transparent. The halo has become large and is often elaborately
decorated. The top edge of the eye-socket is very marked, forming a sharply carved edge.
The Sarnath style was the origin of Buddha images in Siam, Cambodia and Java.

The Mankuwar Buddha, with inscribed date "year 129 in the reign of
Maharaja Kumaragupta", hence 448 CE. Mankuwar, District of Allahabad. Lucknow
Museum/ 5th century Sarnath statue, Indian Museum// Buddha head, Sarnath, 5th century

Buddha in
copper, 500–700 CE, 2.3 metres tall. Birmingham Museum and Art Gallery/Buddha, 450-500 -
Buddha, standing, inscribed: "Gift of Abhayamira in 154 GE" (474 CE) in the reign
of Kumaragupta II. Sarnath Museum \Relief of Jain tirthankara Parshvanatha on the Kahaum
pillar erected by Skandagupta in 461 CE
Other centres-Nalanda

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Gupta sculptural qualities tend to deteriorate with time, as in Nalanda in Bihar in the 6th
century BCE, figures become heavier and tend to be made in metal. This evolution suggests a
third school of Gupta art in the area Nalanda and Pataliputra, besides the two main centres of
Mathura and Vanarasi. The colossal Sultanganj Buddha in copper from the area of Pataliputra
is a uniquely large survival from this school, but typical in style. [42] In the same monastery
two similar but much smaller (and slightly later) figures in stone were found, one now on
display in the British Museum.[
Udayagiri Caves/Vidisha
The "first dated sculptures in a fully-fledged early Gupta style" come from the rock-
cut Udayagiri Caves and the surrounding area near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh. Though the
caves, all but one Hindu, are "of negligible importance architecturally", around the cave
entrances are a number of rock relief panels, some with large deities. They are in a relatively
crude and heavy style, but often with a powerful impact; Harle describes the mukhalinga in
Cave 4 as "pulsating with psychic power". The most famous is the 7 x 4 metre relief of
Vishnu in the form of the giant boar Varaha, raising the earth from the primordial waters,
watched by rows of much smaller gods, sages and celestial beings. One cave also has an
extremely rare inscription relating a site to the Gupta court, recording the donation of a
minister of Candragupta II.The famous Iron pillar of Delhi is thought likely to have been
originally set up outside the caves.

Udayagiri Caves mukhalinga (Cave 4), described as "pulsating with psychic power".

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Head of Vishnu from Vidisha near Udayagiri, Central India, 4th century// Vishnu in the form
of Varaha, Udayagiri caves, circa 400 CE. In front, probable relief of Chandragupta II (380–415 CE) kneeling,
paying homage to Varaha. //Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh
Eran

Eran in Madhya Pradesh has a "pillar" or large single column dated 484/5 by an inscription
of Buddhagupta, the only standing Gupta example, with two Garuda figures at the top
(illustrated below). It had two large Varaha figures outside the ruined Gupta temple. The style
of the sculpture is somewhat provincial. Still at the site is a huge and impressive boar on four
legs, with no human characteristics, its body covered with rows of small figures representing
the sages who clung to the hairs of Varaha to save themselves from the waters. Now moved
to the university museum at Sagar is a figure with the same body and pose as that at
Udayagiri, "one of the greatest of all Indian sculptures ... nothing can match the figure's air of
insolent triumph". Both are dated to the late fifth century.
Others
The surviving sanctuary of the early 6th-century Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh has a
typically fine doorway, and large relief panels on the other three walls. These are now
external, but would originally gave given on to the covered ambulatory. Though "majestic",
these show "the sturdiness of early Gupta sculpture is yielding to a softer, more delicate and
ultimately weaker styl.e" The row of men beneath the sleeping Vishnu have "stylized poses,
probably imitated from the theatre".
There are also other minor centres of Gupta sculpture, particularly in the areas
of Dasapura and Mandasor, where a huge eight-faced mukhalinga (probably early 6th-
century) found in the river has been reinstalled in the Pashupatinath Temple, Mandsaur.
The Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara continued a late phase through at least most of the
Gupta period, having also been a formative influence.

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Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550.
Very important rock-cut sites outside the Gupta Empire proper, to the south, are the Ajanta
Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in the Gupta period, and the Ellora
Caves which were probably begun around the end of it. As it was mainly restricted to
the Gangetic plain, the vast Gupta territories included relatively few rock-cut sites with much
sculpture. The later Ajanta style of sculpture is somewhat heavy, but sometimes "awe-
inspiring" in the large seated shrine Buddhas, but other smaller figures are often very fine, as
is the ornamental carving on columns and door-frames.
When combined with the painted walls, the effect can be considered over-decorated, and
lacking "motifs on a larger scale to serve as focal points". The main internal carving was
probably completed by 478, though votive figures to the sides of many cave entrances may be
later. The Ajanta style is only seen at a few other sites nearby. After work ended there much
of the skilled workforce, or their descendants, probably ended up working at Elephanta and
then Ellora.
Unlike the series of caves side by side at Ajanta, the main interest at Elephanta is the largest
cave, a huge Shiva temple, and above all the colossal triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet
(5.5 m) tall, which "because it is so amazingly skilfully placed in relation to the various
external entrances ... receives exactly the amount of light necessary to make it look as if it is
emerging from a black void, manifestation from the unmanifest".Also from the Mumbai area,
the Parel Relief or (Parel Shiva) is an important late Gupta monolithic relief of Shiva in seven
forms.

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The Eran Varaha, about 5 metres long, dedicated by Huna ruler Toramana circa 510 CE.\
Vishnu, Central India, 5th century/ Shiva mukhalinga, Bhumara Temple, 5th or 6th
century, Madhya Pradesh\

Cast of the Parel Relief, in the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya

The Brahma from Mirpur-Khas, detail/ Mother Goddess from entrance of a Hindu Temple,
Tanesara-Mahadeva (near Udaipur), suggesting connections with the Art of Gandhara. 5th-
6th or early 7th century CE.
The over life-size copper Sultanganj Buddha (2.3 metres tall) is "the only remaining metal
statue of any size" from the Gupta period, out of what was at the time probably
approximately as numerous a type as stone or stucco statues. There are, however, many
much smaller near-identical figures (up to about 50 cm tall), several in American museums.
The metal Brahma from Mirpur-Khas is older, but about half the size of the Sultanganj
figure. The Jain Akota bronzes and some other finds are much smaller still, probably figures
for shrines in well-off homes.
The style of the Sultanganj figure, made by lost-wax casting, is comparable to slightly earlier
stone Buddha figures from Sarnath in "the smoothly rounded attenuation of body and limbs"

93
and the very thin, clinging body garment, indicated in the lightest of ways. The figure has "a
feeling of animation imparted by the unbalanced stance and the movement suggested by the
sweeping silhouette of the enveloping robe".

Hindu temple of Bhitargaon, late 5th century, but considerably restored/Pataini temple is a
Jain temple built during the Gupta period, 5th century
For reasons that are not entirely clear, for the most part the Gupta period represented a hiatus
in Indian rock-cut architecture, with the first wave of construction finishing before the empire
was assembled, and the second wave beginning in the late 5th century, just as it was ending.
This is the case, for example, at the Ajanta Caves, with an early group made by 220 CE at the
latest, and a later one probably all after about 460. Instead, the period has left almost the first
surviving free-standing structures in India, in particular the beginnings of Hindu temple
architecture. As Milo Beach puts it: "Under the Guptas, India was quick to join the rest of the
medieval world in a passion for housing precious objects in stylized architectural
frameworks", the "precious objects" being primarily the icons of gods.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves
at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain)
were in fact produced under other dynasties in Central India, and in the case of Ellora after
the Gupta period, but primarily reflect the monumentality and balance of Guptan style.
Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding
periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in
painting palaces. ] The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty
and its ministers, and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the
earliest to survive, with important sculpture, although it has lost its mandapa and covered
ambulatory for parikrama.

94
Examples of early North Indian Hindu temples that have survived after the Udayagiri
Caves in Madhya Pradesh include those at Tigawa (early 5th century), Pataini temple (5th
century), Sanchi Temple 17 (similar, but respectively Hindu and Buddhist), Deogarh, Parvati
Temple, Nachna (465), Bhitargaon, the largest Gupta brick temple to survive, and Lakshman
Brick Temple, Sirpur (600–625 CE). Gop Temple in Gujarat (c. 550 or later) is an oddity,
with no surviving close comparator
There are a number of different broad models, which would continue to be the case for more
than a century after the Gupta period, but temples such as Tigawa and Sanchi Temple 17,
which are small but massively built stone prostyle buildings with a sanctuary and a columned
porch, show the most common basic plan that is elaborated in later temples to the present
day. Both of these have flat roofs over the sanctuary, which would become uncommon by
about the 8th century. The Mahabodhi Temple, Bhitargaon, Deogarh and Gop already all
show high superstructures of different shapes. The Chejarla Kapoteswara
temple demonstrates that free-standing chaitya-hall temples with barrel roofs continued to be
built, probably with many smaller examples in wood.

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Tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period Temple 17 at Sanchi, possibly built for Buddhist use, but
typical of the evolving Hindu temple. Mauryan Buddhist apsidal hall behind/ The current
structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century. Marking the location
where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment./Vishnu temple in Eran, late 5th
century.

Ajanta cave 17, frescoes above a lintel

Painting was evidently a major art in Gupta times, and the varied paintings of the Ajanta
Caves, which are much the best survivals (almost the only ones), show a very mature style
and technique, clearly the result of a well-developed tradition. Indeed, it is recorded that skill

96
in amateur painting, especially portraits, was considered a desirable accomplishment among
Gupta elites, including royalty. Ajanta was ruled by the powerful Vakataka dynasty, beyond
the territory of the Gupta Empire, but it is thought to closely reflect the metropolitan Gupta
style. The other survivals are from the Bagh Caves, now mostly removed to the Gujari Mahal
Archaeological Museum in Gwalior Fort, Ellora, and Cave III of the Badami cave temples.
At Ajanta, it is thought that established teams of painters, used to decorating palaces and
temples elsewhere, were brought in when required to decorate a cave. Mural paintings
survive from both the earlier and later groups of the caves. Several fragments of murals
preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient
painting in India from this period, and "show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the
Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups
of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars"
Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which "have
come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist", and represent "the great
glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art".They fall into two stylistic groups, with the
most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and what used to thought of as later paintings in Caves 1
and 2. However, the widely accepted new chronology proposed by Spink places both groups
in the 5th century, probably before 478.
The paintings are in "dry fresco", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet
plaster. All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating
connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere. Unlike much Indian
mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large
scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre. The ceilings are
also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.
The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself,
concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather
than as a deer or elephant or other animal. The Ajanta paintings have seriously deteriorated
since they were rediscovered in 1819, and are now mostly hard to appreciate at the site. A
number of early attempts to copy them met with misfortune.
Only mural paintings survive, but it is clear from literary sources that portable paintings,
including portraits, were common, probably including illustrated manuscripts
Ajanta paintings

97
One of four frescos for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale. The king announces he abdicates to
become an ascetic/Sibi Jataka: king undergoes the traditional rituals for renouncers. He
receives a ceremonial bath

Foreigners in Cave 17, Ajanta/./The Bodhisattva of compassion Padmapani with lotus.

The chronology of Gupta art is quite critical to the art history of the region. Fortunately,
several statues are precisely dated, based on inscriptions referring to the various rulers of the
Gupta Empire, and giving their regnal dates in the Gupta era.

98
1880 sketch of 9-squared Dashavatara temple plan (not to scale, some parts not
shown)

99
 The much later 16 th century Thai Temple with Buddhist roots

Chapter 8

Cosmology at the GUPTA times

Plans of the temples depend upon the number of components that existed within the temple.
The simplest plan of the temple consists of a garbhagriha and sabhamandapa or porch. This
simple plan does not imply that the structure belonged to the earliest period. The temples
constructed in the later period also have simple plans. Construction of a temple depends upon
the financial position of the builder. When an antarala is added in-between garbhagriha and
mandapa, then the plan of the temple hecomes little larger. When a pradakshinapatha
(circumambulatory path) is added to garbhagriha and antarala, the plan of the temple
becomes wider. Then it is called as Sandhara' temple. In the course of time, number of
components of the, temple increased like mandapas, shrines for subsidiary deities; priikaras,
etc, and the plan of the temple became large and wider. Mandala: With the arrival of Agamas
in Hindu religion, the details of architecture became more sophisticated in the temple and
reflected the fundamental symbolism of Mandalas. The Yoga Tattva Upanishad speaks about
the symbolism in terms of the five fundamental elements that constitute the material basis of
the entire cosmos. Earth elements are represented by' a 'Square', Water with a 'semicircle', fire
by a 'Triangle', air by a 'six-angled figure' and ether (sky) by a circle. The point without
dimension dot (bindu) is the focus of all energy.

The icon in the sanctum occupies the central position and the temple represents the other
necessary forms. The architectural details of a sophisticated temple reflect this fundamental
symbolism. The above five forms are represented in a Mandala known as Vishva-Karma
Mandala,' which is regarded as fundamental to all temple architecture.

The four sides of the Mandala symbolize the four main directions and the corners of the
square represents four mid-directions and each of the eight quarters is presided over by a
deity. The inner circle symbolizes the 'Creator' (Brahma), which is symbolic of activity,
guarded by the eight directions. The Mandala is symbolic of the entire universe.

The 'allmaker' (Creator) is also the progenitor. The whole mass of scripture, consisting of
manuals of architecture, sculpture and painting collectively are known as Agama. Early
temples were reputed to be built by this All-maker. In early days, this vertical emphasis was
laid on only one tier (prathama tala). Later, number of tiers (talas) were added to this
superstructure. It was believed that the entire area, which the vimana or sikhara overlooked
was rendered holy and the area covered by this sikhara, would be prosperous. Superstructures
of temples of Kalinga type are simple with series of receding courses forming stepped
pyramids. Another type of superstructure that is of storyed type contains several talas
(storeys).

Archana-Navnita, an old text classified these holy places into five types:
1) Svayam-Vyakta (self-manifest)
2) Daivika (installed by Gods)
3) Arsha (installed by sages)
4) Pauranika (glorified in the Puranas) and

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5) Manusha (man made) shrines". The earliest temples were understandably flat roofed e.g.
temple No.17 at Sanchi of Gupta

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343360879_ELEMENTS_OF_INDIAN_TEMPLES

The Gupta golden age is renowned for its advances across the arts, architecture,
The Guptas ruled over India from 3rd country A.D. to 6th century A.D. with their capital
at Pataliputra. The Gupta Age ushered in a new era in Indian history. Its uniqueness lay
in the fact that during this period some of the world's best specimens in art, literature,
philosophy, astronomy and science were produced. That is why the Age has [...]

Gupta Empire Astronomy: The Gupta Empire period was popular for several reasons. One
of the reasons was the advancement achieved by the Guptas in astronomy.
Gupta astronomers made many discoveries about the sun, moon, and earth. Their
discoveries were more accurate than those of the Greeks. One famous astronomer was
Aryabhata. He calculated that a year is approximately 365 days, that the earth turns on an
axis, and that lunar eclipses are caused by the earth.Among the products traditionally thought
to be from the Gupta era were the decimal system of notation, the great Sanskrit epics, and
Hindu art, along with contributions to the sciences of astronomy, mathematics, and
metallurgy. Aryabhata, a noted mathematician-astronomer of the Gupta period proposed that
the earth is round and rotates about its own axis. He also discovered that the Moon and
planets shine by reflected sunlight.

Aryabhatta
Aryabhatta wrote Aryabhatiya and Suryasiddhanta. In Aryabhatiya, he described the place
value of the first nine numbers and the use of zero. He calculated the value of Pi and invented
algebra. In Suryasiddhanta, he proved that the earth revolves around the Sun and rotates on
its axis.
Answer: The significant contributions of the Indian mathematicians of the Gupta period were
that they were the first to use algebra, develop the concept of zero, explain the infinity
concept, and discover the decimal system of notation.
Gupta developed the religion hinduism through the different belief systems that citizens
believed in. When these beliefs combined Hinduism was formed. Gupta had developed
advancements in Science, Engineering, art, dialectics, laterature, logic, mathematics,
astronomy, religion, and philosophy.

Aryabhata and Varahamihira were famous astronomers of the Gupta period.

The period of Gupta rule between 300 and 600 CE has been called the Golden Age of India
for its advances in science and emphasis on classical Indian art and literature. Gupta rulers
acquired much of the land previously held by the Mauryan Empire, and peace and trade
flourished under their rule.

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Astronomical System of Aryabhatta
The astronomical system of Aryabhatta was known as the “Aud Ayaka system”. In this
system, the days are calculated from dawn. Aryabhatta also proved that the earth revolves
around its own axis every day. He was of the opinion that the motion of stars was a result of
the motion caused by the rotation of the earth.
This theory of Aryabhatta contradicts the previously believed notion that it is the sky that
rotates and not the stars. He believed that the Earth’s orbit is elliptical and not circular.
Aryabhatta described a model of the solar system wherein the Sun and the Moon are carried
by epicycles.

Gupta had developed advancements in Science, Engineering, art, dialectics, laterature, logic,
mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy. The golden age brought more knowledge
including architects making amazing temples and structures. The emperors of the Gupta
dynasty founded free hospitals for their citizens. Sanskrit was on its peak under the Gupta
Empire. It was the official language (the language of court) at that time. Takshila and
Nalanda both of the universities were established during the Gupta Empire, under the rule of
Kumaragupta-I.

Gupta era is known for a large number of pillar inscriptions erected at a number of places.
Out of them two most important are
 Prayag Prasasti : Also known as (Allahabad Pillar Inscription) of Samudragupta.
Composed by Harisena. Very simple and refined Sanskrit in Champu kavya style.
 Garuda Pillar: Garuda Pillar refers to the Mahrauli Pillar Inscription/ Mahrauli Iron
Pillar) of Chandragupta II.
 Mandsaur Inscription: It is ascribed to Vattasbhatta.
 Eran Stone Inscription of Samudra Gupta
 Sanchi stone inscription and Mathura stone inscription.
 Nalanda Inscription
 Gaya Copper Plate (Speaks of Samudra Gupta)
 Udayagiri Cave Inscription (Speaks of Chandragupta II & Kumaragupta)
 Junagarh Rock inscription speaks of Skandagupta.

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What did Hindu temples of the Gupta period look like? They were stone structures topped by
huge towers. The exteriors were covered with carvings of the god worshipped inside. Most of
the temples built in the Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of
Vishnu and Lingams) and Goddesses. The Shikhara was not much prominent in the early
Gupta temples but was prominent in later Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa
or Porch. The famous temple of Gupta period was Dasavatar Temple of Deogarh discovered
by Captain Charles Strahan. It depicts the ten avatars of Vishnu and Shiva is represented as a
Yogi in the temple. The discovery becomes significant since only two other structural
temples from the Gupta age have been found so far — Dashavatara Temple (Deogarh) and
Bhitargaon Temple (Kanpur Dehat). Usage of stone architecture was well established. The
Dravida and Nagara style of architecture developed during this period. Structure temples like
the temple at Deogarh dedicated to Hindu gods.
As time passed the feature of temple style developed. Hindu temple architecture as the main
form of Hindu architecture has many varieties of style, though the basic nature of the Hindu
temple remains the same, with the essential feature an inner sanctum, the garbha griha or
womb-chamber, where the primary Murti or the image of a deity is housed in a simple bare
cell.

In addition to its prolific production of Buddha images, the Gupta period is also known for its
Hindu and Jain sacred imagery fashioned from terracotta, stone, and metal. Surviving
terracotta examples include sculptural plaques that were meant to adorn the walls of
temples. The symbol of the Gupta Empire was a Garuda, a mythological creature that was a
mix between a human and an eagle. An ancient Indian empire, the Gupta Empire ruled the
Indian subcontinent from the 3rd century CE to 543 CE. The Gupta dynasty included
Chandragupta(i), Samudragupta,Chandragupta(ii), Kumargupta(i), Skandgupta, Purugupta,
Kumargupta(ii), Budhagupta, Narshimhagupta, Kumargupta(iii) and Vishnugupta. The main
heroes of Gupta period were Chandragupta (i), Samudragupta, Chandragupta (ii). The early
temple was a small square room, called the garbhagriha with a single doorway for the
worshipper to enter and after worship to the image. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the
shikhara was built over the central shrine. Temple walls were often decorated with sculpture.
With the Gupta perspective, the temple took a grand form.A true representative of the
grandness of the Gupta era. The kings of this era also subscribed to this notion. Temples of
the Gupta period were built on high bases, with stairs on all the four sides of the temple. The
roofs and pillars were intricately decorated and had carvings of four lions facing back to
back. Also, these temples had pointed structure atop, called the Shikhara.

Later on temples of Bengal began to copy the double-roofed structure of the thatched huts. In
a comparatively more complex four-roofed structure, four triangular roofs were placed on the

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four walls to move up to converge on a curved line or a point. Temples were usually built on
a square platform.
What was the main feature of the Gupta Empire?
Features of Gupta Arts:
 Usage of stone architecture was well established.
 The Dravida and Nagara style of architecture developed during this period.
 Structure temples like the temple at Deogarh dedicated to Hindu gods.
 Lifesize metal artifacts are produced.
 Erection of pillars made up of metals.

What are the main features of each architecture?

Characteristics of Good Architecture

 Durability (Firmatis) – It should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
 Utility (Utilitas) – It should be useful and function well for the people using it.
 Beauty (Venustatis) – It should delight people and raise their spirits.

Role of Chalukyas of Vengi and its Polity During Post-Gupta Period

Eastern or Vengi Chalukyas a collateral branch of the Vatapi lineage, played an

important role in the history of Andhradesa for more than four centuries.
There is a belief that they were the ancestors of the feudatories of the later Satavahanas
and the Ikshvakus of Vijayapuri.
Further, there is also a view that the homeland of the Chalukyas, Chalukyavishaya
consists of the northern parts of Rayalaseema and the south-western portion of
Telangana.

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The Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I who acceded to the throne in 320 CE. The
Guptas were the first to build Hindu and Buddist temples to fulfill a certain purpose. The
Gupta Dynasty ruled the North Central India between the 4th and 6th centuries CE and is
considered a golden age for arts. The Dynasty was founded by Chandragupta I who acceded
to the throne in 320 CE. Their style of architecture displays a variety of beautifully adorned
towers, engravings and carvings, and rock cut shrines in their temples. Unfortunately very
few among the many temples of the Gupta Dynasty survive today.

Gupta architecture includes a plethora of varied designs, styles and features and preceded the
time of standardized structures of Hindu temples. However, the influence of the same in even
medieval temple architecture well after the Guptan era is indisputable. Gupta Architecture is
a depiction of the strong religious beliefs that the people possessed during the time. It was
also a time of prosperity and marked an end to previous styles and tendencies and introduced
and entirely new style techniques especially in the area of architecture. Historians say that the
Gupta rulers excelled in the fields of sculpting, architecture, painting and other forms of art
more than most of the dynasties that have ruled India.

Temple Architecture began and also reached its zenith during this time. The greatest
development of the Cave Architecture was also seen during this time. This era saw a great
tolerance towards Buddhism and Jainism for while Gupta Architecture started with Hindu art,
in later years it also contributed towards Buddist and Jain art.

Three deities are largely depicted in the Gupta art Vishnu, Shiva and Shakti. Temples and
Religious Architecture were seen in Caves, Sculptures, Stupas and Temples. A fine example
is ther Ajanta Caves located in the Aurangabad District of Maharashtra. There are a total of
30 Caves altogether that date between 2 BCE to 480/ 650 CE. This Masterpiece of Buddhist
art were built in two phases,
1. first phase in Second BCE and
2. second phase in 480/650 CE.

The caves were discovered in 19th Century. The caves are built on perpendicular Cliff, unlike
Ellora. Since the caves are on perpendicular side there are not many chaityas. There are 25
Viharas and 4 Chaityas. The Fresco was another art technique which was prevalent in Gupta
Architecture seen in the Ajanta Caves. It first has a layer of clay mixed with cow dung and
rice husk paste spread on rough surface followed by a coating of lime plaster and finally the
surface is kept moist till the painting is done. Outlines for the same are in red colour and then
other colours. Blue is not seen in Ajanta. The theme for such art is usually Jataka which are
tales regarding the previous births of Gautama Buddha. Fahein and Hiuen tsang are
mentioned in Ajanta. Five caves are of Hinayana Buddhism and rest depict Mahayana
Buddhism. Cave 16 is the most elegant of all. Famous paintings include – Dying Princess,
Flying Apsara and Preaching Buddha.

Ellora Caves: Three religions are depicted in each of the 34 caves (17 Hinduism + 12
Buddhism + 5 Jainism). It is on the sloping side of the hill. Contribution by Rashtrakuta is
seen in these caves. Cave 10 is a Chaitya for Lord Vishwakarma, Cave 14 depicts Ravana ki

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Khai, Cave 15 the Dashavatara Cave and Cave 16, the Kailasha Temple. Three storeyed
caves are also present in Ellora. Junagadh Caves These caves are found in Gujarath and are of
Buddist religion. They contain Uparkots which are 30 – 50ft high Artificial platforms
connected by a staircase to the hall. Nashik Caves There are 25 Buddhist Caves belonging to
Hinayana and date back to First Century AD. It is called Pandava Leni / Trirashmi. The
spiritual presence of Buddha is denoted by a Throne and footprints. Most of the caves are
Viharas except for the 18th cave which is a Chaitya.

Montperir Caves / mandapeshwar These caves are located near Mount Poinsur in Borivali,
and were originally on the banks of River Dhaisa. An Eighth Century cut rock, dedicated to
Shiva can be found in these caves. The caves are believed to have been built approximately
1500 to 1600 years ago. There is an open ground in front of the caves which is used as a
playground and parking area by slum-dwellers from the slum in front of it. This was
converted into a Christian Cave by the Portuguese Sculptures

A new school, Sarnath School of Sculpture was developed during this time. Cream
coloured sandstone was used for this. Nakedness which was prominent till then was lacking
among Gupta sculptures. The sculptures were dressed and properly covered. Halo was more
decorative in these sculptures. They were also most broadly circularised and persisted to
influence Buddha illustrations in eastern India, and far beyond in Southeast Asia, for
centuries.

Even metal sculptures developed during this period. A famous sculpture from this time
includes the Sultanganj Buddha. It is 2.3m high and 1m wide and weighs over 500 kg. Stupa
Dhamekh Stupa is a famous stupa built during this time. It is solid cylinder of bricks and
stone reaching a height of 43.6 meters and having a diameter of 28 meters. The basement
seems to have survived from Ashoka's structure. The stone facing is chiselled and displays
delicate floral carvings of Gupta origin. Carvings on the walls are of Brahmi Script. Temple
Architecture

Fve stage development process of the Temple Architecture in the Gupta

Age

The first stage saw Flat Roof Temples, Square Temples, Shallow Pillared approach to the
front and temples on low platforms. An example of this stage is Temple 17 at Sanchi
(Madhya Pradesh). Second stage Flat Roof and square temple continued and so did the pillar
approach except it wasn’t shallow. Temples were now on high platforms/upraised platforms.
There were Covered ambutary around the sanctum sanctorum. Instances of two storeyed
temples were also seen. Third Stage included Square temples, the pillared approach, High
platform, low and squared Shikars were also found and the Panchayatan Style was introduced
along with the concept of subsidiary shrines. The Nagara style is a successor of the third
stage of temple making. Fourth stage introduced Rectangular Temples while all other features
continued. Fifth Stage included Circular Temples with shallow rectangular projections while
all else continued.

