Data Communications

Communication
• The word communication arises from the Latin
word “commūnicāre”, which means “to share”.
Communication is the basic step for the
exchange of information.
• Communication can be defined as the process
of exchange of information through means
such as words, actions, signs, etc., between
two or more individuals.
 Need for Communication
• For any living being, while co-existing, there occurs the
necessity of exchange of some information.
• Whenever a need for exchange of information arises,
some means of communication should exist. While the
means of communication, can be anything such as
gestures, signs, symbols, or a language, the need for
communication is inevitable.
• Language and gestures play an important role in
human communication, while sounds and actions are
important for animal communication. However, when
some message has to be conveyed, a communication
has to be established.
Parts of Communication System
• The Sender is the person who sends a
message. It could be a transmitting station
from where the signal is transmitted.
• The Channel is the medium through which the
message signals travel to reach the
destination.
• The Receiver is the person who receives the
message. It could be a receiving station where
the signal transmitted is received.
 What is a Signal?

• Conveying information by some means such as

gestures, sounds, actions, etc., can be termed
as signaling. Hence, a signal can be a source of
energy which transmits some information. This
signal helps to establish communication between
a sender and a receiver.
• An electrical impulse or an electromagnetic wave
which travels a distance to convey a message, can
be termed as a signal in communication systems.
Types of signals
 Analog Signal

• A continuous time varying signal, which

represents a time varying quantity can be
termed as an Analog Signal. This signal keeps
on varying with respect to time, according to
the instantaneous values of the quantity,
which represents it.
 Digital Signal

• A signal which is discrete in nature or which is

non-continuous in form can be termed as
a Digital signal. This signal has individual
values, denoted separately, which are not
based on the previous values, as if they are
derived at that particular instant of time.
 Periodic Signal

• Any analog or digital signal, that repeats its

pattern over a period of time, is called as
a Periodic Signal. This signal has its pattern
continued repeatedly and is easy to be
assumed or to be calculated.
 Aperiodic Signal

• Any analog or digital signal, that doesn’t

repeat its pattern over a period of time, is
called as Aperiodic Signal. This signal has its
pattern continued but the pattern is not
repeated and is not so easy to be assumed or
to be calculated.
 MODULATION
• In general, the signals which are used in
communication systems are analog in nature,
which are transmitted in analog or converted to
digital and then transmitted, depending upon the
requirement.
• But for a signal to get transmitted to a distance,
without the effect of any external interferences
or noise addition and without getting faded away,
it has to undergo a process called as Modulation
 Signal Modulation
• A message carrying signal has to get transmitted over a
distance and for it to establish a reliable communication,
it needs to take the help of a high frequency signal which
should not affect the original characteristics of the
message signal.
• The characteristics of the message signal, if changed, the
message contained in it also alters. Hence it is a must to
take care of the message signal. A high frequency signal
can travel up to a longer distance, without getting
affected by external disturbances. We take the help of
such high frequency signal which is called as a carrier
signal to transmit our message signal. Such a process is
simply called as Modulation.
• Modulation is the process of changing the parameters of
the carrier signal, in accordance with the instantaneous
values of the modulating signal.
 Need for Modulation