1. There are three styles of Temple Architecture: The Nagara Style, the Dravidan style
and the Vesara.

2. Nagara Style The Nagara Style of Temple architecture saw the absence of tank in the
temples. The temple walls were divided in to three vertical planes or ‘rathas’.

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 Sculptures were made in these three rathas -Trirathas. Later Pancharatha, Saptaratha
and even Navaratha emerged.

3. This style was prominent in northern and central India but not in the Peninisular.
Three sub schools developed in Nagara Style: Odissa School, Khajuraho School and
Solanki School. Khajuraho Style This style was developed by Chandela Rulers. Both
the interior and the exterior of the temple are lavishly decorated with intricate
carvings. Sculptures based on erotic themes seen on the temples. Temples lacked
boundary walls. Shikaras were seen even on the subsidiary shrines and such style had
temples on high platforms.

There are three key elements seen in this style: Garbha Griha, Assembly Hall and Portico
(Veranda surrounded by pillars)

Solanki School _This school was based in Gujarath under the Solanki Rulers. Temples were
constructed on the steps of massive rectangular stepped tank. The wall of the central shrine is
devoid of carvings and the temple faces east. Hence every year on Equinox sun shines
directly onto the Central Shrine. The central projections of the west, north and south faces are
occupied by matching balconies with purna-kalasha columns and a deep porch frames. The
entrance to the temple is in the east.

Dravidian Style- This style was seen during the Pallava Period and can be divided into four
stages. First Stage included the Mahendra Group, Rock Cut Arches and the word Mandapa
was used. The Second Stage included the Narasimha Group, decorations and Mandap became
Rathas. Raja Simha Group, development of the real structural temples and the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram and Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram are attested to the third stage.
While the Nandi Varman Group, development of Small temples and Dravidian style further
continued into the fourth stage. Shikara is the crowning element on the top of the temple,
similar to Amalak and Kailash of Nagara Style. The entrance has sculptures of dwarpalas.
There is only one vimana. Temples functioned as Religious Centres, Administrative centres
and Centres of Education and Revenue.

Vesara It’s a mix of both the Dravidian and the Nagara Style of the Temple Architecture.
The principle components of this style are Vimana and Mandapa. Covered ambulatory is not
observed in this style. Pillars, Door frames and the ceilings are intricately carved.
Vijayanagara Slight variations are seen in the Temple Architectures. These being that the
Gopurams were now enlarged, high enclosure walls were seen, there was more decoration
and the sculpture of the Motiff of a supernatural horse were seen more frequently. Secular
buildings were also seen. An example of this style is the Lotus Mahal.

Hoysala -Hoysala is seen in South Karnataka in the Mysore Region. Multiple shrines are
grounded around the central hall. It follows the Stellate Plan or star shaped shrines. This style
has soft soap stone temples and both the exterior and the interior of the temple have carvings.
The Shikara in each inner chamber is radically arranged in horizontal lines and mouldings
which revolve in an orderly succession. There is an upraised platform or a Jagati and a star
and zig-zag design.
The Chalukyas claim themselves to be the descendants of Hariti and belonging to
Manavasyagotra like the Andhrabhiityas and the Kadambas of the Puranic lore. During

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the tenure of the later Chalukyas, a newchapterbegan in the history of the Telugus.
Nannaya Bhattaraka, the Court poet of Rajaraja Narendra started the translation of
Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu and earned fame and name as ‘Adikavi’ or the ‘first
poet’, although Telugu was used in epigraphs since the time of Kubja Vishnuvardhana,
the founder of this dynasty and we come across thousands of lithic epigraphs in Telugu
inscribed on temple pillars of Andhradesa.The founder of the Eastern or Vengi Chalukya
power structure was Kubja Vishnuvardhana, the brother of Pulakesin II of Vatapi
Chalukyan lineage. Pulakesin II after conquering coastal Andhradesa, appointed Kubja
Vishnuvardhana as his viceroy in AD 624. We come to know from Kopparam epigraph
dated in AD 631, that Pulakesin II permitted Kubja Vishnuvardhana to rule
independently. The Vengi Chalukyas ruled coastal Andhra as independent sovereigns for
more than four and a half centuries from AD 631 to 1070.

The Eastern Chalukyas had to fight with contemporary Pallavas of Kanchi as well as
with the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, who replaced the Vatapi Chalukyas. Consequent
to the continuous warfare with their neighbours, the Chalukyas of Kalyani or later
Western Chalukayas, the Vengi Chalukyas entered into matrimonial alliances with the
Cholas of Tanjore to succeed in safeguarding their interests in Vengi territory.

As a result the Chalukyas of Vengi became pawns in the Chola-Chalukya struggle for
supremacy over Vengi area. History and culture of the Eastern Chalukyan period could
be constructed with the help of nearly a hundred copper plates and a number of lithic
records found in different parts of Andhradesa. The Eastern Chalukyan rulers were also
patrons of art and letters and they showed religious tolerance by patronizing Brahmanical
as well as Jaina faiths.

Kubja Vishnuvardhana, founder of the Eastern Chalukyan line ruled from AD 624 to
641. He had the title of Vishamasiddhi and he had his capital at Pishtapura or modern
Pithapuram. He appears to have undertaken conquests and extended his kingdom. He was
followed by his son Jayasimha I, who ruled from AD 641 to 673.
Jayasimha I was a worshipper of Vishnu. His Vipparla epigraph happens to be one of the
earliest Telugu records and it helps us to know the evolution of Telugu language.
Jayasimha I was followed by his brother Indrabhattaraka, who ruled for a very short
period. Indrabhattaraka was followed by Vishnuvardhana II, who ruled for nine years
from AD 673-682. He was followed by Mangi Yuvaraja Vijayaditya, who ruled for a
period of 25 years from AD 692 to 706.

Jayasimha II ruled from AD 706 to 719 after which started the internecine war between
cousins for the throne. In AD 755, Vijayaditya II ascended the Chalukya throne and
ruled till AD 772 and appears to have been defeated by Rashtrakuta heir-apparent
Govinda III in AD 769.

Vijayaditya II was followed by Vishnuvardhana FV, who ruled from AD 772 to 808. He
too was defeated by Rashtrakuta Dhruva and offered his daughter Seelamahadevi to
Dhruva in marriage. The wars between the Rashtrakutas and the Eastern Chalukyas
continued for a’ long time. Gunaga Vijayaditya III, the eldest son of Kali
Vishnuvardhana and the most famous of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi ruled from AD
849 to 892. He had the title Gunakenallata (The lover of excellence or virtue).

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The historian N. Venkataramanayya suggests that there were three definite stages
in the history of his reign:

(a) A short period of victory and expansion,

(b) A disastrous defeat and prolonged subjection to foreign rule, and
(c) A period of brilliant military victories leading to the assumption of imperial authority
over the whole of the Deccan. He won victories over Boya Kotams with the help of his
Brahmin general Panduranga. He acquired the Pali banner the symbol of the insignia of
Rashtrakuta, imperial title of Vallabha and proclaimed himself the Lord Paramount of
the entire Dakshinapatha. Krishna II of the Rashtrakuta dynasty accepted the sovereignty
of the Eastern Chalukyas. His Satuluru copper plate grant records his victories over the
Pallavas and the Pandyas. Undoubtedly, Vijayaditya III or Gunaga Vijayaditya was the
greatest conqueror and ruler of the Eastern Chalukyan line.

During his reign, Eastern Chalukyas rule extended from Mahendragjri in the north to the
Pulicat in the south. After him the Chalukyan power began to decline due to wars of
succession among the brothers and their children. The son of Vikramaditya IV, Chalukya
Bhima II ascended the Chalukya throne in AD 934 and ruled for 12 years. He is credited
with the victory over the Rashtrakutas.
Vishnuvardhana, Raja Bhima or Brihath Bhima and Rajamartanda were the titles
assumed by him. Chalukya Bhima had two sons Danarnava and Ammaraja through
different wives. Ammaraja drove away Danarnava and occupied the Chalukyan throne
and once again there was conflict between Danarnava and Ammaraja and by AD 970,
Danarnava occupied the Chalukya throne.

Danarnava ruled for 3 years and was followed by his son Saktivarma. Jatachoda Bhima
of Pedakallu defeated and killed Danarnava. The death of Danarnava led to Telugu-
Chola interregnum period from AD 973 to 1000.

Danaranava’s sons Saktivarma and Vimaladitya fled to Chola territory and sought the
help of Rajarajachola. Saktivarma regained the Eastern Chalukyan throne in AD 1001-2.
In this war, Jatachoda Bhima and his General Ekavira lost their lives. This led to a new
struggle between the Cholas and the Kalyani Chalukyas for the hegemony of the Vengi
territory. Saktivarma ruled from AD 1002 to 1011 and was followed by his brother
Vimaladitya, who ruled from AD 1011 to 1018.

Vimaladitya had two wives, Kundava, a Chola princess and Medamba, a Telugu-Chola
princess. Kundava gave birth to Rajaraja Narendra and Medamba gave birth to
Vijayaditya VII. Once again we witness a fratricidal war for the throne in which the
Cholas supported Rajaraja Narendra and the Kalyani Chalukyas supported Vyayaditya
VII.

Political fortunes shifted from time to time and Rajaraja Narendra died in AD 1061.
Rajaraja Narendra’s reign was full of difficulties because of constant threat from his
half-brother, Vijayaditya who in cooperation with the Chalukyas of Kalyani gave him
trouble. Before his death in AD 1061 he lost his throne and regained it by fighting with
the Chalukyas of Kalyani and ultimately he became an ally of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Rajaraja was followed by Saktivarma 11 the son of Vijayaditya VII who ruled for a very
short time. Vijayaditya VII, the brother of Rajaraja Narendra ruled Vengi in AD 1078

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and Vengi then passed on into the hands of the sons of Kulottunga Chola, the son of
Rajaraja Narendra.

Polity:
Epigraphical and literary sources do not provide adequate evidences to construct the
state of government and societyThere is a view that the Eastern Chalukyas also followed
the hereditary monarchical form of government, wherein the king was the head of the
civil, military and judicial branches. In recent times, A. Aruna in her book State
Formation in the Eastern Deccan (7th Century AD-13th Century AD), 2000 opines that
polity in Eastern Chalukyan period is an integrative rather than centralized or
deceintralized state.

The king was not an absolute autocrat and was assisted by a council of ministers in the
business of general administration. They divided their territory into administrative
divisions like Rstra, Vishaya and Kottams for administrative convenience. Rastras were
kept under the control of the collateral branches of the ruling house such as Chalukyas of
Elamanchili, Mudigonda, Pithapuram and Srikurmam.

As the provincial rulers had internal freedom in the process of administration, it is likely
that the administration was feudalized and decentralized. This was the main feature of
their polity. Grameyaka or the Rastrakutamohattaro, i.e., the chief cultivator of the
village was entrusted with the village administration. Besides Gremeyaka there existed a
government nominee or representative directly looking after the village administration.
It is generally believed that the social structure was based on Vamasrama model though
it seems to be less rigid. We also notice the practice of people taking to new professions
leaving aside the assigned professions by dharmasastric tradition. Social tensions were
not visibly present during this period.

Puranic dharma was prevalent along with Jaina faith. Jaina monks were very active in the
Chalukyan territory. Ammaraju II of the Eastern Chalukyan family extended
considerable patronage to Jaina monks. Most of the Eastern Chalukyan rulers were
Saivities calling themselves Paramamahehsvaras. Whatever their personal faith, the
Chalukyan mlers showed religious toleration as a policy.

Classical Telugu literature owes its origin to the Eastern Chalukyan patronage. Rajaraja
Narendra patronized Nannayya Bhattaraka, who started the translation of Sanskrit
“Mahabhrata” into Telugu and completed Adipatva, Sabha Patva and a part ofAaranya
Parva. Arudra observes, “Though he has introduced many Tatsamas and Sanakritic
features, Nannayya wrote in the live language of his day”. Nanne Choda of the Telugu
Chola family was his contemporary.

He wrote “Kumarasambhavam”. He called himself as Kaviraja Sikhamani. Puvuluri

Mallanna was another contemporary of Nannayya. He translated a Sanskrit treatise on
mathematics entitled Sarasatigrahaganita, written by Mahaviracharyulu. Interestingly,
Mallanna was a Saivite and Mahaviracharyulu was as a Jaina. This mathematical work of
Mahaviracharyulu contains a chapter on mensuration, measurement of shadows, proper
and mixed fractions and the theory of numbers.

The Eastern Chalukyas took interest in the construction of temples. All the temples were
dedicated to Siva. Chalukya Bhima I was responsible for the construction of Bhimeswara

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temple at Samarlakota and at Draksharama. Vijayaditya II is said to have constructed
108 temples.

The Eastern Chalukyan style of architecture is prominently visible at Draksharama and

Biceavolu. The Golingeswara temple at Biccavolu contains some richly carved out
sculptures of deities like Arthanarisvara, Siva, Vishnu, Agni, Chamundi and Surya.
During this period the Buddha was worshipped as Vishnu and as such Buddhism lost its
separate identity.

The Jatara of Mahasena at Chebrolu was a famous spectacle of this period. The Jatara
used to start at Chebrolu in the Guntur district and reach Vijayawada and from there it
returned to Chebrolu. The Eastem Chalukyan rule provided an identity to the coastal
Andhras.
Sciences, religion, and philosophy. During this time, India became far wealthier, and after the
Guptas conquered neighboring powers, peace descended on much of the subcontinent. The
Gupta Empire was characterized by wealth and prosperity, largely thanks to its control over
lucrative trade routes. Gupta ports and trading centers connected merchants from East,
Central, West, and South Asia, as well as some that had connections to Europe and East
Africa

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 Chapter 9
The Gupta BUDDHA

This sculpture of the Buddha Sakyamuni can be assigned to the late 6th or early 7th century,
a period in which the Gupta Dynastystyle of northern and north eastern India was at its
summit. The Gupta period (4th to 6th century) is noted as a time during which the
quintessential Buddha image was created, becoming an iconic form which was disseminated
and copied throughout the Asian Buddhist world. Gupta style stands at a crossroads in art
historical developments in the sub-continent.
The Gupta style embodies the earlier figurative styles of north and north west India (Mathura
and Gandhara), while achieving a new power and sophistication. It is noted for the full,
sensuous modelling of faces and bodies, for a subtlety of expression and for the harmonious
proportions of its figures. During these centuries the workshops at Sarnath, a monastic
complex built on the site of the Buddha's first sermon, became especially artistically
influential. A particular type of standing Buddha image was produced here whose body is
covered by a diaphanous robe, which clings to the figure while flaring at the sides. This was
to become the prototype for a multitude of later images including the Radiant Buddha.
https://resources.saylor.org/wwwresources/archived/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/
ARTH406-1.4.1-The-Gupta-Style-of-the-Buddha-its-influence-in-Asia.pdf

Copies of each other…The

Mathura Buddhas of 5 th Century

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The Bimaran casket or Bimaran reliquary is however the earliest Buddha image known to
man. is a small gold reliquary for Buddhist relics that was found inside the stupa no.2
at Bimaran, near Jalalabad in eastern Afghanistan.

Detail of the Buddha, where the rare posture and light dress are visible.

The Stupa Nb.2 at Bimaran, where the reliquary was excavated. Drawing by Charles Masson.
When it was found by the archaeologist Charles Masson during his work
in Afghanistan between 1833 and 1838, the casket contained coins of the Indo-
Scythian king Azes II, though recent research by Robert Senior indicates Azes II never
existed[1] and finds attributed to his reign probably should be reassigned to Azes I. The most
recent research however (2015) attributes the coins to Indo-Scythian king Kharahostes or his
son Mujatria, who minted posthumous issues in the name of Azes.
The Bimaran reliquary is sometimes dated, based on coinage analysis, to 0–15 CE (Fussman),
more generally to 50–60 CE (British Museum), and sometimes much later (2nd century CE),
based on artistic assumptions only. It is currently in the collections of the British
Museum. The dating of this unique piece of art has a strong bearing on the chronology
of Buddhist art and the creation of the Buddha image, as its advanced iconography implies
that earlier forms had probably been existing for quite some time before.
The casket is a small container reminiscent of the Pyxis of the Classical world. It was found
without its lid. There is a lotus decorating the bottom.

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The casket features hellenistic representations of the Buddha (contrapposto pose,
Greek himation, bundled hairstyle, wearing a moustache, realistic execution), surrounded by
the Indian deities Brahma and Śakra, inside arched niches (called "homme arcade", or caitya)
of Greco-Roman architecture. There are altogether eight figures in high-relief (two identical
groups of Brahman-Buddha-Indra, and two devotees or Bodhisattvas in-between) and two
rows of rubies from Badakhshan.
Owing to their necklace, bracelets, and armbands, and halo, the two devotees are most
probably representations of Bodhisattvas. They hold their hands together in a prayerful
gesture of reverence, Añjali Mudrā.[
The casket is made in gold-repoussé and is very small, with a height of 7 cm (2+3⁄4 in). It is
considered as a masterpiece of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.

The Buddha: a rare iconography

The Buddha seems to walk sideways. His right forearm goes across his chest to form the
Abhaya mudra. His left fist is clenched on his hip. The gown of the Shakyamuni Buddha is
quite light compared to that of the other known representations of the standing Buddha
(see Standing Buddha (Tokyo National Museum)), tending to follow the outline of the body,
in a rather light way. These are probably the first two layers of monastic clothing
the antaravasaka and the uttarasanga, without the heavier overcoat, the sangati, which
would only go as low as the knees and be more markedly folded. Also, his gown is folded
over the right and left arm (rather than being held in the left hand as in the classical Buddha
image), suggesting some kind of scarf-like uttariya. He has an abundant topknot covering
the ushnisha, and a simple halo surrounds his head. This combination of details of the
iconography (posture and clothing) is rare and only otherwise known in the coins
of Kanishka (c. 150 CE), where they bear the inscription "Shakyamuni Buddha", in apparent
contrast to his coins of the "Buddha" where he wears the heavy topcoat. The posture itself is
well known in the art of Gandhara in sculptures of the Buddha as a Bodhisattva, but in these
cases, he wears the Indian princely dhoti and the royal turban.

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The Bimaran casket, illustrated by Charles Masson: view in volume, flattened view of a half
portion of the casket, and bottom.

The steatite box that contained the Bimaran casket/ Inscriptions on the steatite box.
The Bimaran casket was kept in a steatite box, with inscriptions stating that it contained some
relics of the Buddha. When opened in the 19th century, the box did not contain identifiable
relics, but instead some burnt pearls, bead of precious and semi-precious stones, and the four
coins of Azes II.
Broadly speaking, the image of the Buddha emerged during the first few centuries C.E. in
two major centers of Indian art during the Kushana period. One center of artistic production
was the ancient region of Gandhara, an area that includes northwestern India as well as parts
of present-day Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Gupta period (4th to 6th century) however
is noted as a time during which the quintessential Buddha image was created,
becoming an iconic form which was disseminated and copied throughout the Asian
Buddhist world. Gupta style stands at a crossroads in art historical developments in
the sub-continent.

For a few more centuries the Buddhist art continued to develop in India, flourishing in
the Gupta period, also known as the golden age, which lasted from the 4th to the 6th
century. Almost all of the works we can see today are religious sculptures, though the period
saw the emergence of the Buddha figure and Jain Tirthankara figures. The Gupta period is
significant for its creations of an “ideal image” of the Buddha, achieved through the
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combination of his traits from the region of Gandhara and the sensual form of Mathuran
artists. These Gupta Buddhas later became the model for the generations of artists who
followed, in post-Gupta and Pala India, in Nepal, Thailand, and Indonesia.

A Chinese
wooden Bodhisattva from the Song Dynasty via pinterest.com

Buddhist Art Outside of India

As Buddhism expanded to the places outside of India, its aesthetics mixed with other
influences, leading to different views on the religion and art. There are two main routes of
Buddhist art: the Northern route, with the inception in the 1st century AD. in Central Asia,
Tibet, Bhutan, Korea, Japan, and China where the Mahayana Buddhism was prominent, and
the Southern route in Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and Cambodia, where Theravada
Buddhism was dominant.

Northern Route
In Afghanistan, Buddhist art thrived until the spread of Islam that came in the 7th century.
The best examples of Afghan art were the Buddhas of Bamyan, and the sculptures that
blended Hellenistic, or Greco-Roman influence and post-Gupta mannerism. However,
the Islamic religion was not tolerant towards Buddhism, as it was no the religion “of the
Book”, and it was considered to depend on idolatry. In Islamic art, human figurative art was
prohibited, which led to the systematic destruction of Buddhist art by the Taliban regime.

In Central Asia, the expansion of the Former Han to the West caused the increased influence
of the Hellenistic civilizations, especially the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom on the Buddhist art.
This led to the expansion of Buddhism to the communities on the Silk Road, where some
cities were filled with stupas and Buddhist monasteries. The eastern part of Central Asia was
rich with Serindian art, influenced by the Indian and Hellenistic sculptures, as well as by the
Gandharan style.

In China, Buddhism appeared in the 1st century AD., and it brought the idea of statue
to Chinese art. One of the earliest instances of Buddhist art in China is the sculpture found

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in the Han dynasty burial in the province of Sichuan, created circa 200 AD., showing a heavy
Gandharan influence. During the Tang dynasty, artists were influenced by the Gupta period,
but in the year 845, the emperor Wuzong prohibited the foreign religions, including
Zoroastrianism, Nestorianism, and Buddhism, in favor of the indigenous Daoism. He seized
all Buddhist artworks and forced the religion to go underground. Under the Song dynasty,
however, Chan Buddhism (which will later become Zen Buddhism) prospered. China is a
country with the richest collection of Buddhist art, including the Mogao Caves in the
province of Gansu, the Longmen Grottoes in Henan province, and the Dazu Rock Carvings,
which are the most important Buddhist sculptural sites.

In Japan, Buddhism was discovered in the 6th century, and accepted the religion in the
centuries to come. The government often sponsored the creation of numerous sculptures and
paintings. The Japanese style was influenced by the Chinese, Korean, Indian, and
Hellenistic styles, and the period between the 8th and the 13th century was especially fruitful
for the development of Buddhist art. In the 12th century, the Japanese Zen art was at its
peak, characterized by paintings and poetry (especially haiku), as well as by the Ikebana art,
and the Chanouy tea ceremony.

In Tibet, one of the most significant creations was the mandala, a diagram of a “divine
temple” comprised of a square enclosed by a circle, the purpose of which was to help with the
focus of attention during meditation. The strongest influences here were the Gupta and Hindu
art.

Southern Buddhist Route

In Myanmar, the strongest influences came from India. Beikhtano temple in
central Myanmar was the earliest instance of Buddhist art, and it dates back to the time
between the 1st and the 5th century. The influences of Gupta and post-Gupta periods can be
seen, and later the jeweled statues of the Buddha were created.

Cambodia saw the expansion of Buddhism under the Khmer Empire when over 900
temples were built all over the country. Angkor had a Buddhist temple complex where a large
number of sculptures and other artworks are preserved.

In Thailand, Buddhist art was influenced by India and Gupta tradition, as well as by the
Cambodian Khmer art, based on the Mahayana, with the creation of Bodhisattvas in large
numbers. In the 13th century when Theravada Buddhism was introduced, highly stylized
images became prominent, and during the Ayutthaya period, the Buddha was represented
with lavish clothing and jeweled ornaments.

Indonesia was heavily influenced by India as well, accepting both Mahayana and Vajrayana
Buddhism. A large number of statues of Bodhisattvas can be found all over the region. But
probably the richest remnants of Buddhist art can be seen in Java and Sumatra, one of the
most important ones being the temple of Borobudur, which is actually the largest Buddhist
building in the world. The temple was created after the Buddhist concept of the universe, the
Mandala, comprised of 505 images of the Buddha and a bell-shaped stupa. The oldest
Buddhist building in Indonesia is the Batu Jaya stupas that date back to the 4th century AD.
In Sumatra, there are the temples Muara Takus and Muaro Jambi, and the most beautiful
example of this type of art is the statue of Prajnaparamita, the goddess of wisdom from
Singhasari. Unfortunately, the Buddhist art of the region was destabilized by the expansion of
Islam in the 13th century, however, some remnants of this art can still be found in Indonesia.

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 Standing Buddha Offering Protection, late 5th century, red sandstone, Mathura (The Metropolitan
Museum of Art) Varaha, 5th century CE, Eran, Madhya Pradesh (photo: ArnoldBetten, public
domain)///The detail of the statue of Prajnaparamita from Singhasari, East Java via wikipedia.org

During the Gupta period (c. 320 – 647 C.E., named for the Gupta dynasty) there were
tremendous advances in poetry, prose, and drama as well as important discoveries in
mathematics and astronomy. This was the age of some of the most celebrated creatives in
Indian history, including the fifth century writer Kālidāsa whose works would influence
generations of writers. This was also the period in which the fifth century astronomer
Aryabhata theorized that the earth rotated on its own axis and calculated the solar year at
365.3586805 days.
The Puranas, a compendium of religious literature considered sacred to both the Hindu and
Jain religious traditions and consisting of stories and the genealogies of the gods, folk tales,
and traditional lore, grew in prominence during the Gupta years. While it is difficult to date
the Puranas because they contain anonymous texts compiled over many centuries both
before and after the Gupta period, we know that Puranic stories were a popular religious and
cultural reference during the Gupta years from the depiction of Puranic episodes in art and
architecture. Kālidāsa’s poetry and plays also frequently engaged with episodes from
the Puranas.

The Guptas were ambitious rulers and by the end of the fourth century claimed dominance
over a vast swathe of northern India (see map above). They maintained a capital at
Pataliputra, the same ancient center used by the formidable, and earlier, Mauryan empire (4th
– 2nd century B.C.E.) and that of the emperor Ashoka Maurya (3rd century B.C.E.).

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Emperor Chandragupta II on his horse, c. 380 – 415 C.E., gold coin (The British
Museum)/Varaha panel, cave number 5, 5th century C.E., Udaigiri rock-cut
caves, Madhya Pradesh
The gold coin above shows Chandragupta II — one of the earliest and most successful
Gupta rulers — who reigned from c. 380 C.E. to 415 C.E. Chandragupta is regally
dressed, as is his horse, and he holds a bow as his sash flies behind him. This type of
iconography emphasizes the emperor’s identification as a conqueror and the inclusion of
a goddess (on the reverse side of this coin, not shown) implies divinely mandated rule. Fa
Hsien, a Buddhist pilgrim from China, who was in India during the reign of this king
wrote with admiration about the prosperity of the empire, describing it as a charitable
place with hospitals, rest-houses, and medicine for those in need.

The Golden Age of Indian Culture?

Although Gupta overlordship was significant throughout the empire in the early years and
later, local rulers were allowed a fair bit of autonomy in their territories. It is important
therefore to not conflate the innovations and achievements of the Gupta period with the
Guptas, and to acknowledge the contributions of regional dynasties. This is particularly
important when works of art and architecture dated to the Gupta period are missing
contextual information. Rather than assigning the Gupta dynastic label to these works of
art and architecture, art historians use methods of connoisseurship to understand the
artists, patrons, and provenance of these works. In the process, we are able to better
understand the artistic developments of the period as a whole.
The Gupta period was termed the “Golden Age of Indian Culture” by some early
observers who assigned the vast quantity and sophisticated quality of art from that period
to the sponsorship of the Guptas. The term “Golden Age” was based on the desire of
these writers for an ideal or classical style of art (using the art of ancient Greece as an
example), and the opinion that art after the Gupta period was less classical and too
decadent to be tasteful. The artistic developments of regional kingdoms in the Gupta era
problematizes this Eurocentric perspective. The fifth and sixth century rock-cut temples
at Ajanta and Elephanta, in the domain of the Vakataka and Kalachuri rulers respectively,
are prominent sites that point to a richer and more complex art history of the Gupta
period.

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That is not to say that the Gupta rulers themselves were not important patrons of art and
architecture. The Udaigiri complex of rock-cut caves in Madhya Pradesh (a large state in
central India) is a an exceptional site with inscriptions that indicate sponsorship from the
Gupta court. Nineteen of the site’s twenty caves are dedicated to Hindu gods and date to
the fourth and fifth centuries; one cave is dedicated to the Jain religion and is dated to the
early fifth century.
Scholars have suggested that the Guptas may have been especially attached to the
Varaha avatar of Vishnu. A remarkable sculpture — this time showing the
Varaha avatar in the form of a boar (not a man-boar as at Udaigiri cave number 5) — is
found in Eran, another site in Madhya Pradesh. Eran has a number of temples dated to the
Gupta period and its association with the Guptas is well-established by way of
inscriptions.
The aniconic tradition of representing the Buddha was abandoned by this stage in favor of
depictions of the deified Buddha and the Gupta period boasts some of the most
impressive examples. Scholars have suggested that the style of the Gupta Buddha evolved
out of the Gandhara and Mathura style of Buddhas. The Gandhara and Mathura Buddhas
were distinct versions of the Buddha image developed during the Kushan empire (2nd
century B.C.E. – 3rd century C.E.) in the Gandhara and Mathura regions respectively.
Kushan-ruled territories became part of the Gupta empire and it is certainly possible that
the aesthetic style of Buddha images produced in those areas inspired the development of
the Gupta Buddha.
The process by which the amalgamation of features from both the Gandhara and Mathura
styles led to the Gupta image was surely a complex and involved process that developed
over centuries. In addition, while Gupta period artists appear to have inherited the
developments of the Kushan empire in many aspects, they likely also gained from the
developments of art produced in other regions and kingdoms — both previous and
contemporaneous. It is helpful to also remember that artists and therefore styles of art
may have been itinerant at various points in history.
Gupta period Buddhas are characterized by covered shoulders, a head full of tight curls
that cover even the ushnisha, and ornately carved halos. Images of the Jina (the 24 great
teachers and perfected beings of the Jain religion) from this period are closely similar to
Buddha images, especially in the rendering of a head of tight curls. The Jina’s posture and
adornment follows the iconographic prescriptions of Jain sacred imagery and emphasize
immobility and austerity.

“Gupta” as a style

While using the Gupta dynastic label to categorize all art produced in the Gupta period is,
as we have seen above, problematic, there are certain developments in style and
iconography from the Gupta period that are important to note, such as the tendency to
render deities as life-sized or larger and the consistent use of hierarchic scaling. See the
Varaha panel at Udaigiri above, for example.
Workshops in the Gupta period also employed signature styles. Images of the Buddha
from the Mathura region, for instance, were produced in mottled red sandstone. The
Mathura workshops also preferred to render the folds of the Buddha’s robes as looped
strings as opposed to the thick folds preferred by Gandharan workshops in the Kushan

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period. Buddha images from the region of Sarnath, on the other hand, were made from a
yellowish-tan sandstone and are shown wearing smooth robes.

Left to right: Buddha, 3rd century CE, schist, Gandhara (The Metropolitan Museum of
Art); Standing Buddha, c. 5th century CE, red sandstone, Mathura (Rashtrapati Bhavan
Presidential Palace, New Delhi); Standing Buddha, 474 CE, sandstone, Sarnath (Sarnath

Museum)

Scholars believe that portable Gupta period Buddhas, carried by pilgrims back to their
homelands, played a role in the development of the Buddha image in the art of East and
Southeast Asia. The Gupta Buddha would also influence later images of the Buddha in
South Asia — such as those that were produced in the territory of the Pala dynasty (c. 700
– 1200) in eastern India. The Pala period saw the Buddha image develop even further and
is notable for its inclusion of ornate crowns.

Gupta period sculpture and painting

In addition to its prolific production of Buddha images, the Gupta period is also known
for its Hindu and Jain sacred imagery fashioned from terracotta, stone, and metal.
Surviving terracotta examples include sculptural plaques that were meant to adorn the
walls of temples.

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 Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi, 5th century,
terracotta (The Metropolitan Museum of Art)
The terracotta panel above shows the Hindu god Krishna (also an avatar of Vishnu)
killing the horse demon Keshi. Krishna pushes the horse-demon back with his leg and
sticks his elbow in Keshi’s mouth to stop the demon’s advance. If there is any doubt as to
the aftermath of this encounter, the dead Keshi lies at the bottom of the panel.
Painting too was likely a popular art-form in the Gupta period, although sadly, few
examples have survived. If the mural paintings at the Buddhist rock-cut caves of Ajanta
are any indication, painting techniques by the fifth century were highly developed.
Ajanta’s paintings are also priceless for the clues that they contain on the artistic
achievements of the period; we only need look at the accessories and clothes worn by the
protagonists of the murals as well as at the architectural spaces that they occupy to better
know the style of jewelry, textiles, and secular architecture that was popular at that time.

Mural in cave 1, Ajanta, 5th century C.E., Aurangabad

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 Temple architecture
Most Gupta-period architecture that survives in-situ is religious in nature and is built from
stone and brick. A modest temple structure known as number 17 at the sacred complex at
Sanchi – famous for its great stupa, and believed to date to the early fifth century, gives
an idea of the early style of Indian temple architecture.

The Dvaravati style derived from Indian archetypes such

as Amaravati and Gupta styles and were integrated with
local art. Dvaravati art and images went roughly through
three stages: In the initial stage, there was heave Indian
influence, later on the art became more independent
locally, and still later influence of Khmer art is visible.

So, initially the faces depicted would resemble Indian

sculptures. Later on, influenced by local styles, the aureole
would appear in a lotus bud shape or orb over the cranial
protuberance. Large hair curls are visible, and the
eyebrows would resemble a crows wings curve, like a
Dvaravati art - Buddha Image flying bird. Protuding eyes, with flat nose and thick lips
at Wat Na Phramen, are common. Standing Buddha images performing the
Ayutthaya. Notice that the Vitarka (Preaching) posture, with robes hanging to mid
Buddha is seated in the shin level (see example). In sitting images, a short mantle
'European style'. The Buddha is placed over the left shoulder. Khmer influence became
displays none of the 'classical' visible later on with a more square face and cleft chin.
mudras, and His Hands are
laying peacefully palms down
on His Knees.

This sculpture can be assigned to the late 6th or early 7th century,
a period in which the Gupta Dynasty-style of northern and north eastern India was at its
summit.

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The Gupta period (4th to 6th century) is noted as a time during which the quintessential
Buddha image was created, becoming an iconic form which was disseminated and copied
throughout the Asian Buddhist world. Gupta style stands at a crossroads in art historical
developments in the sub-continent.
The Gupta style embodies the earlier figurative styles of north and North West India
(Mathura and Gandhara), while achieving a new power and sophistication. It is noted for
the full, sensuous modelling of faces and bodies, for a subtlety of expression and for the
harmonious proportions of its figures. During these centuries the workshops at Sarnath, a
monastic complex built on the site of the Buddha's first sermon, became especially
artistically influential. A particular type of standing Buddha image was produced here
whose body is covered by a diaphanous robe, which clings to the figure while flaring at
the sides. This was to become the prototype for a multitude of later images including the
Radiant Buddha.
At Mathura, another important northern Indian artistic centre, other standing images
were produced in which the folds of the garment were prominently shown. The Radiant
Buddha therefore shows an ancestry embracing both traditions, it reveals the long flaring
transparent garment of Sarnath and at the same time the prominent folds of Mathura.
Though the Indian Gupta style is confined historically to the 4th to late 6th centuries, the
immediate north Indian legacy of the style, sometimes referred to as the Post-Gupta style,
extends into the 7th and 8th centuries, the time-frame to which this sculpture belongs. The
image is close in style to the large bronze standing Buddha of the 7th-8th century
discovered at Sultanganj in eastern India during the mid 19th century and now housed in
the Birmingham Museum. The other two surviving standing bronze Buddha images of the
same date and style are held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the Los
Angeles County Museum of Art.
The Gupta style, and its related Buddha images, were to be highly influential for the
many regional schools of sculpture that arose in later periods all over the Indian
subcontinent. Its influence can be discerned in the sculptures of eastern and northern India
from the 8th to the 12th centuries (Pala Dynasty) and felt in the Himalyan kingdoms of
Nepal during the 5th to 9th centuries (Licchavi Dynasty), Kashmir (7th to the 14th
centuries) and in Tibet from the 11th onwards. But the significance of the Gupta-style
Buddha reached far beyond the Indian subcontinent itself. It was carried with the
teachings of the Buddha throughout Asia and laid the foundation for images produced in
Tang China, (7th to 10th centuries) and in the Hindu-Buddhist states of Southeast Asia.
Buddha Image Under the Guptas

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 Under the benevolent patronage and inspiration of the Gupta rulers (320 - 646 AD), the
art of sculpture attained its all-time height. The Buddha images of Mathura and Gandhara
phases were definitely magnificent and gorgeous, but the Gupta images were not only
different but also without a parallel before and after. In accordance with the artistic
perception of a spiritual image and of the era, these Buddha images of the subsequent
period have enshrining on their faces a kind of celestial calm, serenity, a gentle smile,
divine glow and unique composure. (illus) With a distinction of its own, there developed
at Sarnath a great center of Buddhism and Buddhist art. Sarnath came out with its own
image of Buddha, unique in its spiritual perception and enchanting in aesthetic glow.
There enshrines upon the lips of Sarnath Buddha image a gentle celestial smile and on the
calm oval face the lyrical tenderness of a full blooming rose. It has retained the long
earlobes of the Mathura image but its massive physiognomy has been replaced by a
tender slender figure with long arms and fine delicate long fingers. The robe has greater
transparency as has a wet silk garment. The image has greater thematic thrust and is more
expressive. Embellishment becomes more pronounced and the earlier halo has now a
more decorative character.

Budha Gupta (476-495 AD) |

REFERENCES

1. http://new.exoticindiaart.com/article/lordbuddha
2. (http://www.vam.ac.uk/collections/asia/asia_features/buddhism/radiant_buddha/
style/index.html)
The Wheel of Dharma
When Buddha first reached awakening, he is said to have explained his findings to five
ascetics. This first teaching is marked as the moment at which the Wheel of Dharma was
activated. As it was not permitted to depict Buddha in his human form, the wheel became the
symbol of Buddhism, often carved into the artworks and created by the craftsmen of that
time. Dharmacakra is the symbol taken from Jain tradition, an ancient Indian religion that
promotes ahimsa (non-violence) towards all the living beings on this Earth. One of the

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earliest instances of Dharma art is the Sarnath pillar, one of the Pillars of Ashoka. These
pillars were built by the Mauryan king Ashoka in the 3rd century BC. In this pillar, the lion
serves as a reference to Buddha, and at the bottom, the wheels and an ox are emerging from a
stylized lotus flower.

The actual Wheel of Dharma is comprised of three basic parts: the hub, the rim, and the
spokes. It was said that the round shape of the Dharma represents the perfection of the
Buddhist teaching, the rim represents mindfulness and concentration which are the glue that
holds the dharma together, the hub is a symbol of moral discipline, and the three swirls on the
hub can sometimes represent the Three Treasures – Buddha, dharma, and sangha. The spokes
can symbolize various things depending on their number. When the Dharma wheel has four
spokes, which is very rare, they represent the Four Noble Truths: dukkha (the truth of
suffering), samudaya (the truth of the cause of suffering), nirhodha (the truth of the end of
suffering), and magga (the truth of the path that frees one from suffering). When it has eight
spokes, the most commonly used one, they represent the Eightfold Path. When it has ten
spokes, they represent the ten directions, and when it has twelve spokes they represent the
Twelve Links of Dependent Origination. When the wheel has 24 spokes, they represent the
combination of the Twelve links and liberation from Samsara, and this type of wheel is also
known as Ashoka Chakra. Finally, when the wheel has 31 spokes, they represent the 31
realms of existence, taken from ancient Buddhist cosmology.

“Three things cannot be long hidden: the sun, the moon, and the truth.” –
Buddha
This paraphrased quote by the Buddha can be interpreted in a number of ways, and each one
can be as genuine as the next one. However, we have chosen to interpret is as the Three
Turnings of the Dharma. It is said that the Buddha had turned the wheel three times, which
represent three teachings of Buddhism. The first one he taught when he rose from meditation
and explained the Four Noble Truths. The second turning marked the inception of
Mahayana Buddhism, and it is said to have happened some 500 years after the first, and it
presented the ideal of practice as a bodhisattva, the one who seeks to bring enlightenment to
all beings. The third turning offered the focus on the Buddha nature, which basically meant
that all beings can reach enlightenment as they are all fundamentally of Buddha nature.

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 The
Grand Maitreya Project statue manufacturing process via lionsroar.com

Contemporary Buddhist Art

Contrary to popular belief, Buddhist art is not just the relic of the past. There are many
prominent contemporary artists who create such artworks, especially with the new-found
interest in the Buddhist religion we are witnessing today. Not only visual arts,
but literature as well has expressed the Buddhist influence, as seen in the works of
Transcendentalists Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau, as well as in writings of
Walt Whitman, J.D. Salinger (who was greatly influenced by Zen Buddhism), Jack
Kerouac’s The Dharma Bums and Big Sur, Allen Ginsberg’s Howl, and Gary Snyder’s Turtle
Island. When it comes to visual art, the great Marcel Duchamp was greatly influenced by
the philosophy of Buddhism, and the painters Mark Tobey, Agnes Martin, Jasper
Johns, Brice Marden, , and Ad Reinhardt reported that they found sources of inspiration in
Buddhism. The artists Tenzing Rigdol and Gonkar Gyatso address Buddhist themes in their
works, although the primary goal of their art is their own artistic expression and not the
devotion to the religion. In Mongolia, a super large-scale statue of the standing Maitreya
Bodhisattva is to be built under the spiritual direction of Dalai Lama. Tsherin Sherpa depicts
Buddhist symbols in his works, along with Tenzin Norbu, Dedron, and Kesang Lamdark.

As Buddhism is becoming more and more accepted by the middle-class people it is certain
that the Buddhist art will continue to prosper. In the time of great political and
religious turmoil, a peaceful religion such as Buddhism is getting its second (or is it third)
comeback with its pacifist teachings and non-violent rules.

Albert Einstein once said, “If there is any religion that could respond to the needs of modern
science, it would be Buddhism.”

https://www.widewalls.ch/magazine/take-step-m-museum

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 Chapter 10
Five stage development process of the Temple Architecture in the Gupta
Age

The first stage saw Flat Roof Temples, Square Temples, Shallow Pillared approach to the
front and temples on low platforms. An example of this stage is Temple 17 at Sanchi
(Madhya Pradesh). Second stage Flat Roof and square temple continued and so did the pillar
approach except it wasn’t shallow. Temples were now on high platforms/upraised platforms.
There were Covered ambutary around the sanctum sanctorum. Instances of two storeyed
temples were also seen. Third Stage included Square temples, the pillared approach, High
platform, low and squared Shikars were also found and the Panchayatan Style was introduced
along with the concept of subsidiary shrines. The Nagara style is a successor of the third
stage of temple making. Fourth stage introduced Rectangular Temples while all other features
continued. Fifth Stage included Circular Temples with shallow rectangular projections while
all else continued.

1. There are three styles of Temple Architecture: The Nagara Style, the Dravidan style
and the Vesara.

2. Nagara Style The Nagara Style of Temple architecture saw the absence of tank in the
temples. The temple walls were divided in to three vertical planes or ‘rathas’.

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 Sculptures were made in these three rathas -Trirathas. Later Pancharatha, Saptaratha
and even Navaratha emerged.

3. This style was prominent in northern and central India but not in the Peninisular.
Three sub schools developed in Nagara Style: Odissa School, Khajuraho School and
Solanki School. Khajuraho Style This style was developed by Chandela Rulers. Both
the interior and the exterior of the temple are lavishly decorated with intricate
carvings. Sculptures based on erotic themes seen on the temples. Temples lacked
boundary walls. Shikaras were seen even on the subsidiary shrines and such style had
temples on high platforms.

There are three key elements seen in this style: Garbha Griha, Assembly Hall and Portico
(Veranda surrounded by pillars)

Solanki School _This school was based in Gujarath under the Solanki Rulers. Temples were
constructed on the steps of massive rectangular stepped tank. The wall of the central shrine is
devoid of carvings and the temple faces east. Hence every year on Equinox sun shines
directly onto the Central Shrine. The central projections of the west, north and south faces are
occupied by matching balconies with purna-kalasha columns and a deep porch frames. The
entrance to the temple is in the east.

Dravidian Style- This style was seen during the Pallava Period and can be divided into four
stages. First Stage included the Mahendra Group, Rock Cut Arches and the word Mandapa
was used. The Second Stage included the Narasimha Group, decorations and Mandap became
Rathas. Raja Simha Group, development of the real structural temples and the shore temple at
Mahabalipuram and Kailasanatha Temple at Kanchipuram are attested to the third stage.
While the Nandi Varman Group, development of Small temples and Dravidian style further
continued into the fourth stage. Shikara is the crowning element on the top of the temple,
similar to Amalak and Kailash of Nagara Style. The entrance has sculptures of dwarpalas.
There is only one vimana. Temples functioned as Religious Centres, Administrative centres
and Centres of Education and Revenue.

Vesara It’s a mix of both the Dravidian and the Nagara Style of the Temple Architecture.
The principle components of this style are Vimana and Mandapa. Covered ambulatory is not
observed in this style. Pillars, Door frames and the ceilings are intricately carved.
Vijayanagara Slight variations are seen in the Temple Architectures. These being that the
Gopurams were now enlarged, high enclosure walls were seen, there was more decoration
and the sculpture of the Motiff of a supernatural horse were seen more frequently. Secular
buildings were also seen. An example of this style is the Lotus Mahal.

Hoysala -Hoysala is seen in South Karnataka in the Mysore Region. Multiple shrines are
grounded around the central hall. It follows the Stellate Plan or star shaped shrines. This style
has soft soap stone temples and both the exterior and the interior of the temple have carvings.
The Shikara in each inner chamber is radically arranged in horizontal lines and mouldings
which revolve in an orderly succession. There is an upraised platform or a Jagati and a star
and zig-zag design.
The Chalukyas claim themselves to be the descendants of Hariti and belonging to
Manavasyagotra like the Andhrabhiityas and the Kadambas of the Puranic lore. During

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the tenure of the later Chalukyas, a newchapterbegan in the history of the Telugus.
Nannaya Bhattaraka, the Court poet of Rajaraja Narendra started the translation of
Sanskrit Mahabharata into Telugu and earned fame and name as ‘Adikavi’ or the ‘first
poet’, although Telugu was used in epigraphs since the time of Kubja Vishnuvardhana,
the founder of this dynasty and we come across thousands of lithic epigraphs in Telugu
inscribed on temple pillars of Andhradesa.The founder of the Eastern or Vengi Chalukya
power structure was Kubja Vishnuvardhana, the brother of Pulakesin II of Vatapi
Chalukyan lineage. Pulakesin II after conquering coastal Andhradesa, appointed Kubja
Vishnuvardhana as his viceroy in AD 624. We come to know from Kopparam epigraph
dated in AD 631, that Pulakesin II permitted Kubja Vishnuvardhana to rule
independently. The Vengi Chalukyas ruled coastal Andhra as independent sovereigns for
more than four and a half centuries from AD 631 to 1070.

The Eastern Chalukyas had to fight with contemporary Pallavas of Kanchi as well as
with the Rashtrakutas of Manyakheta, who replaced the Vatapi Chalukyas. Consequent
to the continuous warfare with their neighbours, the Chalukyas of Kalyani or later
Western Chalukayas, the Vengi Chalukyas entered into matrimonial alliances with the
Cholas of Tanjore to succeed in safeguarding their interests in Vengi territory.

As a result the Chalukyas of Vengi became pawns in the Chola-Chalukya struggle for
supremacy over Vengi area. History and culture of the Eastern Chalukyan period could
be constructed with the help of nearly a hundred copper plates and a number of lithic
records found in different parts of Andhradesa. The Eastern Chalukyan rulers were also
patrons of art and letters and they showed religious tolerance by patronizing Brahmanical
as well as Jaina faiths.

Kubja Vishnuvardhana, founder of the Eastern Chalukyan line ruled from AD 624 to
641. He had the title of Vishamasiddhi and he had his capital at Pishtapura or modern
Pithapuram. He appears to have undertaken conquests and extended his kingdom. He was
followed by his son Jayasimha I, who ruled from AD 641 to 673.
Jayasimha I was a worshipper of Vishnu. His Vipparla epigraph happens to be one of the
earliest Telugu records and it helps us to know the evolution of Telugu language.
Jayasimha I was followed by his brother Indrabhattaraka, who ruled for a very short
period. Indrabhattaraka was followed by Vishnuvardhana II, who ruled for nine years
from AD 673-682. He was followed by Mangi Yuvaraja Vijayaditya, who ruled for a
period of 25 years from AD 692 to 706.

Jayasimha II ruled from AD 706 to 719 after which started the internecine war between
cousins for the throne. In AD 755, Vijayaditya II ascended the Chalukya throne and
ruled till AD 772 and appears to have been defeated by Rashtrakuta heir-apparent
Govinda III in AD 769.

Vijayaditya II was followed by Vishnuvardhana FV, who ruled from AD 772 to 808. He
too was defeated by Rashtrakuta Dhruva and offered his daughter Seelamahadevi to
Dhruva in marriage. The wars between the Rashtrakutas and the Eastern Chalukyas
continued for a’ long time. Gunaga Vijayaditya III, the eldest son of Kali
Vishnuvardhana and the most famous of the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi ruled from AD
849 to 892. He had the title Gunakenallata (The lover of excellence or virtue).

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The historian N. Venkataramanayya suggests that there were three definite stages
in the history of his reign:

(a) A short period of victory and expansion,

(b) A disastrous defeat and prolonged subjection to foreign rule, and
(c) A period of brilliant military victories leading to the assumption of imperial authority
over the whole of the Deccan. He won victories over Boya Kotams with the help of his
Brahmin general Panduranga. He acquired the Pali banner the symbol of the insignia of
Rashtrakuta, imperial title of Vallabha and proclaimed himself the Lord Paramount of
the entire Dakshinapatha. Krishna II of the Rashtrakuta dynasty accepted the sovereignty
of the Eastern Chalukyas. His Satuluru copper plate grant records his victories over the
Pallavas and the Pandyas. Undoubtedly, Vijayaditya III or Gunaga Vijayaditya was the
greatest conqueror and ruler of the Eastern Chalukyan line.

During his reign, Eastern Chalukyas rule extended from Mahendragjri in the north to the
Pulicat in the south. After him the Chalukyan power began to decline due to wars of
succession among the brothers and their children. The son of Vikramaditya IV, Chalukya
Bhima II ascended the Chalukya throne in AD 934 and ruled for 12 years. He is credited
with the victory over the Rashtrakutas.
Vishnuvardhana, Raja Bhima or Brihath Bhima and Rajamartanda were the titles
assumed by him. Chalukya Bhima had two sons Danarnava and Ammaraja through
different wives. Ammaraja drove away Danarnava and occupied the Chalukyan throne
and once again there was conflict between Danarnava and Ammaraja and by AD 970,
Danarnava occupied the Chalukya throne.

Danarnava ruled for 3 years and was followed by his son Saktivarma. Jatachoda Bhima
of Pedakallu defeated and killed Danarnava. The death of Danarnava led to Telugu-
Chola interregnum period from AD 973 to 1000.

Danaranava’s sons Saktivarma and Vimaladitya fled to Chola territory and sought the
help of Rajarajachola. Saktivarma regained the Eastern Chalukyan throne in AD 1001-2.
In this war, Jatachoda Bhima and his General Ekavira lost their lives. This led to a new
struggle between the Cholas and the Kalyani Chalukyas for the hegemony of the Vengi
territory. Saktivarma ruled from AD 1002 to 1011 and was followed by his brother
Vimaladitya, who ruled from AD 1011 to 1018.

Vimaladitya had two wives, Kundava, a Chola princess and Medamba, a Telugu-Chola
princess. Kundava gave birth to Rajaraja Narendra and Medamba gave birth to
Vijayaditya VII. Once again we witness a fratricidal war for the throne in which the
Cholas supported Rajaraja Narendra and the Kalyani Chalukyas supported Vyayaditya
VII.

Political fortunes shifted from time to time and Rajaraja Narendra died in AD 1061.
Rajaraja Narendra’s reign was full of difficulties because of constant threat from his
half-brother, Vijayaditya who in cooperation with the Chalukyas of Kalyani gave him
trouble. Before his death in AD 1061 he lost his throne and regained it by fighting with
the Chalukyas of Kalyani and ultimately he became an ally of the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Rajaraja was followed by Saktivarma 11 the son of Vijayaditya VII who ruled for a very
short time. Vijayaditya VII, the brother of Rajaraja Narendra ruled Vengi in AD 1078

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and Vengi then passed on into the hands of the sons of Kulottunga Chola, the son of
Rajaraja Narendra.

Polity:
Epigraphical and literary sources do not provide adequate evidences to construct the
state of government and societyThere is a view that the Eastern Chalukyas also followed
the hereditary monarchical form of government, wherein the king was the head of the
civil, military and judicial branches. In recent times, A. Aruna in her book State
Formation in the Eastern Deccan (7th Century AD-13th Century AD), 2000 opines that
polity in Eastern Chalukyan period is an integrative rather than centralized or
deceintralized state.

The king was not an absolute autocrat and was assisted by a council of ministers in the
business of general administration. They divided their territory into administrative
divisions like Rstra, Vishaya and Kottams for administrative convenience. Rastras were
kept under the control of the collateral branches of the ruling house such as Chalukyas of
Elamanchili, Mudigonda, Pithapuram and Srikurmam.

As the provincial rulers had internal freedom in the process of administration, it is likely
that the administration was feudalized and decentralized. This was the main feature of
their polity. Grameyaka or the Rastrakutamohattaro, i.e., the chief cultivator of the
village was entrusted with the village administration. Besides Gremeyaka there existed a
government nominee or representative directly looking after the village administration.
It is generally believed that the social structure was based on Vamasrama model though
it seems to be less rigid. We also notice the practice of people taking to new professions
leaving aside the assigned professions by dharmasastric tradition. Social tensions were
not visibly present during this period.

Puranic dharma was prevalent along with Jaina faith. Jaina monks were very active in the
Chalukyan territory. Ammaraju II of the Eastern Chalukyan family extended
considerable patronage to Jaina monks. Most of the Eastern Chalukyan rulers were
Saivities calling themselves Paramamahehsvaras. Whatever their personal faith, the
Chalukyan mlers showed religious toleration as a policy.