• The baseband signals are incompatible for

direct transmission. For such a signal, to travel
longer distances, its strength has to be
increased by modulating with a high
frequency carrier wave, which doesn’t affect
the parameters of the modulating signal.
 Advantages of Modulation
• The antenna used for transmission, had to be
very large, if modulation was not introduced. The
range of communication gets limited as the wave
cannot travel to a distance without getting
distorted.
• Following are some of the advantages for
implementing modulation in the communication
systems.
– Antenna size gets reduced.
– No signal mixing occurs.
– Communication range increases.
– Multiplexing of signals occur.
– Adjustments in the bandwidth is allowed.
– Reception quality improves.
 Signals in the Modulation Process
• Message or Modulating Signal
– The signal which contains a message to be transmitted, is
called as a message signal. It is a baseband signal, which
has to undergo the process of modulation, to get
transmitted. Hence, it is also called as the modulating
signal.
• Carrier Signal
– The high frequency signal which has a certain phase,
frequency, and amplitude but contains no information, is
called a carrier signal. It is an empty signal. It is just used
to carry the signal to the receiver after modulation.
• Modulated Signal
– The resultant signal after the process of modulation, is
called as the modulated signal. This signal is a combination
of the modulating signal and the carrier signal.
Types of Modulation
 types of modulations
• The types of modulations are broadly
classified into continuous-wave modulation
and pulse modulation.
 Continuous-wave Modulation
• In the continuous-wave modulation, a high frequency sine wave is
used as a carrier wave. This is further divided into amplitude and
angle modulation.
• If the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in
accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating
signal, then such a technique is called as Amplitude Modulation.
• If the angle of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Angle Modulation.
• The angle modulation is further divided into frequency and phase
modulation.
– If the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, in accordance with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Frequency Modulation.
– If the phase of the high frequency carrier wave is varied in accordance
with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal, then such a
technique is called as Phase Modulation.
 Pulse Modulation
• In Pulse modulation, a periodic sequence of rectangular pulses, is
used as a carrier wave. This is further divided into analog and digital
modulation.
• In analog modulation technique, if the amplitude, duration or
position of a pulse is varied in accordance with the instantaneous
values of the baseband modulating signal, then such a technique is
called as Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) or Pulse
Duration/Width Modulation (PDM/PWM), or Pulse Position
Modulation (PPM).
• In digital modulation, the modulation technique used is Pulse Code
Modulation (PCM) where the analog signal is converted into digital
form of 1s and 0s. As the resultant is a coded pulse train, this is
called as PCM. This is further developed as Delta Modulation (DM),
which will be discussed in subsequent chapters. Hence, PCM is a
technique where the analog signals are converted into a digital
form.
•
 NETWORKS
• LAN
• MAN
• WAN
• PAN
• SAN
 Wide Area Networks
• Wide area networks generally cover a large
geographical area, require the crossing of
public right-of-ways, and rely at least in part
on circuits provided by a common carrier
• Typically, a WAN consists of a number of
interconnected switching nodes
Traditionally, WANs have been implemented
using one of two technologies:
• circuit switching
• packet switching