Classical Telugu literature owes its origin to the Eastern Chalukyan patronage. Rajaraja
Narendra patronized Nannayya Bhattaraka, who started the translation of Sanskrit
“Mahabhrata” into Telugu and completed Adipatva, Sabha Patva and a part ofAaranya
Parva. Arudra observes, “Though he has introduced many Tatsamas and Sanakritic
features, Nannayya wrote in the live language of his day”. Nanne Choda of the Telugu
Chola family was his contemporary.

He wrote “Kumarasambhavam”. He called himself as Kaviraja Sikhamani. Puvuluri

Mallanna was another contemporary of Nannayya. He translated a Sanskrit treatise on
mathematics entitled Sarasatigrahaganita, written by Mahaviracharyulu. Interestingly,
Mallanna was a Saivite and Mahaviracharyulu was as a Jaina. This mathematical work of
Mahaviracharyulu contains a chapter on mensuration, measurement of shadows, proper
and mixed fractions and the theory of numbers.

The Eastern Chalukyas took interest in the construction of temples. All the temples were
dedicated to Siva. Chalukya Bhima I was responsible for the construction of Bhimeswara

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temple at Samarlakota and at Draksharama. Vijayaditya II is said to have constructed
108 temples.

The Eastern Chalukyan style of architecture is prominently visible at Draksharama and

Biceavolu. The Golingeswara temple at Biccavolu contains some richly carved out
sculptures of deities like Arthanarisvara, Siva, Vishnu, Agni, Chamundi and Surya.
During this period the Buddha was worshipped as Vishnu and as such Buddhism lost its
separate identity.

The Jatara of Mahasena at Chebrolu was a famous spectacle of this period. The Jatara
used to start at Chebrolu in the Guntur district and reach Vijayawada and from there it
returned to Chebrolu. The Eastem Chalukyan rule provided an identity to the coastal
Andhras.
Sciences, religion, and philosophy. During this time, India became far wealthier, and after the
Guptas conquered neighboring powers, peace descended on much of the subcontinent. The
Gupta Empire was characterized by wealth and prosperity, largely thanks to its control over
lucrative trade routes. Gupta ports and trading centers connected merchants from East,
Central, West, and South Asia, as well as some that had connections to Europe and East
Africa

Chapter11

The concept of the Square COSMOS IN GUPTA ARCHITECTURE

Also featuring Curvilinear Roof Temples with a Square plan page 15

Other articles by the author

1. https://www.academia.edu/60889061/
The_Mound_and_Ruins_of_the_Square_Plan_stone_temple_in_India
2. https://www.academia.edu/43886855/Temples_Vastu_Shastra
3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343360879_ELEMENTS_OF_INDIAN_TEMPLES
4. https://www.scribd.com/document/528620462/Curvilinear-Roof-Temples-of-INDIA

The Gupta period is a golden era of India as it was effectively marked by extensive
discoveries and inventions of science, technology, literature, and art.The Gupta age
architecture and art are effectively diverse in their characteristic features, style, as well as

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 design. Gupta age architecture includes painting, Gupta sculpture and temples. They were the
foremost rulers in order to establish the cave temples of Hindus in India. The Gupta era is
well known for its excellence in different fields of Indian culture and art. The study is going
to discuss the architecture and art of the Gupta Empire as well as analysis of the development
of Indian classical music. Sri Gupta established the Gupta empire effectively c. 240-280 CE.

Architecture and art of Gupta Empire

The era between the centuries of 4th and 6th, the CE (Common Era) is recognised as the
Golden era of India due to the considerable achievements of the country in the fields of
philosophy, science, and art. On the concept of Gupta age architecture, it includes both
sculptural temples as well as the temples of rock-cut caves. Guptas established the temples of
Buddhist rock-cut at Bagh, Madhya Pradesh, and Ajanta, Maharashtra.
In the Gupta period, the Guptas established Hindu structural temples for the first time in
India. The temples of Gupta era are:
 Varaha and Vishnu temples in Madhya Pradesh
 The temple of Kankali Devi at Jabalpur
 The temple of Mahadeva and Parvati at Nachna Kuthara
 The temple of Dasavatara at Deogarh
The art of Gupta era primarily includes paintings and the paintings are effectively found in
Bagh cave as well as Ajanta caves. The Hindu religion before the Gupta era used to be
recognised as “Vedic religion”. The iron pillar was established by Chandragupta II in Delhi.
The iron pillar has effective inscriptions that were implanted from the era of Guptas. The
inscriptions of the iron pillar in Delhi define Chandra’s name that is effectively recognised as
Chandragupta, the Gupta ruler.

The Gupta Empire can be described as the fourth largest entity of politics who have ruled
appropriately in India. Guptas followed decentralized administration. The Gupta age of
architecture brought effective knowledge as well as architects in terms of making efficient
and effective structures and temples. The era of Guptas has an effective and positive impact
on Hindu religion in India. Majority of temples in the era of Guptas were craving and
represented Gods and goddesses, primarily avatars of Lingams and Vishnu. The era has
assisted to develop knowledge among people in the field of art and architecture. Guptas have
developed effective advancements in philosophy, religion, astronomy, logic, dialectics, art,
engineering, as well as science. There is an effective contribution of the Gupta Empire in the
religion of Hinduism as well as in the development of art and architecture in India.

Development of Indian classical music in Gupta era

The era of Guptas is well known for its excellence on the grounds of Indian culture as well as
art. In the concept of Indian classical music, the era of Guptas arrives from the exertions of
Vatsyayana and Kalidasa among others. Kalidasa wrote multiple instruments of Indian
classical music for instance Shankha, Vamshi, Mridang, Pushkar, Vipanchi Veena, as well as
Parivadini Veena. Kalidasa also discussed different kinds of songs in the development of
Indian classical music such as Apsarogeeti, Streegeet, and Kakaligeet, as well as
Swarasaptaka, Tana, and Murchana.

Vatsyayana during Gupta period listed almost 64 arts or Kalas in his “magnum opus
Kamasutra”. In “Kamasutra” Vatsyayana described the musical instruments of playing,
dancing and singing among 64 Kalas. Fa-Hien visited India during the Gupta period and
noticed the effective prevalence of music in Indian society. From the period of Guptas,
different kinds of Indian classical music were effectively played in temples. The Gupta era

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has developed Indian art and architecture as well as it has developed the functions of Indian
classical music.

In the Vedic era, priests composed different hymns. Indian music has developed effectively
in the era of Guptas. Vatsyayana and Kalidasa provided different instruments that helped in
the improvement of Indian music. Majority of historians call Gupta era a Golden era for the
development of culture. Music was given royal patronage in this era. There were efficient and
skilled women who selected entertainment and music as their profession. In the Gupta era,
there was an availability of Sangeet Graha and Natya Shaala where the people effectively
gathered for entertainment. Chandragupta from the Gupta era was a highly and effectively
trained musician. This era developed the activities of music and culture. The two navaratnas
of the royal court of Chandragupta Vikramaditya were Amarsimha and Mahakavi Kalidas.
The common instruments of Indian classical music in this era were Mridang, Veena, Venu,
and Sankha.

The majority of historians and people call Gupta age a Golden era for the development of art
and architecture. The study has discussed the architecture and art of the Gupta Empire as well
as the development of Indian classical music in the Gupta era. In the era of Guptas, Indian
music has developed effectively with musical activities. The common instruments of Indian
music in this period were Mridang, Veena, Venu, Sankha as well as Bheri.

The concept of the Square COSMOS

Cosmos: In Gupta-era India, the square was considered to be the perfect shape and often used
as a representation of the cosmos. Gupta temples often served as monuments to multiple
deities, not just one, so this understanding of things united within the cosmos is significant.
Gupta rule, while solidified by territorial expansion through war, began a period of peace and
prosperity marked by advancements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectics,
literature, logic, mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy. Buddhism greatly
influenced the Indian religion. It gave to Indian people a simple and popular religion. It
rejected ritualism, sacrifices and dominance of priestly class. Buddhism spread
rapidly because its teachings were very simple and it was taught in the language of the
people. The patronage of two great emperors — Ashoka and Kanishka — made it a world
religion. Its opposition to the caste system made it popular among the castes that were
considered low.

GUPTA RELIGION
Both Buddhism and Hinduism were widely prevalent. The characteristic features of
Hinduism enabled it to survive till today; whereas the new features of Buddhism led to its
final decline. Although Buddhism still appealed in matters of ritual making it to be regarded
as a sect of the latter. Jainism escaped from this fate. It remained unchanged; and there fore it
continued to be supported by the merchant communities of western India. Added to this in
some areas of the Deccan royalty patronized Jainism although it ceased in the 7th century
A.D.
Although Buddhism gradually declined with in the country it spread beyond the frontiers of
India first to central Asia and then to China and also to South-East Asia.

A far more important development of the 5th century was the emergence of a curious cult
associated with the worship of women deities and fertility cults. These became the nucleus of
a number of magical rites which later came to be known as tantricism Buddhism too came

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under this influence leading to the evolution or a new branch of Buddhism in the 7th century
called vajrayana of Thunderbolt Vehicle Buddhism. In this Buddhism female counterparts
came to be added to the male figures known as taras. This particular cult exists even tody in
Nepal and Tibet.

Devi worship - the cult of the mother goddess the oldest of all religious - also seems to have
received the imprimature of orthodoxy during this period. We have the avidence of Gunadhya
that tantric forms of worship were prevalent in the first century B.C. Kalidasa himself seems
to have been a worshipper of the Devi. His name itself proclaims it as it is obviously an
assumed one which means the servant of Kali. Besides the benedictory verse in Raghuvamsa
clearly states the Sakta doctrine of the indivisibility of Siva and parvati. The God Mahakala
of Ujjain whose worship the poet describes with manifest devotion was as we known from
Gunadhya's story incorporated in Kathasarit Sagara adorned with tantric rites. In fact not only
the different modes of Devi worship but the ceremonials of the tantric system in their various
forms were well-known in the Gupta period.

While the above developments occurred in Buddhism and Jainism Hinduism developed some
distinct characteristics which exist even till today. The first is the worship of images which
superseded sacrifices. The sacrifices of the olden days were transformed into symbolic
sacrifices into the images in the poojas. This naturally led to the decline of the priests who
were dominant in sacrifices. Worship of god indeed became the concern of the individual but
regulating individual social behaviour still remained the concern of the Brahmin. Man-made
traditions of the past began to be treated as sacred laws. Orthodoxy attempted to maintain its
power by rigid rules of exclusion. However seeing the difficulty of enforcing the sacred laws
a more broad frame of difference came to be evolved as the four ends of man-religion and
social law (dharma) economic welfare. (artha) pleasure (kama) and salvation of the soul
(moksha). Then onwards it is being maintained that a correct balance of the first three could
lead to the fourth.

Among those who practiced religion in a serious manner two sects came into existence -
Vaishnuvism and Shaivism. Broadly speaking the first was mostly prevalent in northern India
while the second in southern India. At this time the tantric beliefs left their mark on
Hinduism. Shakti cults came into existence the subtle idea being that the male can be
activated only by being united with the female. It was thus that Hindu gods acquired wives
and both came to be
worshiped. Apart from tantricism the appearance of this feature of Hinduism was probably
promoted by the persistence of the worship of the mother Goddess which probably could be
traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization.

Along with these developments the ground was prepared for the concept of svataras also.
Hindu thinkers evolved the concept of cyclical theory of time. The cycle was called a kalpa.
The kalpa itself is divided into fourteen periods. At the end of each period, the universe re-
emerges with Manu, the primeval men. Each of these kalpas is further divided into great
intervals and ultimately into Yugas or periods of time. As per the concept of this theory of
time we are in the fourth of the Yugas, that is, the Kaliyuga with which the world will its end.
The Kaliyuga is also associated with which the world will reach its end 10 the 10th
incarnation of Vishnu.
All these developments in Hinduism were associated with disputations between Buddhists
and brahmins. These debates centred around six systems of thought which came to be known
as the six systems of Hindu philosophy - Nyaya or analysis based on logci, Vaisheshika or

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brood characteristics according to which the universe is composed of atoms as
distinct from the soul' sankhya or enumeration recognizing dualism between matter and soul
or athemeis, yoga or application relying on control over the body in order to acquire
knowledge of the ultimate law of the Vedas as opposed to pose-Vedic thought, and Vedanta
to refute the theories of non-Vedas. As known from the above analysis the first four schools
are empirical in nature, whereas, the latter two are metaphysical. In later ages mimamasa and
Vedanta gained over the others.

The above discourses were at the elite level and the generally of people came to possess their
own books of knowledge. The Puranas as known to us today were composed in this period
historical traditions as recorded by the brahmins. They were originally composed in parts but
in this period they came to be re-written in
classical Sanskrit. Later, knowledge relating to Hindu sex, rites and customs came to be
added to them in order to make them sacrosanct.

GUPTA EFFLORESCENCE was not a golden age but it was a period consummation.
Administration was not found overnight. Began with Bimbisara and elaborated by the Nandas
and then inherited by the Mauryans. Such was the legacy of the Gupta's Mahamatras and the
provincial viceroys were inherited from the Mauryan system. Mauryan administrative system
became mellowed - less sever punishment one - sixth of the land produce.

ECONOMIC PROSPERITY
(a) Capitalism emerged in the Mauryan period along with the guilds and ports.
(b) Trad with west on a grand scale.
(c) Material prosperity was reflected in the art and architecture of the period.
(d) Use of the silk was common.
(e) Use of intoxicants by the rich was popular.
(f) Prosperity was not achieved overnight trade routes during the time of the Sakas and the
Kushanas.

BEFORE THE GUPTAS :

(a) Udayana of Kausambi, 6th century B.C. (Veena - Buddhist books talk of palaces, gardens
and Chaityas.
(b) Artistic tradition goes back -the stupas of Sanchi and Bharhut, the chaityas of Ajanta,
Nasik and Karle the rock-cutcaves of Barabar, and the vihara caves of Udaigiri, Khandagiri
and Ajanta.
(c) In the first century AD Mathura art became active. It was the Mathura school that first
created images of the Buddha. It was also patronized by the Kushanas as borne out by a series
of portraits of the Kushana kins.

DURING THE GUPTAS :

They key note of Gupta art is balance and freedom from convention - a ment between the
right of naturalism and the bizarre symbolism of medieval art. In the beginning, the temple
was in the form of leafy bower, than a hut of reeds, and then a cellarof wood and bricks. In
the Gupta period appears garbha-griha having a small door as entrance - interior walls are
bare whereas the exterior are richly carved - Tigowa temple in Jabalpur district, Narasimha
temple in Eran and the Udayagiri Sanctuary near Sanchi.
The Gupta sculpture was an improvement over the Gandhara sculpture. Their sculptures
show close fitting garments and decorated haloes, sculptures also appear in the form of relief
on temples. Carved brick work and the terracotta panels in the Bhitoragaon temple. Deogarh

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temple - a panel representing Vishnu reclining or Ananta - Shiva as a Yogi in this temple is a
masterpiece - the same category of the cave temples in the Udayagiri hills. Buddhist
sculptures in thisperiod had grown typically India. The Buddha of alm repose and mild
serenity and abandonment of drpery of the Gandhara art, a floral decoration showing the
triumph of indigenous tradition, seated images of the Buddha preaching are of great delicacy.
Metal images of the Buddha at Nalanda.
The Gupta coins also reached classical levels : one side portrait of the king and there verse
side appropriate goddess with symbols. Monarchs in various postures : feeding a peacock,
shooting a tiger, playing on Veena.The quality of line drawn on the coins and their
metallurgical skill are of higher level.
Number 16 and 17 cave-paintings of the Ajanta, the finest belong to this period. These two
paintings constitute a culmination of classical Indian paintings - resemblance to Sigiriya
frescoes.

SANSKRIT LITERATURE
Before the Guptas :
Began with Panini - the Vakatakas and the Bharasivas (Nagas) patronized Sanskrit. The
mahabashya of Patanjali was patronized by Pushyamitra Sunga - Patanjali refers to dramatic
recitals of Kamasavadha. He also mentions of a poet of the second century B.C. Vararuchi
who wrote in Kavya style. Susruta and Nagarjuna were well-versed in Sanskrit - Asvaghosha
wrote Buddha Charita and Soundara Manda. Astadhyayi of Panini hints at the existence of
dramatic literature. Kalidasa alludes to Sanksrit writers like Saumilla. Asvaghosha of the first
century wrote dramas with Buddhist themes and this dramas were based on the norms laid
down in Bharata's Natyashastra.
During the Guptas :
Sanskrit ast he language of the elite Buddhists also used it. Kalidasa, the exponent of Kavya
style - Ritusamhara and Meghadoot during Chandragupta II's time. Kalidas was
contemporary of Chandragupta II, Vikramaditya or Kumara Gupta I, His Meghadoot is a
lyric of delicate beauty. Sahakuntalam in his great work. Vishakadatta is the author of Mudra-
Rakshasa. Mrichakataka appeared in this period. Panchatantra was probably elaborated.

RELIGION:
Before the Guptas : In religions filed also the Gupta age witnessed such standards which are
till today accepted. Religions, too, like the other filed did not originate during the Gupta
period but reached a donsummation. Worhip of Vasudeva in early fourth century B.C. - in the
middle second century B.C. Heliodours erected a garudadhwaja. Dharam shastras and
Grihyasutras emerged in the fourth century B.C. along with the laws of Manu. The
Bharasisvas and the Vakatakas contributed to the Re-establishment of Aryan society and
culture and performed Asvamedhas.

DURING THE GUTPAS:

(1) As idols became objects of worship, the sacrificial part of Hindu religion receded into the
background. Pujas gained in importance as opposed to Yajnas. Images worship captivated the
imagination of the people
(2) Redaction of thamajor Puranas and the Mahabharata. The Puranas created the necessary
mythology while sculpture brought the deities to the homes of the common man. The
essentials of the later day Hinduism appeared is a simple fashion in the Puranas.
(3) Vaishnavism and Shivism came into existence.
(4) Development of the tantric belief - emergence of the Shakti cult.

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(5) With the development of the panthoon of gods in Hinduism the gods came to be attributed
wives.
(6) The concept of Yugas was postulate during this period - at the end of each Yuga, the
universe is recreated kaliyuga is associated with the coming of Kalikin, the would-be
incarnation of Vishnu.
(7) Also, the six system of Philosophy came into existence. Nyaya lays stress on logic.
Vaisheshika treats matter and soul as separate universes. Sankhya maintains the existence of
25 principles as the causes of creation - is essentially atheistic. Yoga stresses on the control of
the body and senses leading to eternity - required knowledge of human anatomy. Meemasa
ephasises the ultimate law of the Vedas and their rituals primarily supported by the brahmins.
Vednanta is the metaphysical interpretation of the Vedas - the should be reached by the
atman of each individual for salvation.
(8) Mahayana doctrine was the vogue of the day of this period. Buddhism developed its own
tantrics - in the 7th century the Thunderbolt school added female counterparts to Buddhist
pantheon known as Taras. Jainism was patronized by the merchant communities. A Jaina
council was held at Valabhi in the sixth century and it finalized the Jaina canon.
Science : In the field of science, too, the Gupta period witnessed a conusmmeratino. The
beginnings of science were far too ancient Metallurgical skill was known from the days of the
Mauryas. The scientific knowledge of the Greeks was admired in the post-Gupta era. These
beginnings reached a culmination during the Gupta period.
Most probably a few eminent ment of science belonged to his period. Aryabhatta was a
methematician and he probably conceived the concept of zero. Arterya was a surgeon and he
performed operations of Herina and catract. Varahminhira was as astronomer and he
anticipated Copernicus. Probably, Charakha and Susruta, two authorities on medicines,
belonged to this period.

SHORT COMINGS :
(1) All was not well with the Gupta economic prosperity. After the Huna Invasions, trading
activity with north-west came to a stop. Also goods from the Gangetic region could not be
easily carried to the Western coast. This was one of the causes of the shift of trade towards
South-East Asia.
(2) The administration of the Guptas was not as successful as that of the Mauryas. Autonomy
granted to provinces, districts and villages. The local officials formed into cligues and very
often offices became hereditary. Corruption was known. Officials were expected to be treated
with rice, curd and flowers - the last time perhaps, had its own implications.
(3) Although Sanskrit drama attained great heights, some of the writings of the day show that
they were only for a select few of society. Good number of legal codes were prepared like
that of Yajnavalka, Narada, Barihaspati and Katyayand. The social system became very rigid.
(4) In matters of religion also decadent features started appearing. New cults emerged
worshipping female deities. This became the nucleus for a number of magical rites which
later came to be known as Tantricism.
(5) It was in the social field the institutionalization of difference between the castes had
begun. In the dramatic wrirings of the day, the characters belonging to the upper state of
society speak Sanksrit while those of the lower strapa and women speak Prakrit. The status of
women declined because of the practice of early marriages. And most of the legal codes of
the day reiterate the Brahmin view-point in all matters including the status of women. The lot
of Shudras which was downgraded in the Maurya period was legalized. And the institution of
untouchability was fully established.

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 A R C H I T E C T U R E

This Dynasty (4th-6th century) in North Central India saw the first purpose-built Hindu (and
also Buddhist) temples which evolved from the earlier tradition of rock-cut shrines. Adorned
with towers and elaborate carvings, these temples were often dedicated to all the Hindu
gods. Gupta architecture is very diverse in style, design and features.
The diversity of Gupta buildings illustrates that Hindu temple architecture was in its
formative stage and was yet to arrive at the standardised situation of later centuries.
Nevertheless, the influence of Gupta-era buildings on later Indian temple architecture is
indisputable and continued right through to the Medieval period. Unfortunately, relatively
few of the large number of Gupta temples built have survived.

Gupta Cave Shrines

The earliest examples of religious architecture were cave-temples which typically had
exteriors decorated with relief sculpture and a single carved doorway. Inside the shrine, ritual
sculptures were placed such as a Shiva linga (phallus) and the walls were richly decorated
with more carvings showing scenes from mythology. Notable examples are found at
Udayagiri in Madhya Pradesh where one cave bears a date mark of 401 CE. Here in one
shrine is one of the finest examples of Gupta art, the celebrated relief showing Vishnu in his
incarnation as the boar-headed Varaha. The panel measures 7 x 4 metres and the central
figure, carved almost in the round, is emerging from the cosmic waters, having defeated a
snake-like monster and rescued the goddess Bhudevi (Earth). The scene, a famous Hindu
myth, may also be an allegorical reference to the peace and protection offered by the Gupta
kings.

Cave 19, Ajanta, Deccan//Vishnu as Varaha, Udayagiri Caves

Finally, mention should be made of the Ajanta caves, a row of 29 rock-cut caves following
the Waghora river bed ravine in north-west Deccan. Dating from the 2nd century BCE to 7th
century CE, they contain some of the earliest and finest examples of Indian wall-painting.
The subject matter is largely scenes from the life of Buddha. Cave 1 contains a columned

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shrine in typical Gupta style with flat cushion-topped column capitals. Cave 19 was built in
the 5th century CE and has a Gupta-style chaitya (shrine) facade with columned porch and
large, almost semi-circular aperture above. The whole facade is covered in rich carvings and
relief panels showing scenes from Buddhist lore.

Gupta Temples: Materials & Features

Not satisfied with caves the Guptas were the first dynasty to build permanent free-standing
Hindu temples and so they began a long tradition of Indian temple architecture. It is perhaps
important to note here that Hindu temples were not designed for congregations but rather as
the dwelling place (devalaya) of a deity. This decorated palace (prasada) allowed priests to
give offerings to the gods and individuals could also offer prayers, flowers, and food ( puja),
usually to a sacred relic or statue representing a particular god which was housed in a
relatively small and windowless architectural space (the garbhagriha). Believers would also
walk around the temple in a ritual act of worship.

The Gupta style was influenced by Kusana, Mathura, and Gandhara and borrowed the
common features of T-shaped doorways, decorated door jambs, sculpted panels with high-
relief figures, and laurel-wreath and acanthus motifs. Constructed using sandstone, granite,
and brick, Gupta-era temples added to this architectural heritage with
horseshoe gavakshas arches and distinctive curved shikhara towers which are frequently
topped with a ribbed disk ornamentation known as an amalaka. These elaborate buildings are
further decorated with a mass of ornate mouldings and sculptures set in niches. In Gupta
architecture, the square was considered the most perfect form and temples were designed to
be appreciated from all sides so that each carries decorative architectural features.
Most temples also adopt a square plan with the single cubicle garbhagriha in the centre. This
is normally entered by a short columned porch set over a single, highly decorated doorway
with a projecting lintel. Columns can support a pot-and-foliage capital, and roofs were
generally flat, as in surviving examples at Tigawa and Sanchi in Madhya Pradesh. Other
typical Gupta decorative features include triangle motifs inside doorways and lion's heads at
the ends of stone beams.

Vishnu Anantasayana Panel, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

Whether all temples had a second floor is difficult to determine, due to their often ruinous
condition. The late 5th century CE Parvati temple at Nachna Kuthara is notable for its
surviving second-story shrine room. From the 6th century CE, Gupta temples were built on a
platform (jagati) and a good example is the Dashavatara temple at Deogarh in Madhya
Pradesh. At Deogarh the platform had reliefs running around it depicting scenes from

141
the Ramayana epic poem. In the centre of the jagati stood the principal shrine, which was
without windows and accessed by a flight of steps on all four sides. Four lesser shrines stand
at each corner of the complex.

Typical of the period in general, Gupta temples were dedicated to a large number of Hindu
gods rather than a single deity. Accordingly, architectural sculpture represents a wide range
of gods in scenes from Hindu mythology. The doorway to the square sanctuary tower of the
Dashavatara temple is a fine example and carries sculpture of Vishnu, Brahma, Indra, Ganga,
and Yamuna, as well as attendants and mithuna couples. The temple also carries one of the
most famous sculptural panels from ancient India, the Vishnu Anantasayana panel. The scene
contains many gods but is dominated by a sleeping Vishnu who rests on the multi-headed
serpent Ananta and floats on the waters of oblivion whilst from his navel sprouts a lotus leaf
on which sits Brahma, the god of creation.

Bhitargaon

Bhitargaon
The temple at Bhitargaon in Uttar Pradesh is one of the most complete surviving Gupta
temples. It is a rare early example of a Hindu temple constructed entirely of brick, dating to
the late 5th century CE. Although damaged in its upper portion, the four-sided and
curved shikhara tower of the temple maintains its gavaksha niches and shallow pilasters
which diminish in size as the tower rises to a pinnacle. These and the decorated capitals
create frames in which were once set terracotta panels.

Few panels survive intact but examples from other sites demonstrate that they would have
once shown lively scenes from mythology, in particular figures of river goddesses. Panels
still in their original position in the upper tiers of the tower display grotesque faces which
remind of the gargoyles of European Gothic cathedrals.
The Borobudur monument combines the symbolic forms of the stupa (a Buddhist
commemorative moundusually containing holy relics), temple mountain (based on

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Mount Meru of Hindu mythology), and the mandala (a mystic Buddhist symbol
of the universe, combining the square as earth and sky.)

The Mound and Ruins of the Square Plan stone temple, (5x5)
Dah – Parbatia
DISTRICT:Sonitpur
LOCALITY: Tezpur (Lat. 26° 37' N; Long. 92°47' E)
APPROACH: Airport: Salani (Tezpur);
Railway Station :Tezpur.Bus Station :Tezpur.

The site is famous for magnificent doorframe of the highest architectural merit.
The remains are ascribed to an ancient temple of brick and stone masonry
oriented in east-west direction. The temple was designed on the principle
of square. The garbhagriha is of square plan (5.10 x 5.10m) as well as the mandapa
(7.90 x7.90m.).

The most noteworthy feature of the temple is its doorframe, the stylistic features show a close
affinity with the art tradition of the Gupta rulers and the doorframe accordingly may be placed
around circa 6th century CE. The jambs and lintel of the doorframe are profusely carved. The five
vertical bands begin with the jambs and carried up to the lintel. Beautifully carved river
goddesses Ganga and Yamuna respectively occupy the right and left doorjambs. The figures are
shown in gently slanting posture with garlands in their hands. The doorframe is also decorated
with scroll designs. The long tails of two nagis carved from the doorjambs are shown holding by
a figure of Garuda, depicted at the middle of the lintel. The lintel contains five chaitya windows
and contains three figures viz. Lakulisa, Krisna and Surya.

Fig 1: Door frame 2: Stone temple Da Parbatia is a small village very close to
west Tezpur, in the Indian State of Assam. In the village there are significant architectural
remnants of an ancient temple of the 6th century overlying the ruins of another Shiva temple
built of bricks during the Ahom period. Archaeological excavations done here in 1924 have
unearthed a sixth-century antiquity in the form of a stone door frame with extensive

143
carvings. The ruins of the temple built during the Ahom period are built over the ancient
temple's foundations and are in the form of a stone paved layout plan of the sanctum
sanctorum and a mandapa. This complex is under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological
Survey of India and its importance and notability is recorded under the Ancient Monuments
and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958.
The Dah Parvatiya village, located to the west of Tezpur, was subject to archaeological
excavations by the Archaeological Survey of India in 1924, and also during 1989–90. The
excavations of many mounds have revealed structural features built of brick and stone; these
are in various stages of decay. The excavations revealed many terracotta plaques in which
human figures were shown in a sitting position.

144
The antiquities found at the Dah Parvatiya are inferred to have been from a temple
complex built during the 5th or 6th century, prior to the Bhaskaravarman period. On the basis
of the mouldings and its architectural style it is inferred that the terracotta plaques are
definitely not later than the 6th century; the altered form of motifs noted in Assam confirms
this assessment. This type of architectural feature, particularly in the stylistics of figurines of
the ruins, is seen in North India, in the temples of the Bhumra and Nachha Kuthara which
belonged to the Gupta period. Further confirmation of the dating is provided by the carvings
of the river Goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, which are also akin to the Greek architecture with
striking similarity to the Hellenistic art. The decorative elements of the ruins also have close
similarity with those seen in the temples of Orissa.

145
During the Ahom period, a Shiva temple was built with bricks over the ruins of an ancient
Gupta period temple. When the Ahom period temple was destroyed during the Assam
Earthquake of 1897, the remains of Gupta period temple were exposed but only in the form
of a door frame made of stone.[3] Epigraphic evidence and ancient literature found here,
supplemented by the ruins seen scattered around the area, also confirms that in the pre-Ahom
period Gupta art extended into the early Medieval period.
Features: The excavated foundation of the temple of the Gupta period revealed the base of
the garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) in a roughly square form measuring 8.925 feet
(2.720 m) x 8.33 feet (2.54 m),[3][8] which is enclosed by a circumambulatory passage leading
to a colonnaded hall of rectangular shape, which is interpreted as a mantapa or outdoor
pavilion. To the east of the mantapa is a mukhamantapa (front hall), which is of smaller size.
In the open space of the garbhagriha there is a "stone kunda" or Vedi (altar) of 2.418 feet
(0.737 m) x 2.66 feet (0.81 m) size with a depth of 5 inches (130 mm). It is also inferred from
the exposed ruins that the original temple was built of bricks (of size 15 inches (380 mm) x
11.5 inches (290 mm) x 2.5 feet (0.76 m)) which were in use in the 5th century, with door
frames and sill made of stone.]
The door frame made of stone, which stands in front of a large block of stone with a square
cavity that held the original linga, is the most important find here that has carvings which
attest to the Gupta period art form. [1] [8] The architectural depictions on this door frame are
akin to the Gupta architectural features in Northern India, deciphered in the archaeological
excavations done by Sir John Marshall.[3]
Doorjambs
The door jambs or posts (the vertical part of the door frame), which measure 5.25 feet
(1.60 m) in height and 1.25 feet (0.38 m) in width, have high relief carvings in their lower
parts while the upper parts have four vertical bands or strips carved in different patterns.
[1]
The human figures carved at the base of the door posts are of the river
goddesses Ganga and Yamuna,[9] which belong to the Gupta period art traditions, and also
depict carvings of flying geese. This architectural depiction is stated to be the "finest and
oldest specimen of sculptural art in Assam".The goddesses carved in an elegant standing
posture are shown with divine halos over their heads with each figure holding a garland in its
hands. This type of depiction of goddesses on the door frames was prevalent in the medieval
temples. Many smaller figurines are also carved as if in attendance to the main goddess. On
the right door post, there are two female attendants, one is in a standing posture holding up
a chamara or an umbrella while the second attendant is shown on bent knees and holding a
flat tray filled with flowers. The carvings on the right door post are better preserved than
those on the left. On the left door post, the two figurines standing in attendance flanking the
goddess are not distinct. Here, there is also a carving of a naga in a kneeling posture carved to
the right of the halo of the goddess; to the left of this depiction there are carvings of two
geese.[3]
Vertical bands
The vertical strips in each of the upper part of the door posts extend up to the lintel. The first
strip, starting from the head of the naga or the nagi, is carved in the wavy pattern of a creeper
and is filled with decorations of leaves pattern. The second band is like a lotus stem, out of
which lotus leaves and different flowers emerge; the stem is supported at the base by two
pygmy shaped figures. The third strip has embossed panels of human figures fronting
ornamental leaves. This band is crowned by a vase with drooping decorative foliage. The
vase is also decorated with a square shaped pilaster that terminates in a capital, which has

146
a cruciform. The capital has carvings of a gana (attendant of Shiva).
Decorative rosettees form the fourth strip.
Lintel
The lintel spanning over the door posts is 3.75 feet (1.14 m) in length and 1.25 feet (0.38 m)
in breadth. The lintel is larger in size than the door-frame, extending a little on each side of
the jambs. It is richly decorated with architectural carvings which are placed in a symmetrical
form, similar to the architectural features seen in the fifth and sixth century temples
in Pataliputra and Benares. Five Chaitya-windows (horse-shoe shaped) are carved in the front
face of the lintel – three large and two small – with the figurine of a male with four arms
carved in the extreme right window seated on a throne; two of its arms are damaged while
one arm is seen holding Shiva's damaru. At the base of this throne there is a carving in the
form of sea waves. The central window has a Shiva carving known as "Lakulisa", meaning
Lord with the staff, a rope tied to its leg and is flanked by two mythical deities, called
"suparna", anthropomorphic figures of a bird and man. Also seen in this window are two
females figures. In another window is a depiction of man playing the flute, and with a hooded
snake feature above his head. The window to the extreme right has carving of Surya, the Sun
god, in a cross-legged posture holding a lotus flower. Two attendants are seen next to this
figure, one is offering betel leaves (pan) while holding an ink pot in the other hand, and the
second attendant is carrying a stick.
Curvilinear Roof Temples with a Square plan
How do those desiring liberation make a temple for you, O God? 25
And what is the rule for the protectors of the mūrti of the ācārya? And [what is] the regulation for a
sacrifice to the vāstu? And [what is] the rule for the giving of arghya? 26
What is the regulation for the placing of the stones? As well as [what is] the [regulation for] the
preparation of the sacred ground etc.? And [what is] the rule for the temple? And [what is] the rule
for the image? 27
[What is the rule with regards to] the entire fivefold temple? Thus also, what is the method of erecting
the flag-staff? And whatever else that would be additional to the temples that [too I] asked about, O
Sureśvara. 28
(Hayaśīrṣa Pañcrātra, 1.25cd-28)
At the end of the first chapter of a text called the Hayaśīrṣa Pañcarātra, the god Brahmā asks
Viṣṇu the questions quoted above. These questions are then answered in the rest of the work.

The fundamental of the curved architectural design is based on blending the architecture with
the surrounding environment. Architects and engineers have been inspired the curved forms s
uch as arch; vault and dome from nature, where they have been use it in their designs to creat
e large spans. The architects developed the curved forms by integrated the curved forms to cr
eate unique form and to pass larger spans than previous, where the “curvilinear” term has bee
n launched to describe these forms. But professionals have already faced a challenge in the co
nstruction of the curvilinear forms, because of the difficulty of implementing them. Architect
s have been used the curvilinear forms by different materials, strategies, styles, and other dive
rsities, which give each architect his/her own features. 1

147
The temples with curvilinear roof (shikhara) appeared towards the 8th century (e.g. the brick
sanctuary of Lakshmana in Sarpur (Rajasthan) and the temples of Papanatha and
Jambulinga).________________________Valuation of curvilinear structural systems used by Zaha Hadid’s architecture,
Rasha Tarboush, Ayten Akçay 2019
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/336799616_Evaluation_of_curvilinear_structural_systems_used_by_Z
aha_Hadid's_architecture

The Lakshmana temple (Mahasamund district, state of Chhattisgarh, India), a 7th-century

brick temple, mostly damaged and ruined. Except for the sanctum (garbhagriha) and the
tower, much it is in ruins.The Papanatha temple is located in the Pattadakal complex of 7th
and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). This temple in
particular has been dated towards mid 8th-century. The temple is noted for its novel mixture
of Dravida, and Nagara, Hindu temple styles . Like the other temples, the Papanatha temple
faces east towards the sunrise.Also located in the Pattadakal monument complex, is the small
temple of Jambulinga or Jambulingeshwara, probably completed between mid 7th and early
8th century. The temple was built around a square garbhagriha. This temple also faces east,
greeting the sunrise.

Curvilinear forms of architecture have vital influence on environment-bahaviour in terms of

promoting communication, encouraging movement, lifting the spirit, aiding orientation,
changing perception, enhancing social experience, increasing pleasure,
supporting the sense of community, relieving sense of distance and dissolving social
boundaries.2

148
Shikhara, (Sanskrit: “mountain peak”) also spelled shikara, also called shikar, in North Indian
temple architecture, the superstructure, tower, or spire above the sanctuary and also above the
pillared mandapas (porches or halls); it is the most dominant and characteristic feature of the
Hindu temple in the north. Why are Hindu temples shaped mountains?

Many of them are shaped like mountains because the main deity image, and this varies with
each temple and scholars such as Lewandowski state that this shape is inspired by cosmic
mountain of Mount Meru or Himalayan Kailasa, the abode of gods according to its ancient
mythology.
___________________________________________________________________________
2. 1st National Conference on Environment-Behaviour Studies, Faculty of Architecture,
Planning & Surveying, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia, 14-15
November 2009 The Influence of Curvilinear Architectural Forms on Environment-
Behaviour Faridah Adnan* and Rodzyah Mohd Yunus
https://pdf.sciencedirectassets.com/277811/1-s2.0-

Brahmanism

Nearly three decades ago, Peter Van der Veer and Steven Vertovec (1991:164) concluded
their precursory article on Brahmanism overseas by arguing that “the anthropology of
Hinduism [could] no longer be exclusively tied to the anthropology of India” due to the
“constant flow of persons, goods, and information between India and the rest of the world
which now makes Hinduism transnational.” Here one may note that Brahmins first
established themselves as ‘ numero Unos’ of Hinduism providing religious guidance and
interpretations and advice to the regants and then became well established in the temple
building activity of the Hindu Kings. Hence, to ignore their role in temple design is to cast a
death knell to study of the Hindu temple evolution.

From the beginning of the ninth century, the use of these curvilinear roofs extended to
the northern kingdoms, where its use was perpetuated until the contemporary era, at the same
time that it diversified following regional styles. Within these temples with curvilinear roofs,
six main styles can be discerned. In first place we must mention the two most beautiful, not
only for their aesthetic value, but because their study can be done following a continuous
progression from the 9th to the 14th century thanks to a large number of examples grouped in
the same place; the style of Odisha (from northeastern India) under the Somavarpśí and
Gangâ dynasties, represented by the holy city of Bhubaneswar (end of the 9th century to the
middle of the 13th) and the neighboring sanctuaries: the temples of Surya in Konark (mid-
13th century) ) and Jagannatha in Puri (early 12th century, although modified until the
contemporary era).

149
In the article From 'Brahmanism' to 'Hinduism': Negotiating the Myth of the Great
Tradition-Social ScientistVol. 29, No. 3/4 (Mar. - Apr., 2001), pp. 19-50 (32 pages) author Vijay
Nath argues that assimilation to a different culture typically the dominant one occurred due to
agrarian expansion just before and during the Gupta Period in India’s history typically from
the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE and this process of acculturation ihad an
impact both social and psychological well-being.

The current structure of the Mahabodhi Temple dates to the Gupta era, 5th century CE. Marking the
location where the Buddha is said to have attained enlightenment./RIGHT Dashavatara Temple is a
Vishnu Hindu temple built during the Gupta period. EXTREME RIGHT A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta
period temple at Sanchi besides the Apsidal hall with Maurya foundation, an example of Buddhist
architecture. 5th century CE.

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all the major
religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are
almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity
in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a
very large scale. The two great centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the
centre of Greco-Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.
The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves
at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including Jain)
were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the monumentality and
balance of Guptan style. Ajanta contains by far the most significant survivals of painting

150
from this and the surrounding periods, showing a mature form which had probably had a long
development, mainly in painting palaces. The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record
connections with the dynasty and its ministers,[ and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a
major temple, one of the earliest to survive, with important sculpture.

The Temple of Surya (Sun God) in Konark (about 35 km northeast from Puri on the
coastline of Odisha, India) from the 13th-century CE. The remains of the temple complex
have the appearance of a (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all carved
from stone. Once over 61 m high, much of the temple is now in ruins, in particular the large
shikhara tower over the sanctuary.The Jagannatha Temple of Puri (Puri, state of Odisha,
eastern coast of India) is dedicated to Lord Jagannatha, a form of lord Vishnu. This temple is
an important pilgrimage destination. The present temple was rebuilt from the 10th century
onwards, on the site of an earlier temple.

The other style of an even more refined aesthetic quality is the style of Bundelkhand (from
central India) developed under the Chandela dynasty, whose religious capital, Khajuraho, was
one of the most prestigious in medieval India (9th century to the beginning of the 14th
century). The other four styles are divided between Rajputana (the present-day Indian
state of Rajasthan, as well as parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat) and central India, where,
since the 11th century, the Muslim invasion interrupted (as happened in Gwalior) the
development of the Hindu religious architecture; and finally, the Deccan, where this type of
curvilinear roofs persisted from the 11th to the 13th century.

Despite the diversity of regional styles, it is possible to sketch the general evolution of these
temples with curvilinear roofs and, at least, to highlight their essential characteristics,
studying first their floor plans and second the shape and arrangement of their roofs.
Regarding the floor plan, it should be noted first that, in the ancient phase (7th to 9th
centuries), the temple with shikhara is only composed of the sanctuary (garbhagriha)
preceded by a portico and crowned by the curvilinear roof. Then, in the 9th to 10th centuries,
the sanctuary, the vestibule and the pavilion destined to the faithful were located one after the
other; this whole was enclosed within an enclosure with a door delimited by two large pillars
joined at the top by a decorated arch, thus forming a porch (torana). The most perfect
example of this type is the small temple of Mukteshvara in Bhubaneswar (Odisha) mainly
decorated with beautiful female sculptures. Here, the three elements of the temple are
crowned each by a different type of roof: a shikhara for the sanctuary, a lower pyramidal roof
with close and decreasing cornices for the vestibule, and an even lower, stepped roof for the
pavilion.

From the beginning of the 11th century and throughout the 12th this last type reaches its
peak. The three indispensable architectural elements of the Hindu cult are thus united in a
single sequence and with the passing of time supplementary rooms were attached to them,
arranged one after another on the same axis from East to West and forming a single block. Its
multiplication is a testimony to the prosperity of the Hindu sanctuaries of this era. The best
examples of this style are seen in Bhubaneswar and in Khajuraho. Above a high base -with a
molding- and decorated with low bas-reliefs, the floor plan of these temples often evokes
the cross of Lorraine*, with multiple arms. In general, this type of temple was accessed by a
wide staircase that led to a portico, then it was followed successively, and at the same level,
by a pre-vestibule (ardhamandapa*) and then a vestibule (mundiupa), illuminated by
windows overlooking the sides and provided with balconies. These elements were followed

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by a square hall called the great hall (mahimandapa* or juganbhana), whose roof was usually
pyramidal and which gave access through an intermediate small room (antarala) to the
sanctuary itself (garbhagriha). A corridor allowed the rite
of circumambulation* (pradaksiná*) around the hall and the sanctuary.

The temple thus became an imposing ensemble characterized by the roof types of unequal
heights, which were largely dominated by the shikhara of the sanctuary. The main bodies of
the different buildings were adorned externally with characters carved in very sharp relief,
cleverly arranged in registers or sheltered in more or less deep niches; their presence animate
the walls thanks to the dynamic play of shadows and lights, an almost exclusive characteristic
of this style and which also increases its artistic perfection.

The Vishvanatha Temple (Madhya Pradesh, India) is also located among the western group
of Khajuraho Monuments. The temple is dedicated to Shiva, who is also known as
“Vishvanatha”, meaning “Lord of the Universe”. The temple is believed to have been
commissioned by the Chandela king Dhanga, and was probably completed in 999 CE or 1002
CE. The Vishvanatha temple is characteristic of the Central Indian architectural style that
begins with Lakshmana Temple (c. 930–950 CE) and culminates with the Kandariya
Mahadeva Temple (c. 1030 CE). These three temples represent the most fully developed style
at Khajuraho. The Lakshmana Temple (Khajuraho monuments complex) was built in the
10th-century and dedicated to Vaikuntha Vishnu – an aspect of Vishnu. The entire temple
complex stands on a high platform (Jagati). The structure consists of all the elements of
Hindu temple architecture.

Hindu (or Brahmanical) Architecture varies in its three special styles. All three have the
small shrine-cell and preceding porches, the same excessive carving and sculpture, which are
impressive by this evident tribute of labour to the gods. The principal Brahmanical Temples,
like those of Egypt, show progressive additions of sanctuaries and inclosures, grouped around
or attached to the original shrine. Beyond this, the grandeur of their imposing mass produces
an impression of majestic beauty. The effect depends almost wholly on richness of surface
and outline, rather than on abstract beauty of form, and contrasts very strongly with Grecian
architecture. (a.) The Northern Brahman, in comparison with the Dravidian style, has a
curved pyramidal roof to the “vimana” instead of a storied one, and is without columns to the
preceding porch. (b.) The Chalukyan style is affected by its northern and southern rivals,
taking features from each without losing its special character. The starshaped plan and curved
pyramidal tower are in contrast with the storied towers of the Dravidian style. (c.) The
Dravidian

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The normal type of plan consists of the vimana or cell crowned with curved pyramidal
roof, and the porch without columns crowned with stepped roof in stories. Each façade has
rectangular projections in the centre, which increased in depth as the style developed, until
they formed the points of a square on plan. In addition to these two chambers, others were
added in more important examples. The large inclosures and gateways of the Dravidian style
are wanting. Orissa, on the east coast, contains a remarkable series of monuments dating from
A.D. 500-1200. The ancient city of Bhuvaneswar contains some hundreds of examples. The
best known is the Great Temple (A.D. 617-657), quoted as the finest in India. It is a four-
chambered example ; every stone on its facades is carved, the courses being deeply
rusticated. The principal vimana is crowned with the usual northern high curved pyramidal
roof with melon ornament and finial.

Other examples are at Kanaruc (No. 266e: see at right) (the Black Pagoda, ninth century), and
Puri (the four-chambered temple of Juganât, A.D. 1174), the latter being placed in a large
double inclosure surrounded by a wall 20 feet high.

In Dharwar, on the western coast, are examples in which pillars are employed, as the Temple
of Papanetha, a.d. 500, influenced by Dravidian architecture.

Important groups exist at Chandravati, in Rajputana (a.d. 600), Baroli (a.d. 750), and Udaipor
(a.d. 1060). At Khajuraho (a.d. 954-1000) is a group of thirty important temples, of which
that dedicated to Kandarya Mahadeo is the most important. It is a two-chambered example,
placed on a well-proportioned stylo- bate, with three rows of sculptured figures, half life-size,
nearly one thousand in number. The sikra is enriched by the addition of sculptured
representations of itself — a favourite Indian method.

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Modern monuments exist at Chittore, Gwalior, Kantonugger (a.d. 1704), and Amritzar (a.d.
1704), the sacred metropolis of the Sikhs.

Civil Architecture

Palaces, tombs, and ghats (landing places) abound. The ghats lining the great rivers, such as
the Ganges, are typical Indian features; they are used by the Hindus as bathing places, and
consist of long ranges of steps, stopped by kiosks and backed by buildings with ornamental
facades, used as shelters, or temples.

MOUNT MERU

What is Mt Meru representing According to Hindu and Buddhist cosmology?

Mount Meru, in Hindu mythology, a golden mountain that stands in the centre of the universe
and is the axis of the world. It is the abode of gods, and its foothills are the Himalayas, to the
south of which extends Bhāratavarṣa (“Land of the Sons of Bharata”), the ancient name for
India. The concept of a holy mountain surrounded by various circles was incorporated into
ancient Hindu temple architecture with a Shikhara (Śikhara) — a Sanskrit word translating
literally to "mountain peak." Early examples of this style can be found at the Harshat Mata
Temple and Harshnath Temple from the 8th century CE in Rajasthan, Western India. This
concept also continued outside India, such as in Bali, where temples feature Meru towers.
In Buddhist temples, the Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is the earliest example of the 5th-
to 6th-century depiction. Many other Buddhist temples took on this form, such as the Wat
Arun in Thailand and the Hsinbyume Pagoda in Myanmar.

This type architecturally translates the traditional theme of the divine residence: the Mount
Meru, the “axis of the World”, endowed with five peaks; a theme that was transmitted to the
countries of the South Seas (the countries of the Indochina Peninsula, Philippines and
Indonesia) where it gave rise to great constructions, among which the most notable is
undoubtedly the temple of Angkor Wat, in the Khmer empire (the predecessor state of
modern Cambodia, first half of the 12th century).

Mount Meru: The sacred five-peaked mountain of Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist cosmology and
is considered to be the center of all the physical, metaphysical and spiritual universes. Many
famous Hindu and similar Jain as well as Buddhist temples have been built as symbolic
representations of this mountain.

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 Shikara

View of the Angkor Wat (meaning “Capital Temple”) temple complex in Cambodia and one
of the largest religious monuments in the world, on a site measuring 162.6 hectares. It was
originally constructed as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire,
gradually transforming into a Buddhist temple towards the end of the 12th century. The
temple has become a symbol of Cambodia, appearing on its national flag, and it is the
country’s prime attraction for visitors.

Hsinbyume Pagoda in Mandalay, Myanmar, representing Mount Sumeru/

meru of Pura Ulun Danu Bratan is dedicated to Shiva and his consort Parvathi/ A
Buddhist prang in Wat Arun, Bangkok, representing Mount Sumeru

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 If we now study the shikhara itself, we can draw its evolution in its main lines. During the
ancient period (7th-9th centuries), it was composed of superimposed cornices that gave the
whole building a horizontally striated appearance that was accentuated in the course of its
evolution; in the angles they alternate, in a vertical superimposition, cornices adorned with
decorative windows (gavaksha*, in Tamil: kudu*) and with the flattened “pillow”
(amalaka*). Each face of the roof is vertically divided into three segments (triratka), of
which the one at the center, which forms a protrusion, always received a denser decoration
than the other two, and at its base there was sometimes a large kudu forming a pediment. As
examples of this type we can cite the temples of Pattadakal, in particular those of Jambulinga

and Papanatha (8th century)

This style was maintained until about the 9th-10th centuries, a time of transition during which
the shikhara becomes increasingly elevated and is heavily decorated (see the Mukteshvara
temple in Bhubaneswar, 10th century, see pictures above); the vertical segments on each side
of the roof changed from three to five (pancharatha*).

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The apogee of the shikhara occurred in the 11th and 12th centuries; it was characterized
simultaneously by its much more daring elevation and by the decorative use, on
the shikhara itself, of reduced towers (ańga shikhara), whose disposition was varied
according to the local types and centuries. However, it must be taken into account that
the shikhara without reduced towers was used at the same time and even became higher (e.g.
the temple of Parshvanatha in Khajuraho).

The Lingaraja Temple dedicated to Shiva, is one of the oldest temples in Bhubaneswar
(Odisha, India). To this day, the temple is the most prominent landmark of Bhubaneswar and
the largest temple in the city. The central tower of the temple is 55 m tall. The temple
represents the quintessence of the architectural tradition at Bhubaneswar. The temple
complex has 50 other shrines and is enclosed by a large compound wall.
The second category show an excess of the ańga where the shikhara are arranged on the
central projection of each face; first in few numbers (one, then two or three), and later
reaching up to four in the largest constructions with some smaller ańga shikhara framing
them at the base of the roof. Several temples of Khajuraho (mainly the Kandariya Mahadeva
temple) are the best examples of this category; the central shikhara is more slender than in
the preceding category and the ańga shikhara seem to climb, by their ascending progression,
towards the top of the main tower. This arrangement conferred a surprising dynamism to the
whole building.

The main shikhara of the Kandariya Mahadeva temple with its 84 mini spires.
The third category, from the 12th century onwards, used the reduction of structures in a more
systematic way, filling with their silhouettes, regularly aligned in several overlapping
registers, the intervals between the protrusions of each face (e.g. the temple of
Nilakhapteśvara in Udaypur, Gwâlior).

Although during medieval times the temple with shikhara was widespread throughout
Northern India, other architectural types also existed. The most notable example is perhaps
the Vimala temple on Mount Abu (Rajasthan), one of the oldest and most complete examples
of the Jain* architecture.

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The “dome” at the Vimala Vasahi Temple.The central “domed” room surrounded by the
hypostyle cloister of the Vimala Vasahi temple.

The Vimala Vasahi temple of mount Abu (Abu town),

southwestern Rajasthan state, India), built in marble about 1031.
With a cruciform floor plan, it was built in 1031 in white marble over an equally cruciform
platform. The central body, surmounted by a false dome, is surrounded by a hypostyle
cloister with domes.

An example of the decorative elements at the interior of the Vimali Vasahi temple.
The center is octagonal and rests on eight pillars joined together by jagged arches (which can
be also seen elsewhere, especially in the temple of Surya in Modhera, State of Barod, from

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the 11th century, and which may have been influenced by the Indo-Muslim architecture); a
circular dome with a central pinjabe and with rays in the form of characters unfolds under the
tower.

Although the external appearance of this building is relatively simple, the heavy use of
sculptures on the pillars, arches and roofs is excessive, and illustrates however a typically
medieval style, whose taste for over-decoration is also seen in certain southern styles.

Amalaka: A segmented or notched stone disk, usually with ridges on the rim, that sits on the
top of a Hindu temple’s shikhara or main tower. The amalaka either represent a lotus, and
thus the symbolic seat for the deity below, or the sun, and is thus the gateway to the heavenly
world. Other interpretations relate that the shape of the amalaka has been inspired by the fruit
of Phyllanthus emblica, the Indian gooseberry, or myrobolan fig tree.This is
called āmalaki in Sanscrit, and the fruit has a slightly segmented shape, though it is much less
marked than in the architectural shape. The amalaka itself is crowned with a kalasam or
finial, from which a temple banner is often hung.