More recently, frame relay and ATM networks

have assumed major roles.
 Circuit Switching
• In a circuit-switching network, a dedicated
communications path is established between
two stations through the nodes of the
network
• That path is a connected sequence of physical
links between nodes.
• Data generated by the source station are
transmitted along the dedicated path as
rapidly as possible
 Packet Switching
• In this case, it is not necessary to dedicate
transmission capacity along a path through
the network.
• Rather, data are sent out in a sequence of
small chunks called packets.
• Each packet is passed through the network
from node to node along some path leading
from source to destination.
• At each node, the entire packet is received,
stored briefly, and then transmitted to the
next node.
• Packet-switching networks are commonly
used for terminal-to-computer and computer-
to-computer communications.
 Frame Relay
• Packet switching was developed at a time when
digital long distance transmission facilities
exhibited a relatively high error rate compared to
today’s facilities.
• As a result, there is a considerable amount of
overhead built into packet-switching schemes to
compensate for errors.
• With modern high-speed telecommunications
systems, this overhead is unnecessary and
counterproductive
• Frame relay was developed to take advantage
of these high data rates and low error rates
• frame relay networks are designed to operate
efficiently at user data rates of up to 2 Mbps.
• The key to achieving these high data rates is to
strip out most of the overhead involved with
error control.
 ATM
• Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), sometimes
referred to as cell relay, is a culmination of
developments in circuit switching and packet
switching
• The most obvious difference between frame relay
and ATM is that frame relay uses variable-length
packets, called frames, and ATM uses fixed-length
packets, called cells.
• By using a fixed packet length, the processing
overhead is reduced even further for ATM
compared to frame relay. The result is that ATM is
designed to work in the range of 10s and 100s of
Mbps, and in the Gbps range.
 Local Area Networks
• The scope of the LAN is small, typically a single
building or a cluster of buildings. This difference
in geographic scope leads to different technical
solutions, as we shall see.
• It is usually the case that the LAN is owned by the
same organization that owns the attached
devices. For WANs, this is less often the case, or
at least a significant fraction of the network
assets is not owned
• The internal data rates of LANs are typically much
greater than those of WANs.
 Wireless Networks
• wireless LANs are common are widely used in
business environments.
• Wireless technology is also common for both
wide area voice and data networks.
• Wireless networks provide advantages in the
areas of mobility and ease of installation and
configuration.
 PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE
• A protocol architecture is the layered structure of hardware
and software that supports the exchange of data between
systems and supports distributed applications, such as
electronic mail and file transfer.
• At each layer of a protocol architecture, one or more
common protocols are implemented in communicating
systems. Each protocol provides a set of rules for the
exchange of data between systems.
• The most widely used protocol architecture is the TCP/IP
protocol suite, which consists of the following layers:
physical, network access, internet, transport, and
application.
• Another important protocol architecture is the seven-layer
OSI model.
 THE NEED FOR A PROTOCOL
ARCHITECTURE
• When computers, terminals, and/or other
data processing devices exchange data, the
procedures involved can be quite complex
• Consider, for example, the transfer of a file
between two computers. There must be a
data path between the two computers, either
directly or via a communication network
• Typical tasks to be performed are as follow:
– The source system must either activate the direct data
communication path or inform the communication
network of the identity of the desired destination
system.
– The source system must ascertain that the destination
system is prepared to receive data.
– The file transfer application on the source system