Ardhamandapa: (meaning “half-open hall”). In a Hindu temple architecture, a passage in

front of the Garbhagriha (sanctum sanctorum) whose proportions are relative to those of
the Garbhagriha itself. Apart from being used as a passage it is also used to keep the articles
of worship including food offerings on special occasions.

Circumambulation: (from the Latin circum meaning “around” and ambulātus meaning “to
walk”). Refers to the act of moving around a sacred object or idol. Circumambulation of
temples or deity images is an integral part of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known
in Sanskrit as pradakśina or pradakshinaṇā). It is also present in other religions, including
Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

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Cross of Lorraine: A heraldic two-barred cross, consisting of a vertical line crossed by two
shorter horizontal bars. In most renditions, the horizontal bars are “graded” with the upper bar
being the shorter, though variations with the bars of equal length are also seen.

Gavaksha: (from the Sanskrit meaning “bull’s or cow’s eye”). (Also known as kudu in
Tamil). In Indian architecture, is a term used to describe the motif centered on an ogee,
circular or horseshoe arch that decorates many examples of Indian rock-cut architecture and
later Indian structural temples and other buildings. In its original form, the arch is shaped like
the cross-section of a barrel vault. In Hindu temples, their role is envisioned as symbolically
radiating the light and splendor of the central icon in its sanctum. Alternatively, they are
described as providing a window for the deity to gaze out into the world.

Jain architecture: (Or Jain temple). The place of worship for Jains, the followers
of Jainism, an ancient Indian religion in which the devotees see a path of victory in crossing
over life’s stream of rebirths through an ethical and spiritual life. The word is generally used
in South India. Its historical use in North India is preserved in the Vimala Vasahi and Luna
Vasahi temples of Mount Abu.

Mahimandapa: (Mahi or Maha, meaning “big”). In Hindu temple architecture, when a

temple has several Mandapas, Mahimandapa refers to the biggest and the tallest of them all.
It is used for conducting religious discourses.

Pancharatha: (From Snaskrit Pancha meaning “five” and Ratha meaning “Chariot”).
A Hindu temple is referred to a Pancharatha when there are five rathas (on plan) or pagas
(on elevation) on the tower of the temple (generally a shikhara). The rathas are vertical offset
projection or facets. There are also temples with three rathas (triratha), seven rathas
(saptaratha) and nine rathas (navaratha).

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Pradakśina: The act of circumambulation in the Hindu devotional practice. It refers to the
marching round the temple towards the right hand, which is done three times.

The presence of God, according to Burckhardt, in, Sacred Art in East and West: its
Principles and Methods, ( translated [from the French] by Lord Northbourne. Middlesex,
Eng. Perennial Books, 1967:17).is expressed in the design of the temple by emphasizing
cardinal directions, proportions and symmetry. The design represents the world. By the
architectural construction, the movement within the universe is rendered by a (relatively)
permanent form. The South Asian temple, through its square form, has been understood to
symbolize the completed world (as opposed to the circular form, which represents the world
driven onward by cosmic movement).3 Indeed the square is perhaps the most basic form for
architectural construction. From the square, the grid is easily developed. Though the grid is
arguably a cumbersome tool13, it has been used throughout history in multiple cultures to
plan the layout of buildings and cities, and it is still used today.3

___________________________________________________________________________________________________

3 Stella Kramrisch, The Hindu Temple, Motilal Banarasidass Publ., Delhi,

1946/2007:21-22.

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 Chapter 12
Religious Cosmology of the Gupta Period
DR UDAY DOKRAS

This period is called the “Golden age of India” or the “Classical Age of India” partially due
to the unprecedented activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting
and literature.
During Gupta Era, the rock cut architecture reached its zenith and this era marked
the beginning of the Free Standing temple Architecture. Most of the temples built in the
Gupta era were carved with representation of Gods (mainly avatara of Vishnu and Lingams)
and Goddesses. The most important temple of Gupta era is Dasavatar Temple of Deogarh,
Uttar Pradesh.

Following is a brief description of the temples & Stupas of the Gupta Era:
Dasavatara temple, Deogarh Uttar Pradesh
Dasavatara temple is located in Deogarh Village in Lalitpur town in Uttar Pradesh. The
temple was discovered by Captain Charles Strahan and was named so by Alexander
Cunningham. It depicts the 10 avatara of Vishnu. It is a large and elaborate edifice with
typical temple art of Guptas (without Shikhara) and cubical Garbhagriha. This temple has
also been linked to the “Sarvatobhadra temple” mentioned in the Vishnudharmottara
Purana by several scholars.
Bhitargaon Temple
Bhitagaon Temple is located in Kanpur District of Uttar Pradesh. It is the oldest remaining
Hindu temple, and was built in the Gupta Era in 6th century.
Dhamekha Stupa
The Dhamekha stupa is located at Sarnath, 13 km away from Varanasi. It marks the deer park
or Rishipattana where Buddha gave his first sermon. As per an inscription dated 1026 AD,
recovered from the site, its older name is Dharmachakra Stupa. Archeologist, Alexander
Cunningham in search of a relic casket bored a vertical shaft through it center down to the
foundation and at a depth of around 91 centimeter he found a slab with an inscription …..Ye
Dharma Hetu Prabhava Hetu…..written in Brahmi script. This inscription is of 6th or 7th
century. Below this, one more stupa made of mauryan bricks has been found which gives in
indication that Asoka might have commissioned it.

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 Salient features of the Gupta Temples:
In Gupta period, the basic, characteristic elements of the Indian temple consisting of
a square sanctum sanctorum and a pillared porch had emerged.
 The Shikhara was not much prominent in the early Gupta temples but was prominent
in later Gupta era. There was a single entrance or mandapa or Porch.
 Gupta style temple was modeled on the architectural norms of the Mathura school.
 Some Other Notes about Gupta Temples
 Sanchi temple at Tigwa has a flat roof.
 Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh , Bhitargaon temple and Mahadev Temple at Nachna
Kuthar have a square tower of Shikhara.
 Manyar Math at Rajgriha is a circular temple of Gupta Era.
 Main style of temple architecture in i.e. Nagara style and Dravida style actually began
from the Gupta era.
 The earliest stone temple with Shikhara is Dasavatar Temple at Deogarh.
 The Bhitargaon temple at Kanpur is entirely made up of Bricks.

Dashavatara Temple
Dashavatara Temple is an early 6th century Vishnu Hindu temple located at Deogarh, Uttar
Pradesh which is 125 kilometers from Jhansi, in the Betwa River valley in northern-
central India. Date
The Dashavatara temple is generally dated between late 5th-century and early 6th-century, or
about 500 CE. Benjamín Preciado-Solís, a professor of Indian History specializing in Hindu
and Buddhist iconography, dates it to the 5th-century. [21] According to George Michell, an art
historian and a professor specializing in Hindu Architecture, it is unclear when exactly the
Dashavatara temple was built but its style suggests the sixth century. [4] Michael Meister,
another art historian and professor of Indian temple architecture, dates the temple to between
500 and 525 CE.

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Sanctum door reliefs./1980 sketch of 9-squared Dashavatara temple plan (not to scale, some
parts not shown)

It has a simple, one cell square plan and is one of the earliest Hindu stone temples still
surviving today. Built in the Gupta Period, the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh shows the
ornate Gupta style architecture. The Hindu treatise Vishnudharmottara Purana describes
several temples including a "Sarvatobhadra temple", which has been compared by
archaeologists and Indologists with the Dashavatara Temple (Vishnu temple) or the Gupta
Mandir of Deogarh. According to Lubotsky, a comparative study suggests that the ideal
temple design and iconography described in the treatise as "Sarvatobhadra temple" was the
same as the Vishnu temple of Deogarh.] This conclusion was based on plan, size,
iconography and several other norms described for building the Sarvatobhadra style Hindu
temples. Based on this comparison, the structural details of the Deogarh temple have been
inferred. Maps have also been drawn of the temple structure. The probable date of the
temple's construction has been estimated to be between 425 and 525.
The Sarvatobhadra design requires a superstructure with nine sikharas. The Dasavatara
temple at Deogarh shows only one "shikara", and right squares with no remnant structure.
Lubotsky acknowledges that this aspect of the Sarvatobhadra design cannot be fully
established by existing evidence. However, the supporting features of copings and amalakas
(a bulbous stone finial) have been found in the ruins, which supports the theory that more
shikaras existed on eight mandapas, as part of the temple
Four stairways outside the platform provide access to the temple. However, as per excavation
details, combined with the two small shrines with the central shrine seen now, the layout of
the temple has been interpreted to represent a typical Panchayatana style of the temples of
North India.[19] The total height of the shrine based on isometric projections is about 45 feet

164
(14 m).[43] Provision of porches has not been corroborated but some analogous comparison
with the Varaha temple (boar incarnation of Vishnu) in the fort precincts, which belonged to
the same period, suggests the existence of porticoes even in the Vishnu temple. Further, a
later date Kuriya Bira temple about 2 miles (3.2 km) to the south of the Vishnu temple, has
been cited to substantiate that this temple had a mandapa around a small shikara shrine, as
required in the Sarvatobhadra design.
According to Lubotsky, the Deogarh temple tallied with the description provided for the
Sarvatobhadra temple in the ancient treatise of Vishnudharmottara Purana.
The Vishnu temple's uniqueness has been expressed succinctly by archaeologist Percy
Brown, in these words:
When complete, this building was unquestionably one of rare merit in the correct ordering of
its parts, all alike serving the purpose of practical utility, yet imbued with supreme artistic
feeling. Few monuments can show such a high level of workmanship, combined with a
ripeness and rich refinement in its sculptural effect as the Gupta temple at Deogarh.

The temple at Deogarh is dedicated to Vishnu but includes in its small footprint images of
various deities such as Shiva, Parvati, Kartikeya, Brahma, Indra, River
goddesses Ganga and Yamuna, as well as a panel showing the five Pandavas of the Hindu
epic Mahabharata. The Temple was built out of stone and masonry brick. [8] Legends
associated with Vishnu are sculpted in the interior and exterior walls of the temple. Also
carved are secular scenes and amorous couples in various stages of courtship and intimacy.
According to Alexander Lubotsky, this temple was built according to the third khanda of the
Hindu text Vishnudharmottara Purana, which describes the design and architecture of
the Sarvatobhadra-style temple, thus providing a floruit for the text and likely temple
tradition that existed in ancient India.Though ruined, the temple is preserved in a good
enough condition to be a key temple in the Hindu temple architecture scholarship,
particularly the roots of the North Indian style of temple design.
The Dashavatara temple is locally known as Sagar marh, which literally means "the temple
on the tank", a name it gets from the square water pool cut into the rock in front
The temple site is in Deogarh, also spelled Devgarh (Sanskrit: "fort of gods" [13]), in the Betwa
River valley at the border of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. It is an ancient Hindu
temple below the Deogarh hill, towards the river, about 500 metres (1,600 ft) from a group of
three dozen Jain temples with dharmashala built a few centuries later, and the Deogarh
Karnali fort built in early 13th-century.
The Dashavatara temple is about 30 kilometres (19 mi) from Lalitpur town in Uttar Pradesh,
220 kilometres (140 mi) west of Khajuraho, 250 kilometres (160 mi) south of Gwalior, 230
kilometres (140 mi) northeast of Bhopal, and about 400 kilometres (250 mi) southwest
of Kanpur. The nearest railway station is located in Lalitpur, while the closest major airport
with daily services is Khajuraho (IATA: HJR) and Bhopal (IATA: DBH)
The site is on the western edge of the Lalitpur range, with rocky Betwa river rapids about 500
metres (1,600 ft) away, amidst a forest. The British India era archaeologist Alexander
Cunningham visited this site in 1875 and called the general location as "singularly
picturesque". The fort has several Jain temples, and the Dashavatara temple is solitary Hindu
monument midway between the fort and the Deogarh village.

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Dashavatara Temple on its jagati.// Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha

Deogarh is an ancient site. Numerous inscriptions in different languages and scripts have
been found here, as have a series of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist monuments. These suggest that
it was once a significant human settlement, likely a location on an imperial trade route that
brought people from different linguistic backgrounds to it. According to Madho Vats,
Deogarh nestled within picturesque hills in north, west and south along with its abundant
waters was conveniently located between the major ancient economic centers such
as Pataliputra (Patna), Kashi (Varanasi), Sanchi, Udayagiri, Ujjain, Bhilsa and Bagh.
[12]
Cunningham in 1875, noted that the inscriptions he found in Deogarh during his tour were
in Gupta script and few others he could not decipher. The ones his team was able to read
were Hindu Sanskrit inscriptions that started with phrases such as "Om! namah Shivaya!
(...)", and the samvat dates included within the inscriptions meant that the various inscriptions
ranged from 808 CE to 1164 CE, none before the 8th-century or after the 13th-century.
[14]
Cunningham reported about the colossal statues of Tirthankaras in the Jain temples site
and then added an extensive report on the solitary Hindu Deogarh temple which he called the
"Gupta Temple". the very end of his report, he remarked that the architectural style and
themes displayed in the Dashavatara temple suggest that the temple must have been built
before 700 CE, with his guess being 600 to 700 CE.
Before Cunningham's 1875 report, the temple was visited by Charles Strahan around 1871,
who found it midst the jungle growth. Strahan shared his enthusiasm about the temple with
Cunningham as follows:
The jungle is heaviest in the immediate neighborhood of Deogarh, where the Betwa is
overlooked on either bank by rocky cliffs once sacred to Hindu shrines, whose ruins display
the utmost profusion of the art of sculpture, but which now hardly overtop the surrounding
trees. One temple of great magnificence, with a broad paved causeway leading from the foot
of the hill on which it stands, along the face of the rocks, is of great archaeological interest,
some of the sculptures being well preserved.

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– Charles Strahan

In 1899, P.C. Mukerji surveyed the site more comprehensively on the behalf of
Archaeological Survey of India. He noticed the profusion of Vishnu imagery in the reliefs
and accepted the local oral tradition that claimed that the ten avatars of Vishnu were carved
on the temple but are now missing. In his report, he called it the Dashavatara temple and
mentioned the local Sagar Marh name for the temple.
In the decades following the Mukerji's report, excavations in the Deogarh region in early
20th-century such as those by Daya Ram Sahni yielded evidence of more Hindu shrines as
well inscriptions, Jain temples and Buddhist monuments. These include the Naharghati
inscriptions, a monastic cave and the inscribed relief of Saptamatrikas (seven
mothers, Shaktism). In 1918, Sahini also found panels from the temple buried near the
foundation and used by someone to build a wall nearby. These panels narrated scenes from
the Hindu epic Ramayana.[16] According to Bruhn, the Deogarh Naharghati inscriptions, cave
and sculptures are all Hindu monuments and one of richest archaeological findings in
Deogarh area, and they include Gupta era art, several early and late Nagari script inscriptions,
an early Mahishasura-mardini Durga relief, Shiva lingas and various Hindu statues.
In early 20th-century, the missing ten avatars that Sahni knew about but no one else had seen
proof of, led to a debate whether the temple should be called Dashavatara temple or
something else. However, the excavations and subsequent study of reliefs from the Deogarh
temple site by scholars such as Vats yielded the evidence of reliefs
showing Krishna, Narasimha, Vamana, Buddha, Rama, and others. Thereafter the temple has
generally been known as the Dashavatara temple of Deogarh. According to Vats, the
evidence suggests that a large number of reliefs that existed in late 19th century went missing
in the first few decades of the 20th century. Much of the Dashavatara temple, along with Jain
temples nearby, are in ruins and shows signs of damage.
Archaeologists have inferred that it is the earliest known Panchayatana temple in North
India. It was subsequently renamed by Cunningham as Dashavatara Mandir or Dashavatara
Temple (because the temple depicts ten incarnations of Vishnu), and also as Sagar
Marh (meaning: the temple by the well).
The Dashavatara temple has a high plinth (jagati) and is set with a basement porch. The
temple provides steps in the center of all sides of the platform to let the pilgrim enter the
temple from all four directions.
The temple faces west, with slight deviation to the south that enables the setting sun's rays to
fall on the main idol in the temple. The plinth is square with a 55.5 feet (16.9 m) side, about 9
feet (2.7 m) above the bottom step (called the moon stone) of the shrine. Each corner of the
platform has an 11 feet (3.4 m) square projection with remnants of a shrine. The plinth was
molded in four parallel courses, each molding about 0.95 feet (0.29 m) thick. Above the four
moldings, rectangular panels separated by pilasters ran all along the plinth wi Some of these
friezes are now in museums such as the National Museum in Delhi. These show, for example,
the narratives from the Krishna legend.
On the platform is a nine squares layout. The surviving Vishnu temple is in the middle
square. The sanctum is a square with 18.5 feet (5.6 m) side. Its doorway is intricately carved
with reliefs. The images on the top of the lintel of the sanctum and walls show Vishnu
and Lakshmi, flanked by Shiva, Parvati, Indra, Kartikeya, Ganesha, Brahma and others. The

167
outer wall of the sanctum on three sides have niches with sculptures of Vishnu
legends: Gajendra-moksha flying in with Garuda, Nara-Narayana seated
in lalitasana position, and Anantasayi Vishnu in reclining position.
On the top of the sanctum is the remnants of sikhara of the Dashavatara temple. According to
Vats, this sikhara is one of the earliest extant lithic illustration in North India along with the
one in Mundeshvari temple in Bihar. The Deogarh temple is built on a square plan, while the
Mundeshvari temple is built on an octagonal plan The Deogarh temple sikhara was pyramidal
of receding tiers (tala), with a straight edge.
The Dashavatara Temple is closely related to the iconic architectural temple structure
described in the Vishnudharmottara Purana, and can be interpreted as an architectural
representation of the Chaturvyuha concept and the Pancaratra doctrine, centering on the
depictions of the four main emanations
of Vishnu: Vāsudeva, Samkarshana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha.
Sculptures

Left: Sheshashayi Vishnu reclining on the serpent-bed of Shesha. Right: Vishnu in sitting
posture under the serpent's hood

Sculpted panels are seen on the terraced basement, with carved figurines of river goddesses
Ganga and Yamuna flanking the doorway to the sanctum sanctorum, standing respectively on
their vahanas: crocodile and tortoise The panels of the stone door have intricate carvings
showing amorous couples in different stages of courtship and intimacy. On the facade are two
males standing, one holding a flower and the other a garland as if greeting the visitor.
The relief on the doorway lintel of the sanctum shows Vishnu. He is four-armed, holds his
iconic conch shell in his rear left hand, the iconic chakra in his rear right, front right hand is
in abhaya mudra while the left front is on his thigh. Below him, to his right, is a female figure
presumably Lakshmi but her iconic details are missing. To the right, he is flanked by
standing Narasimha (the man-lion avatar of Vishnu) in namaste posture, while on left is a
dwarf who has been interpreted as Vamana (the dwarf avatar),[31] or more often Gana as he
lacks the iconic details of Vamana

168
A relief at Dasavatara temple (L to R): Kartikeya, Indra, Brahma, Shiva, Parvati, Nandi./
Mahabharata relief (L to R): Arjuna, Bhima, Yudhisthira, Nakula, Sahadeva and Draupadi
On the outer walls of each side of the sanctum are niches. Each niche has an alto-relievo of Vaishnava mythology.

 On the north side is the Gajendra Moksha in a niche that is 3.25 feet by 5 feet (0.65:1
ratio). A symbolic elephant is praying for help with his leg inside a pond and lotus flower
in his trunk, where he is being strangled. Vishnu is shown flying in on Garuda to liberate
the elephant from evil strangulation.
 On the east side is the Nara Narayana alto-relievo. Nara and Narayana are seated in
meditation in lalitasana. Both of them hold a rosary in hand, are shown to be with closed
eyes and calm, as if lost in their meditation. Apsaras are shown flying above with cusped
hands as if showering flowers. Below Nara and Narayana sit lion and deer in peace and
without anxiety. The panel also has four headed Brahma seated on lotus and in lotus
asana.
 In the south side niche is the Anantasayi Vishnu legend as he rests after creating a new
cosmic cycle. He sleeps on Sesha whose 7-headed hood shades him. Lakshmi is sitting
near Vishnu's feet and shown caressing his right leg. Vishnu is wearing an elaborate
crown (kiritamukuta) and neck, ear, arm and body jewelry. A miniature four headed
Brahma is above in center, but he does not emerge from Vishnu navel (a version found in
later-dated Puranas). Brahma also has only two hands, with one holding his iconic
kamandalu (water pot). Others flanking Brahma are Indra and Kartikeya (Skanda) on one
side, Siva and Parvati on Nandi, and a person with a garland. Below the reclining Vishnu
is a panel depicting the five males (Pandavas) and one female (Draupadi) of
the Mahabharata legend.

A Deogarh
temple Ramayana relief now in National Museum, Delhi; L to R: Rama, Sita, Lakshmana, in lower right
is demoness Surpanakha caught after harassing Sita and Rama/ Nara Narayana panel on the eastern wall
of the Vishnu temple
According to Lubotsky, it is likely that the entrance is dedicated to the Vāsudeva aspect of
Vishnu; the Anantashayana side is his role as the creator (Aniruddha); the sage form of Nara-

169
Narayana side symbolizes his preservation and maintainer role in cosmic existence
(Pradyumna); and the Gajendramoksha side represents his role as the destroyer (Samkarsana).
[31]

The Dashavatara temple had numerous plinth panels of about 2.5 feet by 2 feet each, with
friezes related to secular life and themes of Hinduism. Some of these reliefs were found
during excavations at the site, some recovered nearby and identified by their location, the
material of construction and the style. Many are lost. The recovered reliefs are now housed in
major museums. Some of the significant reliefs identified include:

 Ramayana scenes: a panel depicts the Ahalya-uddhara legend where Hindu

god Rama redeems Ahalya. The scene shows Ahalya in a reverential state offering
flowers, Rama and Lakshmana holding their bows, and a rishi monk sitting nearby with a
rosary. Other legends include the departure of Rama, Sita and Lakshmana for their exile;
the three arriving at sage Atri's hermitage; the Surpanakha legend; the Dandaka forest
legend; the abduction of Sita by Ravana; the bullying of Sita by Ravana legend; the
Sugriva victory legend and the Hanuman bringing the herb containing mountain for
Lakshmana legend.
 Mahabharata and Vishnu Purana scenes: a panel narrates the Krishna's birth in a prison
legend; Yashoda and Nanda playing with Baladeva and Krishna; Krishna battling Kamsa
legend; Krishna stealing bathing gopi clothes and two nude women concealing their
breasts; the Sudama legend and a few others. One of the panels shows the Vamana, Bali
and Trivikrama legend; another the Narasimha saving Prahlada legend.
 Secular life scenes: A number of panels show solitary women with various expressions;
small boys playing; girls picking flowers in a field; six girls together of which five are
watching and one is dancing; five girls of which one in center is dancing and the other
four are playing musical instruments; a woman giving a baby to a man so that he can hold
the baby but the man stands indifferent; and others
 Kama and mithuna scenes: lovers are shown as if having a conversation with one of his
hand on her shoulder, the shy woman looking the other way; she sitting in his lap and he
fondling her breasts; a man and woman with intertwined bodies, her body reclined on his;
a man turning away while the woman embracing him from behind and clinging to him;
another panel showing a woman declining a man making advances; and others
Another sculpture found in the Vishnu temple depicts the Krishna legend in
which Devaki hands over her new born son Krishna to her husband Vasudeva. This sculpture
is said to be one of the best depictions of Gupta period art, based on the sensuous and
graceful modelling of the figurines, but different in that its clothes are shown draped in an
exclusive fashion. It is now housed at the National Museum in New Delhi.
The panels show the culture and dress of ancient India. The jewelry and clothing
including dhoti, sari, kurta, lahanga, blouse, pleated skirt, dopatta (uttariya), langoti, neck
wear and others.

O0oooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo00000000000000ooooooooooooooo

170
Hindu-Buddhist civilizations
Early kingdoms

1600-year-old stone inscription from the era of Purnawarman, king

of Tarumanagara, founded in Tugu sub-district of Jakarta
A number of Hindu and Buddhist states flourished and then declined across
Indonesia. Seven rough plinths dating from the beginning of the 4th century CE were
found in Kutai, East Kalimantan, near the Mahakam River known as the Yupa
inscription or "Mulavarman Inscription" believed to be one of the earliest Sanskrit
inscriptions of Indonesia, the plinths were written by Brahmins in
the Sanskrit language using the Pallava script of India recalling of a generous king
by the name of Mulavarman who donated a huge amount of alms to Brahmin priests
in his kingdom, the kingdom was known as the Kutai Martadipura Kingdom located in
present East Kalimantan Province, believed to be the oldest and first Hindu kingdom
of Indonesia.

Tarumanagara and Sunda

Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma was an
early Sundanese Indianised kingdom located in western Java, whose 5th-century
ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions in Java, which are
estimated to date from around 450 CE. At least seven stone inscriptions connected
to this kingdom were discovered in Western Java area, near Bogor and Jakarta.
They are Ciaruteun, Kebon Kopi, Jambu, Pasir Awi, and Muara Cianten inscriptions
near Bogor; Tugu inscription near Cilincing in North Jakarta; and Cidanghiang
inscription in Lebak village, Munjul district, south of Banten.

Location

The inscriptions of Taruma kingdom are the earliest records of Hinduism in the
western part of the archipelago. The geographical position of coastal West Java,
which corresponds to today modern Jakarta, is a commanding region that controls

171
the Sunda Strait. This location is strategic in regard to Sumatra, and also its
connection to Asian continent of India and China.

The kingdom was located not far from modern Jakarta, and according to the Tugu
inscription Purnawarman apparently built a canal that changed the course of
the Cakung River, and drained a coastal area for agriculture and settlement. In his
inscriptions, Purnavarman associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins secured
the hydraulic project through ritual. Tarumanagara is believed to have existed
between 358 and 669 CE in the Western Java region, in and around modern-day
Bogor, Bekasi and Jakarta, which roughly corresponds to modern Greater
Jakarta area.The earliest known written records of Tarumanagara's existence were
inscribed in stone inscriptions.[4] Inscribed stone is called prasasti in Indonesian.
Numbers of stone inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period were discovered in
Western Java region.

The historiography of the Taruma kingdom were mostly uncovered, acquired and
constructed from two main sources; the primary record of the stone inscriptions
discovered near present-day Bogor and Jakarta, and Chinese chronicles dated from
the Sui and Tang dynasties.

Ciaruteun inscription discovered by Tjiaroeteun river near Buitenzorg, photographed before

1900.
In 1863, Dutch East Indies, a huge boulder of inscribed stone was spotted near
Ciampea not far from Buitenzorg (Bogor). The stone inscription was discovered on
the river bed of Ciaruteun river, a tributary of Cisadane River. It is today known as
the Ciaruteun inscription, dated from the 5th century, written in Vengi letters (used in
the Indian Pallava period) and in Sanskrit language. This is the earliest inscription
that clearly mentioned the kingdom's name "Tarumanagara The inscription reports
the most famous king of Tarumanagara.

"The powerful illustrious and brave King, the famous Purnawarman (of the)
Tarumanagara (kingdom) whose (print of the) foot soles are the same (as those of)
God Vishnu."
Ciaruteun inscription.

Located nearby is the Kebon Kopi I inscription, also called Telapak Gadjah stone,
with an inscription and the engraving of two large elephant footprints. The inscription
read: These elephant foot soles, akin to those of the strong Airavata (elephant, which
God Indra used to ride), belongs to Tarumanagara King who is successful and full of
control.

Not only the stones testify of the existence of King Purnawarman and his
Tarumanagara kingdom, but also Chinese historical sources, since Tarumanagara
maintained extended trade and diplomatic relations in the territory stretching
between India and China. The Chinese Buddhist Monk Fa Xian reported in his
book Fo-kuo-chi that he stayed on the island of Ye-po-ti , most probably the
western part of Java island, for six months, from December 412 until May 413. He
reported that the Law of Buddha was not much known, but that the Brahmans
(Hinduism) flourished, and heretics (animists) too.Between the period 528 to 669,
Tarumanagara sent their embassy to Chinese courtThe kingdom was mentioned in

172
the annals of the Sui dynasty, the king of To-lo-mo (Taruma) has sent diplomatic
mission, which arrived in China in 528 and 535. It was mentioned that the kingdom is
located far south of China.

The annals of Tang dynasty also mentioned in the year 666 and 669 the envoys
of To-lo-mo has visited the court of Tang.The history of Sunda kingdom and its
predecessor (Tarumanagara and Salakanagara) is recorded quite detailed
in Pustaka Rajyarajya i Bhumi Nusantara (simply known as Nusantara), a book
within Wangsakerta manuscripts collection composed in late 17th century Cirebon.
However, currently the Wangsakerta manuscripts are generally discounted as a valid
historical source among historians, since this controversial manuscript is suspected
as a fraud containing pseudohistory.

Etymology

Citarum river in West Java, etymologically connected to

Taruma kingdom.
The name Tarumanagara was found in several inscriptions in the Western Java
region dated from circa 4th century. The Chinese chronicle also recorded the
name To-lo-ma or To-lo-mo which suggest the Chinese pronunciation of "Taruma".
Tarumanagara means the kingdom of Taruma. The name "Taruma" itself is
connected to the Citarum River of West Java. In Sundanese language, ci means
water or river while tarum means indigo plant. Tarum is local name of indigo
plant that used to create the indigo dyeing pigment.[

History

Statue of Kali from Tanjung Priok, North Jakarta

173
Around 400 BCE to 100 CE, a prehistoric clay pottery culture was flourished in
northern coastal Western Java. This clay pottery culture is identified as Buni culture,
named after its first discovered archaeological site, Buni village in Babelan, Bekasi,
east of Jakarta. Archaeologist suggests that this culture was the predecessor of
Taruma kingdom. This is affirmative regarding its connection
to Batujaya archaeological site. The ancient society that supported the Buni culture
was Indianised; absorbing Hindu influences from India, and establishing early Hindu
polity in Java.

According to the book Geographike Hyphegesis written in 2nd-century Roman

Empire, a Greek geographer Claudius Ptolemaeus mentioned about countries in the
far east of the known world then. Among others is a city called Argyre on the western
edge of the Iabadiou island. Iabadiou can be equated in Sanskrit as Yawadwipa,
which corresponds to the island of Java. The name argyre means "silver", while in
local Indonesian and Sundanese language, silver is called perak, which sound
similar to the Merak port town on the western edge of Java.

Age of Purnawarman

Inscription from the era of Purnawarman, undated, founded in

Tugu sub-district of Jakarta.
The history of the Tarumanegara Kingdom comes from a number of inscriptions
dating from the 5th century AD. The inscriptions are named based on the location
where they were found, namely the Ciaruteun inscription, the Pasir Koleangkak
inscription, the Kebonkopi inscription, the Tugu inscription, the Pasir Awi inscription,
the Muara Cianten inscription, and the Cidanghiang inscription. The inscription
mentions the name of the ruling king is Purnawarman. Cidanghiang inscription (sits
further to the west at Lebak in the Pandeglang area), consisting of two lines,
proclaiming Purnawarman as the standard for rulers around the world. Jambu
inscription, with a two-line inscription in Pallava/Sanskrit, bears the large footprints of
the king. The inscription translates as:

The name of the king who is famous of faithfully executing his duties and who is
incomparable (peerless) is Sri Purnawarman who reigns Taruma. His armour cannot
be penetrated by the arrows of his enemies. The prints of the foot soles belong to
him who was always successful to destroy the fortresses of his enemies, and was
always charitable and gave honorable receptions to those who are loyal to him and
hostile to his enemies.

174
Kings after Purnawarman

Fragment of Hindu god Vishnu discovered in Batujaya

archaeological site, West Java.
Purnawarman probably is the most well-known king of Tarumanagara because he
produced quite a number of well documented inscriptions. The records about
Tarumanagara's later kings were scarce and obscure, most were known from later
manuscripts and local traditions.

Later series of Tarumanagara kings are only known from their names, all bears the
name warman (Sanskrit: varman means "shield" or "protector") which suggests that
all of them belongs in the same dynasty.

A rather detailed information was known about King Suryawarman that ruled from
535 to 561. King Suryawarman established a new capital city eastward and left
Sundapura and its communities to preserve their own order. Then, Sundapura
become a new smaller kingdom called Sunda Sambawa which was under control of
Tarumanagara. Before the Suryavarman reigned Tarumanagara, Manikmaya, his
son in-law, in 526, left Sundapura went southeastward and established Kendan, a
new kingdom currently in Nagreg area, near modern Garut city.

Kertawarman ruled c. 561 to 628. During this period the grandson of Manikmaya,
Wretikandayun, in 612, established Galuh Kingdom, southeast of current Garut with
its capital city located in Banjar Pataruman. Kertawarman's successor, King
Linggawarman ruled from 628 to 650, he however produced no male heir.
Linggawarman's eldest daughter Manasih, married to Tarusbawa, ruler of Sunda
Sembawa. While the second daughter of King Linggawarman, Princess
Sobakancana, married Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, who later established
the Srivijaya kingdom.

175
 The fine brickwork on the base of Batujaya Buddhist stupa
in Karawang, dated from late Tarumanagara period (5th–7th century) to early Srivijaya
influence (7th–10th century).
According to 7th century Kota Kapur inscription, Srivijaya, centred in
today Palembang, South Sumatra, launched a military expedition against Bhumi
Jawa, the period coincides with the decline of Tarumanagara. It is very likely that
Tarumanagara kingdom was attacked and defeated by Srivijaya around 686. The
pretext behind Srivijayan campaign against Tarumanagara was obscure, however it
was probably because of Jayanasa's own claim to Tarumanagara's throne, afterall
his wife, Sobakancana, is the daughter of Linggawarman, the late king of
Tarumanagara. After this naval invasion, Tarumanegara's influence began to
decline.

Devastated by Srivijayan invasion, King Tarusbawa then moved further inland to find
a refuge in the south and established a new capital near the Cipakancilan river
upstream (today in modern Bogor). It seems that he left the coastal areas of port of
Sunda and Kalapa (today coastal areas of modern Banten and Jakarta) under
Srivijayan mandala's control. This capital centuries later became the city of Pakuan
Pajajaran (or shortly called Pakuan or Pajajaran). King Tarusbawa becomes the
predecessor of Sunda kings.

Economy

The Chinese source mentioned about the product being traded in Taruma, which
suggests the population made a living in hunting, mining, fishing, trade and shipping;
aside of agriculture and farming sector. The commodities being traded in Taruma
was specific hunting products, such as rhino horn, ivory and turtle shell. Gold and
silver were traded too, which suggest the active mining sector. The Tugu
inscription mentioned about the construction of hydraulic projects through the
construction canals. This irrigation project suggest that the area of northern West
Java and Jakarta was transformed into irrigated rice paddies. The canals also meant
as a water management to prevent flooding that often hit the capital of
Tarumanagara.

Religion

176
 Two Vishnu statues from Cibuaya, Karawang, West Java.
Tarumanagara c. 7th-8th century. The tubular crown bears similarities with Cambodian
Khmer art.
According to the 4th century writings of Faxian, a Buddhist pilgrim from Tang
China that visited Tarumanagara in his journey to India; in the early 5th century there
were three kinds of religions adhered by the population of Taruma kingdom; i.e.
Buddhism just as adhered by Faxian himself, Hinduism, and a religion which he
described as "impure" religion.[11]: 62 The so-called "impure" religion probably refer to
native animism beliefs practiced by local population prior of Hindu-Buddhist
influence.

Hinduism was the main religion in Tarumanagara kingdom, at least among its elites
ruling class. This is based on several inscriptions dated from Tarumanagara period.
For example, Tugu inscription mentioned that the father of Purnawarman is titled
as Rajadhiraja Guru has dug the canal in Chandrabhaga. Purnawarman himself
credited for the construction of Gomati canal. The inscription also mentioned that
King Purnawarman donated a thousand cows as gifts for Brahmins. These rituals
demonstrate the Vedic Hinduism practice. The Ciaruteun inscription also
demonstrated Vedic tradition; by equating the print of Purnawarman's soles with the
foot of Hindu god Vishnu. Both Ciaruteun and Cidanghiang
inscription mention vikkranta, which rever to Trivikrama or the "three steps"
performed by of Vishnu avatar, Vamana. In Jambu inscription, Purnavarman was
equated with Indra and Surya. The Vishnu statues from Cibuaya dated from 7th
century, also the Rajarsi statue discovered in Jakarta, also testified of Hindu
prevalence in Tarumanagara.

Buddhist clay votive tablets discovered at Batujaya stupa.

177
Buddhism was practiced in Tarumanagara as reported by Faxian in early 5th
century. However, he said there were only a few Buddhists in the kingdom. Near the
north coast of West Java, earth mounds called by locals as unur or hunur were
discovered in the 1960s. The excavated earth mounds in
the Batujaya archaeological site in Karawang (within the territory of Tarumanagara)
have revealed that these earth mounds were actually red brick structures,
either Candi (temples) or stupas

In total, archeological finds have uncovered around 30 sites (13 are of brick temples)
from the Batujaya archaeological complex. These 5th century findings are of
temples, stupas, inscriptions and moulded clay tablets recovered from 1995, 1997
and 2001. Among these tablets include a Buddha seated on a throne, flanked
by bodhissatvas and surrounded with tall stupas and topped by parasols.[13] Besides
this, a number of Buddhist votive tablets were discovered near Blandongan temple,
also in the Batujaya archaeological site, confirming a Buddhist background of the
site, and that the faith was indeed practiced in Tarumanagara.

The stratigraphy of Blandongan temple revealed several layers of cultures dated

between 2nd–12th century. This means after the fall of Tarumanagara, the Buddhist
site of Batujaya was still actively used. Which means the Batujaya temples was used
between the 4th and 7th century during the Tarumanagara period; and continued
well after the 7th–10th century, possibly under Srivijaya suzerainty.

Legacy

Unlike its successor; the Sunda kingdom that still remembered in Pantun Sunda; the
oral tradition of local Sundanese—Tarumanagara was completely forgotten among
local population in West Java. It was not until late 19th century when archaeologist
and historian finally deciphered the stone inscriptions discovered near Buitenzorg
and Batavia. The discovery and study of numerous Tarumanagara inscriptions;
especially those issued by King Purnawarman, had uncover that this kingdom was
indeed the earliest Hindu polity in western Indonesia. Together
with Kutai and Kalingga, Tarumanagara is remembered as a pioneer states that
started the historical period of Indonesia.

Tarumanagara is especially important as the historical identity for the city

of Bekasi and its surrounding area, since local historians believe that the capital of
Tarumanagara was located in or around the present day Bekasi city. The
name Chandrabhaga mentioned in Tarumanaga inscription believed was the ancient
name of Bekasi—from Chandrabhaga (Sanskrit for "moon river"), changed
to Bhagasasi and finally corrupted into its present form as Bekas

[edit]
Main articles: Tarumanagara Kingdom and Sunda Kingdom
One such early kingdom was Tarumanagara, which flourished between 358 and 669
CE. Located in West Java close to modern-day Jakarta, its 5th-century

178
king, Purnawarman, established the earliest known inscriptions in Java,
the Ciaruteun inscription located near Bogor. And other inscriptions called the Pasir
Awi inscription and the Muncul inscription. On this monument, King Purnawarman
inscribed his name and made an imprint of his footprints, as well as his elephant's
footprints. The accompanying inscription reads, "Here are the footprints of King
Purnavarman, the heroic conqueror of the world". This inscription is written in Pallava
script and in Sanskrit and is still clear after 1500 years. Purnawarman apparently
built a canal that changed the course of the Cakung River, and drained a coastal
area for agriculture and settlement purpose. In his stone inscriptions, Purnawarman
associated himself with Vishnu, and Brahmins ritually secured the hydraulic project.
[37]

8th-century Borobudur Buddhist

monument, Sailendra dynasty, is the largest Buddhist temple in the world.
Around the same period, in the 6th to 7th centuries (501–700 CE), the Kalingga
Kingdom was established in Central Java northern coast, mentioned in Chinese
account.[38] The name of this kingdom was derived from ancient Indian kingdom
of Kalinga, which suggest the ancient link between India and Indonesia.

The political history of Indonesian archipelago during the 7th to 11th (601–1100 CE)
around centuries was dominated by Srivijaya based in Sumatra and Sailendra that
dominated southeast Asia based in Java and constructed Borobudur, the largest
Buddhist monument in the world. The history prior of the 14th and 15th centuries
(1301–1500 CE) is not well known due to the scarcity of evidence. By the 15th
century (1401–1500 CE), two major states dominated this period; Majapahit in East
Java, the greatest of the pre-Islamic Indonesian states, and Malacca on the west
coast of the Malay Peninsula, arguably one of the greatest of the Muslim trading
empires, this marked the rise of Muslim states in the Indonesian archipelago.

Mataram

Prambanan in Java was built during the Sanjaya

dynasty of Mataram Kingdom; it is one of the largest Hindu temple complexes in Southeast
Asia.
Mataram Empire, sometimes referred to as Mataram Kingdom, was an Indianized
kingdom based in Central Java around modern-day Yogyakarta between the 8th and
179
10th centuries. The kingdom was ruled by the Sailendra dynasty, and later by
the Sanjaya dynasty. The centre of the kingdom was moved from central Java to
East Java by Mpu Sindok. An eruption of the volcano Mount Merapi in 929, and
political pressure from Sailendrans based in the Srivijaya Empire may have caused
the move.

The first king of Mataram, Sri Sanjaya, left inscriptions in stone. The monumental
Hindu temple of Prambanan in the vicinity of Yogyakarta was built
by Pikatan. Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old
Javanese in 996.

In the period 750 CE – 850 CE, the kingdom saw the blossoming of classical
Javanese art and architecture. A rapid increase in temple construction occurred
across the landscape of its heartland in Mataram (Kedu and Kewu Plain). The most
notable temples constructed in Mataram
are Kalasan, Sewu, Borobudur and Prambanan. The Empire had become the
supreme power not only in Java but also over Srivijayan Empire, Bali, southern
Thailand, some Philippine kingdoms, and Khmer in Cambodia.

Sewu temple in Special Region of Yogyakarta

Later in its history, the dynasty divided into two dynasties based on their own
religion, the Buddhist and Shivaist dynasties. Civil war was unavoidable and the
outcome was Mataram Empire divided into two powerful kingdom based on region
and religion. The Shivaist dynasty of Mataram kingdom in Java led by Rakai
Pikatan and the Buddhist dynasty of Srivijaya kingdom in Sumatra led
by Balaputradewa. The hostility between them didn't end until in 1006 when the
Sailendran based in Srivijaya kingdom incited rebellion by Wurawari, vassal of
Mataram kingdom and sacked Shivaist dynasty's capital in Watugaluh, Java.
Srivijaya kingdom rose into undisputed hegemonic Empire in the era as the result.
Yet the Shivaist dynasty survived and successfully reclaimed the east Java in 1019
then descended to Kahuripan kingdom led by Airlangga son of Udayana of Bali.

Srivijaya
Main article: Srivijaya
Srivijaya was a kingdom on Sumatra which influenced much of the Maritime
Southeast Asia. From the 7th century, the powerful Srivijaya naval kingdom
flourished as a result of trade and the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism that
were imported with it.

Srivijaya was centred in the coastal trading centre of present-day Palembang.

Srivijaya was not a "state" in the modern sense with defined boundaries and a
centralised government to which the citizens own allegiance. Rather Srivijaya was a

180
confederacy form of society centred on a royal heartland. It was a thalassocracy and
did not extend its influence far beyond the coastal areas of the islands of Southeast
Asia. Trade was the driving force of Srivijaya just as it is for most societies
throughout history. The Srivijayan navy controlled the trade that made its way
through the Strait of Malacca.

The territory of the Srivijaya empire. Historically, Srivijaya was one of the largest kingdoms
in Southeast Asia.//The depiction of Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, the first king of Srivijaya

By the 7th century, the harbours of various vassal states of Srivijaya lined both
coasts of the Straits of MelakaAround this time, Srivijaya had
established suzerainty over large areas of Sumatra, western Java, and much of
the Malay Peninsula. Dominating the Malacca and Sunda straits, the empire
controlled both the Spice Route traffic and local trade. It remained a formidable sea
power until the 13th century. This spread the ethnic Malay culture throughout
Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and western Borneo. A stronghold of Mahayana
Buddhism, Srivijaya attracted pilgrims and scholars from other parts of Asia.

The relation between Srivijaya and the Chola Empire of south India was friendly
during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I but during the reign of Rajendra Chola I the
Chola Empire attacked Srivijaya cities.[50] A series of Chola raids in the 11th century
weakened the Srivijayan hegemony and enabled the formation of regional kingdoms
based, like Kediri, on intensive agriculture rather than coastal and long-distance
trade. Srivijayan influence waned by the 11th century. The island was in frequent
conflict with the Javanese kingdoms, first Singhasari and then Majapahit. Islam
eventually made its way to the Aceh region of Sumatra, spreading its influence
through contacts with Arabs and Indian traders. By the late 13th century, the
kingdom of Pasai in northern Sumatra converted to Islam. The last inscription dates
to 1374, where a crown prince, Ananggavarman, is mentioned. Srivijaya ceased to
exist by 1414, when Parameswara, the kingdom's last prince, fled to Temasik, then
to Malacca. Later his son converted to Islam and founded the Sultanate of
Malacca on the Malay peninsula.

Singhasari and Majapahit

181
 Archaeological remains in Trowulan, the capital city of the Majapahit

Main articles: Singhasari and Majapahit

Expansion of the Majapahit empire extended to much of the Indonesian archipelago until it
receded and fell in the early 16th century.

Majapahit was the most dominant of Indonesia's pre-Islamic states. The

Hindu Majapahit kingdom was founded in eastern Java in the late 13th century, and
under Gajah Mada it experienced what is often referred to as a golden age in
Indonesian history, when its influence extended to much of southern Malay
Peninsula, Borneo, Sumatra, and Balifrom about 1293 to around 1500.

The founder of the Majapahit Empire, Kertarajasa, was the son-in-law of the ruler of
the Singhasari kingdom, also based in Java. After Singhasari drove Srivijaya out of
Java in 1290, the rising power of Singhasari came to the attention of Kublai Khan in
China and he sent emissaries demanding tribute. Kertanagara, ruler of the
Singhasari kingdom, refused to pay tribute and the Khan sent a punitive
expedition which arrived off the coast of Java in 1293. By that time, a rebel
from Kediri, Jayakatwang, had killed Kertanagara. The Majapahit founder allied
himself with the Mongols against Jayakatwang and, once the Singhasari kingdom
was destroyed, turned and forced his Mongol allies to withdraw in confusion.

Gajah Mada, a Majapahit prime minister and regent from 1331 to 1364, extended the
empire's rule to the surrounding islands. A few years after Gajah Mada's death, the

182
 Majapahit navy captured Palembang, putting an end to the Sriwijaya kingdom.
Although the Majapahit rulers extended their power over other islands and destroyed
neighbouring kingdoms, their focus seems to have been on controlling and gaining a
larger share of the commercial trade that passed through the archipelago. About the
time Majapahit was founded, Muslim traders and proselytisers began entering the
area. After its peak in the 14th century, Majapahit power began to decline and was
unable to control the rising power of the Sultanate of Malacca. Dates for the end of
the Majapahit Empire range from 1478 to 1520. A large number of courtiers,
artisans, priests, and members of the royal family moved east to the island of Bali at
the end of Majapahit power.

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Gupta Empire

c. 240 CE–c. 550 CE

185
South Asia
c. 420 CE
YAUDHEYAS

ARJUNAYANAS

MADRAKAS

MALAVAS

LICCHAVIS

TOCHARIANS

ABHIRAS

KALABHRAS

WESTERN
GANGAS

SASANIAN
HIND

ZHANGZHUNG

TRAITAKUTAS

VAKATAKAS

KADAMBAS

SAMATATAS

GAUDA

KAMARUPAS

KIDARITES

186
 ALCHON HUNS

SASANIAN

◁▷
EMPIRE

Map of the Gupta Empire c. 420 CE, according to Joseph

E. Schwartzberg, with contemporary polities[1]

Status Empire

Capital Pataliputra
Ujjain
Ayodhya[2][3]

Common languages Sanskrit (literary and

academic); Prakrit (vernacular)

Hinduism
Religion
Buddhism[4]
Jainism

Demonym(s) Indian

Government Monarchy
Maharajadhiraja
• c. 240-280 CE Gupta (first)
• c. 280-319 CE Ghatotkacha
• c. 319-335 CE Chandragupta I
• c. 335-375 CE Samudragupta
• c. 375-415 CE Chandragupta II
• c. 415-455 CE Kumaragupta I
• c. 455-467 CE Skandagupta
• c. 540-550 CE Vishnugupta (last)

Historical era Classical India

• Established c. 240 CE
• Coronation of 26 February 320[5]
Chandragupta I
• Disestablished c. 550 CE

Area
• Total 3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)

Currency Dinara (Gold Coins)

Rupaka (Silver Coins)
Karshapana (Copper Coins)

187
 Cowries

Preceded by Succeeded by
Western Satraps Later
Nagas of Padmavati Guptas
Mahameghavahana Kingdom
dynasty of Valabhi
Murunda dynasty Kingdom
of
Thanesar
Kingdom
of Kannauj
Gurjara
kingdoms

Today part of India

Pakistan
Bangladesh
Nepal
Afghanistan
Bhutan

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire on the Indian subcontinent which
existed from the mid 3rd century CE to mid 6th century CE. It was the seventh ruling
dynasty of Magadha. At its zenith, from approximately 319 to 467 CE, it covered
much of the Indian subcontinent.[8] This period has been considered as the Golden
Age of India by historians,[9] although this characterisation has been disputed by
some other historians.[note 1][note 2][12] The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded
by Gupta and the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta
I, Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Skandagupta.

The high points of this period are the great cultural developments which took place
primarily during the reigns of Samudragupta, Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta I.
Many Hindu epics and literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were
canonised during this period.[13] The Gupta period produced scholars such
as Kalidasa,[14] Aryabhata, Varahamihira and Vatsyayana, who made great
advancements in many academic fields.[15][16][17] Science and political administration
reached new heights during the Gupta era.[16] The period, sometimes described
as Pax Gupta, gave rise to achievements in architecture, sculpture, and painting that
"set standards of form and taste [that] determined the whole subsequent course of
art, not only in India but far beyond her borders".[18] Strong trade ties also made the
region an important cultural centre and established the region as a base that would
influence nearby kingdoms and regions in India and Southeast Asia.[19][unreliable
source?]
The Puranas, earlier long poems on a variety of subjects, are also thought to
have been committed to written texts around this period.[18][20] Hinduism was followed
by the rulers and the Brahmins flourished in the Gupta empire but the Guptas were
tolerant towards people of other faiths as well.[21]

The empire eventually died out because of factors such as substantial loss of
territory and imperial authority caused by their own erstwhile feudatories, as well as
the invasion by the Huna peoples (Kidarites and Alchon Huns) from Central Asia.[22]

188
 After the collapse of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century, India was again ruled by
[23]

numerous regional kingdoms.