must ascertain that the file management program on
the destination system is prepared to accept and store
the file for this particular user.
– If the file formats used on the two systems are
different, one or the other system must perform a
format translation function.
• It is clear that there must be a high degree of
cooperation between the two computer systems.
• Instead of implementing the logic for this as a
single module, the task is broken up into
subtasks, each of which is implemented
separately.
• In a protocol architecture, the modules are
arranged in a vertical stack.
• Each layer in the stack performs a related subset
of the functions required to communicate with
another system
• the same set of layered functions must exist in
two systems. Communication is achieved by
having the corresponding, or peer, layers in
two systems communicate.
• The peer layers communicate by means of
formatted blocks of data that obey a set of
rules or conventions known as a protocol.
The key features of a protocol are as follows:
• Syntax: Concerns the format of the data blocks
• Semantics: Includes control information for
coordination and error handling
• Timing: Includes speed matching and
sequencing
THE TCP/IP PROTOCOL ARCHITECTURE

Host to net work layer

• The physical layer (Host to Network layer )
covers the physical interface between a data
transmission device (e.g., workstation,
computer) and a transmission medium or
network.
• This layer is concerned with specifying the
characteristics of the transmission medium,
the nature of the signals, the data rate, and
related matters.
• The network access layer is concerned with
the exchange of data between an end system
(server, workstation, etc.) and the network to
which it is attached. The sending computer
must provide the network with the address of
the destination computer, so that the network
may route the data to the appropriate
destination
• all of the data arrive at the destination application and
that the data arrive in the same order in which they
were sent. As we shall see, the mechanisms for
providing reliability are essentially independent of the
nature of the applications.
• Thus, it makes sense to collect those mechanisms in a
common layer shared by all applications; this is
referred to as the host-to-host layer, or transport
layer.
• The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the most
commonly used protocol to provide this functionality.
• the application layer contains the logic
needed to support the various user
applications.
• For each different type of application, such as
file transfer, a separate module is needed that
is peculiar to that application.
Protocol data Units
 TCP segment
header include:
• Destination port: When the TCP entity at B receives the
segment, it must know to whom the data are to be delivered.
• Sequence number: TCP numbers the segments that it sends
to a particular destination port sequentially, so that if they
arrive out of order, the TCP entity at B can reorder them.
• Checksum: The sending TCP includes a code that is a
function of the contents of the remainder of the segment.
The receiving TCP performs the same calculation and
compares the result with the incoming code. A discrepancy
results if there has been some error in transmission.
TCP and UDP
• header format for TCP, which is a minimum of 20
octets, or 160 bits.
• The Source Port and Destination Port fields
identify the applications at the source and
destination systems that are using this
connection.
• The Sequence Number, Acknowledgment
Number, and Window fields provide flow control
and error control.
• The checksum is a 16-bit frame check sequence
used to detect errors in the TCP segment
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
• UDP does not guarantee delivery, preservation
of sequence, or protection against duplication
• UDP enables a procedure to send messages to
other procedures with a minimum of protocol
mechanism.
• Some transaction-oriented applications make
useof UDP; one example is SNMP (Simple
Network Management Protocol),
 IP datagram
• Destination subnetwork address: The
subnetwork must know to which attached
device the packet is to be delivered.
• Facilities requests: The network access
protocol might request the use of certain
subnetwork facilities, such as priority.
 IPv4 header