Origin
[edit]
Main article: Origin of the Gupta dynasty

Gupta Empire
320 CE–550 CE

Gupta (c. late 3rd century)

Ghatotkacha (c. late 3rd century -
319)
Chandragupta I (c. 319 – 335/350)
Kacha (early 4th century?)
Samudragupta (c. 335/350 – 375)
(Ramagupta) (late 4th century?)
Chandragupta II (380 – 413/415)
Kumaragupta I (415 – 455)
Skandagupta (455 - 467)
Purugupta (467 – 473)
Kumaragupta II (473 - 476)
Budhagupta (476 – 495)
Narasimhagupta (495 – ?)
(Bhanugupta) (c. 510)
Vainyagupta (c. 507)
Kumaragupta III (c. 530)
Vishnugupta (540 – 550)

 v
 t
 e

The homeland of the Guptas is uncertain.[24] According to one theory, they originated
in the present-day lower-Doab region of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh,[25] where most of
the inscriptions and coin hoards of the early Gupta emperors have been discovered.
[26][27]
This theory is also supported by the Purana, as argued by the proponents, that
mention the territory of the early Gupta emperors as Prayaga, Saketa,
and Magadha areas in the Ganges basin.[28][29]

189
Another prominent theory locates the Gupta homeland in the present-
day Bengal region in Ganges basin, based on the account of the 7th-century
Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing. According to Yijing, king Che-li-ki-to (identified with
the dynasty's founder Shri Gupta) built a temple for Chinese pilgrims near Mi-li-kia-si-
kia-po-no (apparently a transcription of Mriga-shikha-vana). Yijing states that this
temple was located more than 40 yojanas east of Nalanda, which would mean it was
situated somewhere in the modern Bengal region.[30] Another proposal is that the
early Gupta kingdom extended from Prayaga in the west to northern Bengal in the
east.[31]

The Gupta records do not mention the dynasty's varna (social class).[32] Some
historians, such as A.S. Altekar, have theorised that they were of Vaishya origin, as
certain ancient Indian texts prescribe the name "Gupta" for the members of the
Vaishya varna.[33][34] According to historian R. S. Sharma, the Vaishyas – who were
traditionally associated with trade – may have become rulers after resisting
oppressive taxation by the previous rulers.[35] Critics of the Vaishya-origin theory point
out that the suffix Gupta features in the names of several non-Vaishyas before as
well as during the Gupta period,[36] and the dynastic name "Gupta" may have simply
derived from the name of the dynasty's first king Gupta.[37] Some scholars, such as S.
R. Goyal, theorise that the Guptas were Brahmins, because they had matrimonial
relations with Brahmins, but others reject this evidence as inconclusive.[38] Based on
the Pune and Riddhapur inscriptions of the Gupta princess Prabhavatigupta, some
scholars believe that the name of her paternal gotra (clan) was "Dharana", but an
alternative reading of these inscriptions suggests that Dharana was the gotra of her
mother Kuberanaga.[39]

History
[edit]
For historical calendar era, see Gupta era.
Early rulers
[edit]

Gupta script inscription Maharaja Sri Gupta

("Great King, Lord Gupta"), mentioning the first ruler of the dynasty,
king Gupta. Inscription by Samudragupta on the Allahabad pillar, where
Samudragupta presents king Gupta as his great-grandfather. Dated circa 350 CE.[40]

190
 Queen Kumaradevi and King Chandragupta I,
depicted on a gold coin
Gupta (Gupta script: gu-pta, fl. late 3rd century CE) is the earliest known king of
the dynasty: different historians variously date the beginning of his reign from mid-to-
late 3rd century CE.[41][42] Gupta founded the Gupta Empire c. 240-280 CE, and was
succeeded by his son, Ghatotkacha, c. 280-319 CE, followed by Ghatotkacha's
son, Chandragupta I, c. 319-335 CE.[43] "Che-li-ki-to", the name of a king mentioned
by the 7th century Chinese Buddhist monk Yijing, is believed to be a transcription of
"Shri-Gupta" (IAST: Śrigupta), "Shri" being an honorific prefix.[44] According to Yijing,
this king built a temple for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims near "Mi-li-kia-si-kia-po-no"
(believed to be a transcription of Mṛgaśikhāvana).[45]

In the Allahabad Pillar inscription, Gupta and his successor Ghatotkacha are
described as Maharaja ("Great King"), while the next king Chandragupta I is called
a Maharajadhiraja ("King of Great Kings"). In the later period, the title Maharaja was
used by feudatory rulers, which has led to suggestions that Gupta and Ghatotkacha
were vassals (possibly of Kushan Empire).[46] However, there are several instances of
paramount sovereigns using the title Maharaja, in both pre-Gupta and post-Gupta
periods, so this cannot be said with certainty. That said, there is no doubt that Gupta
and Ghatotkacha held a lower status and were less powerful than Chandragupta I. [47]

Chandragupta I married the Licchavi princess Kumaradevi, which may have helped
him extend his political power and dominions, enabling him to adopt the prestigious
title Maharajadhiraja.[48] According to the dynasty's official records, he was succeeded
by his son Samudragupta. However, the discovery of the coins issued by a Gupta
emperor named Kacha have led to some debate on this topic: according to one
theory, Kacha was another name for Samudragupta; another possibility is that Kacha
was a rival claimant to the throne.[49]

Samudragupta
[edit]
See also: Samudragupta and Gupta conquests of Bengal
Samudragupta succeeded his father around 335 or 350 CE, and ruled until c. 375
CE.[50] The Allahabad Pillar inscription, composed by his courtier Harisena, credits
him with extensive conquests.[51] The inscription asserts that Samudragupta uprooted
8 kings of Āryāvarta, the northern region, including the Nagas.[52] It further claims that
he subjugated all the kings of the forest region, which was most probably located in

191
central India.[53] It also credits him with defeating 12 rulers of Dakshinapatha, the
southern region: the exact identification of several of these kings is debated among
modern scholars,[54] but it is clear that these kings ruled areas located on the eastern
coast of India.[55] The inscription suggests that Samudragupta advanced as far as
the Pallava kingdom in the south, and defeated Vishnugopa, the Pallava regent
of Kanchi.[56] During this southern campaign, Samudragupta most probably passed
through the forest tract of central India, reached the eastern coast in present-
day Odisha, and then marched south along the coast of the Bay of Bengal.[57]

Evolution of Gupta territory, with neighbouring polities

The Allahabad Pillar inscription mentions that rulers of several frontier kingdoms and
tribal aristocracies paid Samudragupta tributes, obeyed his orders, and performed
obeisance before him.[58][59] The frontier kingdoms
included Samatata, Davaka, Kamarupa, Nepal and Karttripura.[60] The tribal
aristocracies and kingdoms included Malavas, Arjunayanas, Yaudheyas, Madrakas,
and Abhiras, among others.[59]

Finally, the inscription mentions that several foreign kings tried to please
Samudragupta by personal attendance; offered him their daughters in marriage (or
according to another interpretation, gifted him maidens[61]); and sought the use of
the Garuda-depicting Gupta seal for administering their own territories.[62] This is an
exaggeration: for example, the inscription lists the King of Simhala among these
kings. It is known that from Chinese sources that the Simhala king Meghavarna sent
rich presents to the Gupta emperor requesting his permission to build a Buddhist
monastery at Bodh Gaya: Samudragupta's panegyrist appears to have described
this act of diplomacy as an act of subservience.[63]

192
Samudragupta appears to have been Vaishnavite, as attested by
his Eran inscription,[64][65] and performed several Brahmanical ceremonies.[66] The
Gupta records credit him with making generous donations of cows and gold.[64] He
performed the Ashvamedha ritual (horse sacrifice), which was used by the ancient
Indian kings and emperors to prove their imperial sovereignty, and issued gold coins
(see Coinage below) to mark this performance.[67]

The Allahabad Pillar inscription presents Samudragupta as a wise king and strict
administrator, who was also compassionate enough to help the poor and the
helpless.[68] It also alludes to the king's talents as a musician and a poet, and calls
him the "king of poets".[69] Such claims are corroborated by Samudragupta's gold
coins, which depict him playing a veena.[70]

Samudragupta appears to have directly controlled a large part of the Indo-Gangetic

Plain in present-day India, as well as a substantial part of central India.[71] Besides,
his empire comprised a number of monarchical and tribal tributary states of northern
India, and of the south-eastern coastal region of India.[72][55]

Ramagupta
[edit]
Standing Buddha in red sandstone, Art of Mathura, Gupta period c. 5th century
CE. Mathura Museum[73]
Main article: Ramagupta
Ramagupta is known from a sixth-century play, the Devichandragupta, in which he
surrenders his queen to the enemy Sakas and his brother Chandragupta has to
sneak into the enemy camp to rescue her and kill the Saka king. The historicity of
these events is unclear, but Ramagupta's existence is confirmed by
three Jain statues found at Durjanpur, with inscriptions referring to him as
the Maharajadhiraja. A large number of his copper coins also have been found from
the Eran-Vidisha region and classified in five distinct types, which include
the Garuda,[74] Garudadhvaja, lion and border legend types. The Brahmi legends on
these coins are written in the early Gupta style.[75]

Chandragupta II "Vikramaditya"
[edit]
Main article: Chandragupta II
See also: Gupta conquests of Bengal, Chandragupta II's Campaign of Balkh,
and Gupta–Hunnic Wars
According to the Gupta records, among his sons, Samudragupta nominated prince
Chandragupta II, born of queen Dattadevi, as his successor. Chandragupta
II, Vikramaditya (Brave as the Sun), ruled from 375 until 415. He married a Kadamba
princess of Kuntala and of Naga lineage (Nāgakulotpannnā), Kuberanaga. His
daughter Prabhavatigupta from this Naga queen was married to Rudrasena II,
the Vakataka king of Deccan.[76] His son Kumaragupta I was married to a Kadamba
princess of the Karnataka region. Chandragupta II expanded his realm westwards,
defeating the Saka Western Kshatrapas of Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra in a
campaign lasting until 409. His main opponent Rudrasimha III was defeated by 395,
and he crushed the Bengal chiefdoms. This extended his control from coast to coast,

193
established a second capital at Ujjain and was the high point of the empire.[citation
needed]
Kuntala inscriptions indicate rule of Chandragupta II in Kuntala
country of Karnataka.[77] Hunza inscription also indicate that Chandragupta was able
to rule north western Indian subcontinent and proceeded to conquer Balkh, although
some scholars have also disputed the identity of the Gupta emperor.[78]
[79]
Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI (r. 1076 – 1126 CE) mentions Chandragupta with
his title and states: "Why should the glory of the Kings Vikramaditya and Nanda be a
hindrance any longer ? He with a loud command abolished that (era), which has the
name of Saka, and made that (era) which has the Chalukya counting".[80]

Gold coins of Chandragupta II

Despite the creation of the empire through war, the reign is remembered for its very
influential style of Hindu art, literature, culture and science, especially during the
reign of Chandragupta II. Some excellent works of Hindu art such as the panels at
the Dashavatara Temple in Deogarh serve to illustrate the magnificence of Gupta
art. Above all, it was the synthesis of elements that gave Gupta art its distinctive
flavour. During this period, the Guptas were supportive of
thriving Buddhist and Jain cultures as well, and for this reason, there is also a long
history of non-Hindu Gupta period art. In particular, Gupta period Buddhist art was to
be influential in most of East and Southeast Asia. Many advances were recorded by
the Chinese scholar and traveller Faxian in his diary and published afterwards.

The court of Chandragupta II was made even more illustrious by the fact that it was
graced by the Navaratna (Nine Jewels), a group of nine who excelled in the literary
arts. Among these men was Kālidāsa, whose works dwarfed the works of many
other literary geniuses, not only in his own age but in the years to come. Kalidasa
was mainly known for his subtle exploitation of the shringara (romantic) element in
his verse.

Chandragupta II's campaigns against foreign tribes

[edit]

Sculpture of Vishnu (red sandstone), 5th century CE.

194
The 4th century Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits Chandragupta Vikramaditya with
conquering about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India. After finishing his
campaign in East and West India, Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) proceeded
northwards, subjugated the Parasika, then the Huna and Kamboja tribes located in
the west and east Oxus valleys respectively. Thereafter, the king proceeded into
the Himalaya mountains to reduce the mountain tribes of the Kinnaras, Kiratas, as
well as India proper.[81][non-primary source needed] In one of his works Kalidasa also credits him with
the removal of the Sakas from the country. He wrote 'Wasn't it Vikramaditya who
drove the Sakas out from the lovely city of Ujjain?'.[82]

The Brihatkathamanjari of the Kashmiri writer Kshemendra states, King Vikramaditya

(Chandragupta II) had "unburdened the sacred earth of the barbarians like the
Sakas, Mlecchas, Kambojas, Greeks, Tusharas, Saka-Greeks, Hunas, and others,
by annihilating these sinful Mlecchas completely".[83][non-primary source needed][84][85][unreliable source?]

Faxian
[edit]
Faxian, a Chinese Buddhist monk, was one of the pilgrims who visited India during
the reign of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II. He started his journey from China
in 399 CE and reached India in 405 CE. During his stay in India up to 411 CE, he went
on a pilgrimage
to Mathura, Kannauj, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, Vaishali, Pataliputra, Kashi,
and Rajagriha, and made careful observations about the empire's conditions. Faxian
was pleased with the mildness of administration. The penal code was mild, and
offences were punished by fines only. From his accounts, the Gupta Empire was a
prosperous period. His writings form one of the most important sources for the
history of this period.[86]

Faxian on reaching Mathura comments––

"The snow and heat are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow.
The people are numerous and happy. They have not to register their households.
Only those who cultivate the royal land have to pay (a portion of) the gain from it. If
they want to go, they go. If they want to stay on, they stay on. The king governs
without decapitation or (other) corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined
according to circumstances. Even in cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion,
they only have their right-hand cut off. The king's bodyguards & attendants all have
salaries. Throughout the whole country, the people do not kill any living creature, not
drink any intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic."[86]
Kumaragupta I
[edit]
Main article: Kumaragupta I

195
 Silver coin of the Gupta
Emperor Kumaragupta I (Coin of his Western territories, design derived from
the Western Satraps).
Obv: Bust of king with crescents, with traces of corrupt Greek script.[87][88]
Rev: Garuda standing facing with spread wings. Brahmi legend: Parama-
bhagavata rajadhiraja Sri Kumaragupta Mahendraditya.[89]
Chandragupta II was succeeded by his second son Kumaragupta I, born
of Mahadevi Dhruvasvamini. Kumaragupta I assumed the title, Mahendraditya.[90] He
ruled until 455. Towards the end of his reign a tribe in the Narmada valley,
the Pushyamitras, rose in power to threaten the empire. The Kidarites as well
probably confronted the Gupta Empire towards the end of the rule of Kumaragupta I,
as his son Skandagupta mentions in the Bhitari pillar inscription his efforts at
reshaping a country in disarray, through reorganisation and military victories over the
Pushyamitras and the Hunas.[91]

He was the founder of Nalanda University which on 15 July 2016 was declared as
a UNESCO world heritage site.[92] Kumaragupta I was also a worshipper of Kartikeya.

Skandagupta
[edit]
Main article: Skandagupta
See also: Gupta–Hunnic Wars
Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the
last of the great Gupta emperors. He assumed the titles
of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.[93] He defeated the Pushyamitra threat, but then was
faced with invading Kidarites (sometimes described as the Hephthalites or "White
Huns", known in India as the Sweta Huna), from the northwest.

He repelled a Huna attack around 455 CE, but the expense of the wars drained the
empire's resources and contributed to its decline. The Bhitari Pillar inscription
of Skandagupta, the successor of Chandragupta, recalls the near annihilation of the
Gupta Empire following the attacks of the Kidarites.[94] The Kidarites seem to have
retained the western part of the Gupta Empire.[94]

Skandagupta died in 467 and was succeeded by his agnate brother Purugupta.[95]

Decline of the empire

[edit]

196
 Jain tirthankara relief Parshvanatha on Kahaum
pillar erected by person named Madra during the reign of Skandagupta
[96]

Following Skandagupta's death, the empire was clearly in decline,[97] and the later
Gupta coinage indicates their loss of control over much of western India after 467–
469.[8] Skandagupta was followed by Purugupta (467–473), Kumaragupta II (473–
476), Budhagupta (476–495), Narasimhagupta (495–530), Kumaragupta III (530–
540), Vishnugupta (540–550), two lesser known kings
namely, Vainyagupta and Bhanugupta.

In the late 490's the Alchon Huns under Toramana and Mihirakula broke through the
Gupta defences in the northwest, and much of the empire in the northwest was
overrun by the Huns by 500. According to some scholars the empire disintegrated
under the attacks of Toramana and his successor Mihirakula.[98][99] It appears from
inscriptions that the Guptas, although their power was much diminished, continued to
resist the Huns. The Hun invader Toramana was defeated by Bhanugupta in 510.[100]
[101]
The Huns were defeated and driven out of India in 528 by
King Yashodharman from Malwa, and possibly Gupta emperor Narasimhagupta.[102]

These invasions, although only spanning a few decades, had long term effects on
India, and in a sense brought an end to Classical Indian civilisation.[103] Soon after the
invasions, the Gupta Empire, already weakened by these invasions and the rise of
local rulers such as Yashodharman, ended as well.[104] Following the invasions,
northern India was left in disarray, with numerous smaller Indian powers emerging
after the crumbling of the Guptas.[105] The Huna invasions are said to have seriously
damaged India's trade with Europe and Central Asia.[103] In particular, Indo-Roman
trade relations, which the Gupta Empire had greatly benefited from. The Guptas had
been exporting numerous luxury products such as silk, leather goods, fur, iron
products, ivory, pearl, and pepper from centres such as Nasik, Paithan, Pataliputra,
and Benares. The Huna invasion probably disrupted these trade relations and the
tax revenues that came with them.[106]

Furthermore, Indian urban culture was left in decline, and Buddhism, gravely
weakened by the destruction of monasteries and the killing of monks by the hand of
the vehemently anti-Buddhist Shaivist Huna king Mihirakula, started to collapse.
[103]
Great centres of learning were destroyed, such as the city of Taxila, bringing
cultural regression.[103] During their rule of 60 years, the Alchons are said to have

197
altered the hierarchy of ruling families and the Indian caste system. For example, the
Hunas are often said to have become the precursors of the Rajputs.[103]

South Asia
600 CE
MORIS
PANDYAS
LICCHAVIS
CHOLAS
ZHANGZHUNG
CHERAS
SAMATATAS
KAMARUPA
VISHNU-
KUNDINAS
PALLAVAS
ALUPAS
NEZAKS
ALCHONS
KALINGAS
PANDUVAMSHIS
GAUDA
SHAILODBHAVAS
GONANDAS
KANNAUJ
TAKKA
WESTERN
TURKS
TOCHARIANS
VALABHI
SINDH
MANDAVYA-
PURA
LATER GUPTAS
THANESAR
CHALUKYAS
EARLY
KALA-
CHURIS
PERSIAN
EMPIRE

class=notpageimage|
Political fragmentation of South Asia after the retreat of the Alchon Huns to the northwest and the
end of the Gupta Empire, c. 600 CE[107]

The succession of the 6th-century Guptas is not entirely clear, but the tail end
recognised ruler of the dynasty's main line was King Vishnugupta, reigning from 540
to 550. In addition to the Huna invasion, the factors, which contribute to the decline
of the empire include competition from the Vakatakas and the rise
of Yashodharman in Malwa.[108]

The last known inscription by a Gupta emperor is from the reign of Vishnugupta
(the Damudarpur copper-plate inscription),[109] in which he makes a land grant in the
area of Kotivarsha (Bangarh in West Bengal) in 542/543 CE.[110] This follows the

198
occupation of most of northern and central India by the Aulikara King
Yashodharman c. 532 CE.[110]

A 2019 study by archaeologist Shanker Sharma has concluded that the cause of the
Gupta Empire's downfall was a devastating flood which happened around the middle
of the 6th century in Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.[111]

Post-Gupta successor dynasties

[edit]
In the heart of the former Gupta Empire, in the Gangetic region, the Guptas were
succeeded by the Maukhari dynasty and the Pushyabhuti dynasty.[112] The coinage of
the Maukharis and Pushyabhutis followed the silver coin type of the Guptas, with
portrait of the ruler in profile (although facing in the reverse direction compared to the
Guptas, a possible symbol of antagonism)[113] and the peacock on the reverse, the
Brahmi legend being kept except for the name of the ruler.[112]

In the western regions, they were succeeded by Gurjaradesa, the Gurjara-

Pratiharas, and later the Chaulukya-Paramara dynasties, who issued so-called Indo-
Sasanian coinage, on the model of the coinage of the Sasanian Empire, which had
been introduced in India by the Alchon Huns.[112]

Military organisation
[edit]

An 8 gm gold coin featuring Chandragupta II astride a

caparisoned horse with a bow in his left hand[114]
In contrast to the Mauryan Empire, the Guptas introduced several military
innovations to Indian warfare. Chief among these was the use of siege engines,
heavy cavalry archers and heavy sword cavalry. The heavy cavalry formed the core
of the Gupta Army and were supported by the traditional Indian Army elements
of war elephants and light infantry.[115]

The utilisation of horse archers in the Gupta period is evidenced on the coinage
of Chandragupta II, Kumaragupta I and Prakasaditya (postulated to be Purugupta)
[116]
that depicts the kings as horse-archers.[117][118]

There is a paucity of contemporary sources detailing the tactical operations of the

Imperial Gupta Army. The best extant information comes from the Sanskrit
mahakavya (epic poem) Raghuvaṃśa written by the Classical Sanskrit writer and

199
dramatist Kalidasa. Many modern scholars put forward the view that Kalidasa lived
from the reign of Chandragupta II to the reign of Skandagupta[119][120][121][122] and that the
campaigns of Raghu – his protagonist in the Raghuvaṃśa – reflect those of
Chandragupta II.[123] In Canto IV of the Raghuvamsa, Kalidasa relates how the king's
forces clash against the powerful, cavalry-centric, forces of the Persians and later
the Yavanas (probably Huns) in the North-West. Here he makes special mention of
the use horse-archers in the king's army and that the horses needed much rest after
the hotly contested battles.[124] The five arms of the Gupta military included infantry,
cavalry, chariotry, elephantry and ships. Gunaighar copper plate inscription of Vainya
Gupta mentions ships but not chariots.[125] Ships had become integral part of Indian
military in the 6th century CE.

Religion
[edit]

Dharmachakra Pravartana Buddha at Sarnath from the

Gupta era, 5th century CE
The Guptas were traditionally a Hindu dynasty.[126] They were patronizers
of Brahmanism[127][128][129][130] and allowed followers of Buddhism and Jainism to practice
their religions.[131] Sanchi remained an important centre of Buddhism.[131] Kumaragupta
I (455 CE) is said to have founded Nalanda.[131] Modern genetic studies indicate that it
was during the Gupta period that Indian caste groups ceased to intermarry (started
practising/enforcing endogamy).[132]

Some later rulers however seem to have especially

promoted Buddhism. Narasimhagupta Baladitya (c. 495–?), according to
contemporary writer Paramartha, was brought up under the influence of
the Mahayanist philosopher, Vasubandhu.[126] He built a sangharama at Nalanda and
also a 300 ft (91 m) high vihara with a Buddha statue within which, according
to Xuanzang, resembled the "great Vihara built under the Bodhi tree". According to
the Manjushrimulakalpa (c. 800 CE), King Narasimhsagupta became a Buddhist
monk, and left the world through meditation (Dhyana).[126] The Chinese
monk Xuanzang also noted that Narasimhagupta Baladitya's son, Vajra, who
commissioned a sangharama as well, "possessed a heart firm in faith".[133]: 45 [134]: 330

Gupta administration
[edit]

200
 Sargat
420
ROURAN KHAGANATE
Kyrgyzs
Gaoju
Turks
CHAM-
PA
FUNAN
Khotan
HYMYAR
EASTERN
JIN
NORTHERN
WEI
GOGU-
RYEO
VAKA-
TAKAS
GUPTA
EMPIRE
KIDARITES
ALCHONS
AFRIGHIDS
N.LIANG
SASANIAN
EMPIRE
BYZANTINE
EMPIRE
HUNS
TOCHARIANS
TUYUHUN
Paleo-Siberians
Samoyeds
Tungus
MEROË
AKSUM

class=notpageimage|
The Gupta Empire and other polities c. 420 CE.

A study of the epigraphical records of the Gupta Empire shows that there was a
hierarchy of administrative divisions from top to bottom. It was divided into 26
provinces, which were called Bhukti, Desha or Rajya.[135][136] Provinces were also
divided into vishayas or pradeshas (districts) and put under the control
of Vishayapatis (district lords). A Vishayapati administered the Vishaya with the help
of the Adhikarana (council of representatives), which comprised four
representatives: Nagarasreshesthi, Sarthavaha, Prathamakulika and Prathama
Kayastha. A part of the Vishaya was called Vithi.[137] The Gupta also had trading links
with the Sassanid and Byzantine Empires.[citation needed] The four-fold varna system was
observed under the Gupta period but caste system was fluid. Brahmins followed

201
non-Brahmanical professions as well. Kshatriyas were involved in trade and
commerce. The society largely coexisted among themselves.[138][need quotation to verify]

Urbanization
[edit]
Gupta administration proved to be highly conducive for the rapid growth of urban
centers. The Chinese author Faxian described Magadha as a prosperous country
with rich towns and large populations. Ayodhya was regarded as the second capital.
Chandragupta Vikramaditya took personal interest in the development of Ujjain as a
major cultural center after its conquest.[139]

Legacy
[edit]
Mathematics
[edit]
Indian mathematics flourished during the Gupta Empire.[140] The Indian
numerals which were the first positional base 10 numeral systems in the world
originated from Gupta India. The Surya Siddhanta contains the Sine
table. [141] Aryabhata, wrote the Aryabhatiya, making significant contributions to
mathematics including developing a Place value system, an approximation of π of 4
decimal places, trignimotric functions, and Squared triangular numbers.[142]
[143]
Varāhamihira wrote the Pancha Siddhanta developing various formulas
relating sine and cosine functions.[144] Yativṛṣabha made contributions on units of
measurement.[145] Virahanka described Fibonacci numbers.[146][145]

Astronomy
[edit]
Indian astronomy also saw progress in this era. The names of the seven days in a
week appeared at the start of the Gupta period based on Hindu
deities and planets corresponding to the Roman names.[147] Aryabhata made several
contributions such as assigning the start of each day to midnight.[148] the earth's
rotation on i its axis, westward motion of the stars.[148] Aryabhata also mentioned that
reflected sunlight is the cause behind the shining of the Moon.[148] In his book,
Aryabhata, he suggested that the Earth was sphere, containing a circumference of
24,835 miles (39,967 km).[149] Varāhamihira approximates the method for
determination of the meridian direction from any three positions of the shadow using
a gnomon.[150]

Medicine
[edit]
The Sushruta Samhita, which is a Sanskrit redaction text on all of the major concepts
of Ayurveda medicine with innovative chapters on surgery, dates to the Gupta
period.[151]

Metallurgy and Engineering

[edit]

202
The Iron Pillar of Delhi high resistance to corrosion .[152][153] The corrosion resistance
results from an even layer of crystalline iron(III) hydrogen phosphate hydrate forming
on the high-phosphorus-content iron, which serves to protect it from the effects of the
corrosion[152][153] The earliest evidence of the cotton gin was found in the fifth century,
in the form of Buddhist paintings depicting a single-roller gin in the Ajanta Caves.
[154]
The gins consisted of a single roller made of iron or wood and a flat piece of stone
or wood.[154]

Education
[edit]
Various Mahavihara operated throughout the Gupta Empire serving as centuries of
education.[155] Nalanda played a vital role in promoting the patronage of arts and
academics during the 5th and 6th century CE.[156]

Literature
[edit]
The highest point of Sanskrit literature is also said to have belonged to this period.
[157]
Harisena was an early writer of Kāvya poetry.[158] his works include Apabramsa
Dharmapariksa, Karpuraprakara (Suktavall), the medical treatise Jagatsundari-
Yogamaladhikara, Yasodharacanta, Astahnikakatha and Brhatkathakosa.[159] Amarasi
mha wrote various on Sanskrit grammar.[160] Kalidasa, a playwright, wrote plays such
as the Abhijnanashakuntalam and Shakuntala.[161] Bhartṛhari published major works
including the Trikāṇḍī and Śatakatraya.[162]

Leisure
[edit]
Chess is said to have developed in this period,[163] where its early form in the 6th
century was known as caturaṅga, which translates as "four divisions [of the military]"
– infantry, cavalry, chariotry, and elephantry – represented by the pieces that would
evolve into the modern pawn, knight, bishop, and rook, respectively. Doctors also
invented several medical instruments, and even performed surgical operations. The
ancient Gupta text Kama Sutra by the Indian scholar Vatsyayana is widely
considered to be the standard work on human sexual behaviour in Sanskrit literature.

Art and architecture

[edit]
Main article: Gupta art

203
 

A tetrastyle prostyle Gupta period temple at Sanchi besides the Apsidal hall with Maurya foundation,
an example of Buddhist architecture and Hindu architecture.[164][failed verification][165][166] 5th century CE.

Pataini temple is a Jain temple built during the Gupta period.

The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak of North Indian art for all
the major religious groups. Although painting was evidently widespread, the
surviving works are almost all religious sculptures. The period saw the emergence of
the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, as well as the Buddha-figure
and Jain tirthankara figures, the latter often on a very large scale. The two great
centres of sculpture were Mathura and Gandhara, the latter the centre of Greco-
Buddhist art. Both exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

The most famous remaining monuments in a broadly Gupta style, the caves
at Ajanta, Elephanta, and Ellora (respectively Buddhist, Hindu, and mixed including
Jain) were in fact produced under later dynasties, but primarily reflect the
monumentality and balance of Gupta style. Ajanta contains by far the most
significant survivals of painting from this and the surrounding periods, showing a
mature form which had probably had a long development, mainly in painting palaces.
[167]
The Hindu Udayagiri Caves actually record connections with the dynasty and its
ministers,[168] and the Dashavatara Temple at Deogarh is a major temple, one of the
earliest to survive, with important sculpture

204
 

Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha (Ananta), Dashavatara Temple 5th century

Buddha from Sarnath, 5–6th century CE

The Colossal trimurti at the Elephanta Caves

Painting of Padmapani Cave 1 at Ajanta

The Shiva mukhalinga (faced-lingam) from the Bhumara Temple

205
 

Nalrajar Garh fortification wall in Chilapata Forests, West Bengal, is one of the last
surviving fortification remains from the Gupta period, currently 5–7 m high

Nalanda University was first established under Gupta Empire

Bitargaon temple from the Gupta period provide one of the earliest examples of pointed
arches anywhere in the world

Ajanta caves from Gupta era


Krishna fighting the horse demon Keshi, 5th century

206