DS Differentiated services field

ECN Explicit congestion notification field The ID, Flags, and Fragment
Offset fields are used in the fragmentation and reassembly process
• Ipv4 address follows dotted decimal format

x.x.x.x --ex: 192.168.1.4

Each part decimal is of 8 bit

number -4*8=32 bits
 Ipv6 header
IPv6 includes 128-bit source and destination address
fields.
 The Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) reference model
• Application
• Presentation
• Session
• Transport
• Network
• Data link
• Physical
 Transmission Terminology
• guided media
• Unguided media,
• direct link
• point to point
• Multipoint
• simplex transmission
• half-duplex
• full-duplex
Frequency, Spectrum, and Bandwidth
• The signal is a function of time, but it can also be
expressed as a function of frequency; that is, the signal
consists of components of different frequencies
• An analog signal is one in which the signal intensity
varies in a smooth fashion over time. In other words,
there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal
• A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity
maintains a constant level for some period of time and
then abruptly changes to another constant level
• The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the
same signal pattern repeats over time Otherwise, a signal is
aperiodic.
• The peak amplitude is the maximum value or strength of
the signal over time;typically, this value is measured in
volts.
• The frequency is the rate [in cycles per second, or Hertz
(Hz)] at which the signal repeats
• An equivalent parameter is the period (T) of a signal, which
is the amount of time it takes for one repetition.
• Phase is a measure of the relative position in time within a
single period of a signal, as is illustrated subsequently
ANALOG AND DIGITAL SIGNALS
• The wavelength of a signal is the distance
occupied by a single cycle, or, put another way,
the distance between two points of
corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles
• The spectrum of a signal is the range of
frequencies that it contains
• The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width
of the spectrum
• This band is referred to as the effective
bandwidth, or just bandwidth.
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS
The most significant impairments are
• Attenuation and attenuation distortion
The strength of a signal falls off with distance
over any transmission medium
• Delay distortion
• Noise
1. Thermal noise or white noise.
2. Intermodulation noise
3. Crosstalk
4. Impulse noise
• Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the
bandwidths typically used in communications systems and
hence is often referred to as white noise
• The amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of
1 Hz in any device or conductor is
where the
N0 = kT1W/Hz2
• symbol K is used to represent 1 kelvin
• T = temperature, in kelvins 1absolute temperature2 k
= Boltzmann’s constant = 1.38 * 10-23 J/K
• N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of
bandwidth
• When signals at different frequencies share the same
transmission medium, the result may be intermodulation
noise. The effect of intermodulation noise is to produce
signals at a frequency that is the sum or difference of the
two original frequencies or multiples of those frequencies
• Crosstalk has been experienced by anyone who, while
using the telephone, has been able to hear another
conversation. it is an unwanted coupling between signal
paths
• Impulse noise, however, is noncontinuous, consisting of
irregular pulses or noise spikes of short duration and of
relatively high amplitude. It is generated from a variety of
causes, including external electromagnetic disturbances,
suchas lightning, and faults and flaws in the
communications system.
 Transmission media
• the transmission medium is the physical path
between transmitter and receiver
guided media
Unguided media
• A number of design factors relating to the
transmission medium and the signal
determine the data rate and distance
– Bandwidth
– Transmission impairments
– Interference
– Number of receivers
 Guided or Wired Media
• Three characteristics
– Conductor
:Copper, glass fiber or plastic fiber
– Insulation Material
: to avoid the electrical signal to escape
– Outer Jacket (or) Sheath
: Protecting Cover
 Types of Guided media
• Magnetic Tapes ---- Manual transmission
• Twisted Pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fiber optics cable
 Twisted Pair Cable
• Two insulated copper wires (about 1mm thick).( one
for transmission and another for reception)
• The wires are twisted together in a helical form.
• Twisting is done
– As two parallel lines constitute fine antenna and cause radiation.
• Applications: Telephone system
• Twisted pairs can run several kilometers
without amplification. But for longer distances
repeaters are needed.
• Can be used for Analog or digital data.
• These are less expensive
 Twisted Pair- Types
• Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
• Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
•
 Commonly used: CAT 3 and CAT 5
•
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
• STP cables have a conducting shield made of
metallic foil encasing the twisted wire pairs,
which blocks out electromagnetic interference,
allowing it to carry data at a faster rate of speed.
• STP cables are also used in outdoor setting where
the cables are uncovered to the elements and
synthetic structures and apparatus that may
introduce additional interference.
• Good examples of this would be the telephone,
internet cables that run from your home to the
junction box.
STP & UTP
 COAXIAL CABLE
• Better shielding than Twisted pair
• Commonly used for analog transmission and
Cable television
• A stiff copper wire is the core, surrounded by
an insulating material which is encased in
cylindrical conductor (braided mesh). This
conductor is covered by plastic sheath.
 Fiber Optics
• Uses Light –Waves (optical) for transmission
• Optical transmission has three key
components:
– Light source (LED)
– Transmission medium( ultra thin glass fiber)
– Detector(generates electrical pulse when light falls
on it)
(Kelvar
Material)
Single and Multi mode fiber optics
• Advantage of Fiber optics over twisted pair
and coaxial is less attenuation.
• Attenuation: the signal strength decreases
when it travels longer distance.
– Longer the distance, higher the attenuation
– Higher the frequency , higher the attenuation
– Fiber optics have low attenuation than coax and
twisted-pair
Unguided or Wireless transmission
 Radio transmission

Radio-frequency waves are:

• easy to generate
• with high penetration (buildings, forest, but not
hills/mountains)
• omnidirectional
• with mutual interference
• with frequency-dependent properties:
– power losses with the distance
– absorption and reflection
 Microwaves
Microwaves have:
• straight spreading (require straight line connection between the
transmitter and receiver: on the Earth surface they need
repeaters on each 100 km)
• possibility of ray concentration (focusing)
• no interference between non-collinear transmissions
• low penetration (buildings and even rain are non transparent)
• frequency-dependant properties:
–power losses with the distance
–absorption by water
 Infrared
• 1012 -1014 Hz band
(invisible light with thermal impact).
• Properties:
– do not pass solid or non-transparent objects
– strong attenuation in relatively short distance of air
– can be focused in a ray but also dispersed in
omnidirectional way
• Application
– house remote control devices
– implementation of indoor wireless LANs (of portable
computers) and communications.
 Light waves
• Visible light is called optics.
• Optic signals are transmitted usually in form of
coherent directed light rays
(transmitters called LASERs).
• Unidirectional transmission needs very precise
alignment between the transmitter and receiver
(photo detector); often application of defocusing
lenses
• Same Properties like infrared rays
• Atmosphere distortions