Modern technology is now extensively used in psychology because it provides an opportunity to study not only

brain structures but also the active brain while avoiding many of the ethical concerns of animal experimentation.
This allows researchers to see localization of function – that is, the functions of specific parts of the brain and
how they relate to behaviour.

(1) MRI

One imaging technique is Magnetic Resonance Imaging [MRI]. The MRI gives a three-dimensional picture of
the brain structures. The MRI was used in the case study of HM to determine the extent of his brain damage. An
MRI scanner uses a magnetic field and radio waves to map the activity of hydrogen molecules, which are
present in different brain tissue to different degrees. The image can either be viewed as a slice of the brain from
any angle, or it can be used to create a three-dimensional image of the brain.
It is used to find problems such as tumours, bleeding, injury, blood vessel diseases or infection. Physicians also
use MRI to detect structural brain abnormalities in patients. MRI scans are noted for their relatively high degree
of detail (especially in comparison with older CT scans based on X-ray technology). This is especially useful
when studying the human brain at a microscopic level.

MRI scans only provide static images. People with metal clips, plates or screws in their brains cannot be
scanned because of the strong magnetic field exerted by the scanner. Corkin et al. (1997) used MRI technology
to verify the extent of HM's brain damage, but not until about 40 years after his original surgery. As discussed in
localisation of brain function, the MRI scan revealed that HM's hippocampus was either gone or atrophied,
which reinforced all the earlier research on the role of the hippocampus and memory.

Advantages and Disadvantages

+ First, the procedure is non-invasive, with minimal potential harm to the participant.
+ Secondly, the image has high resolution; this gives researchers a good sense of the actual structure of the
brain.
- However, the MRI only indicates structure; it does not actually map what is happening in the brain.
- In addition, MRI research is correlational in nature, not allowing researchers to establish a clear cause and
effect relationship.

Studies: Corkin (HM), Maguire (London Taxi Drivers), Draganski (Juggling)

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(2) fMRI

Video on how the fMRI works: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nvB9hAarzw4&feature=emb_imp_woyt

Unlike the MRI, which shows the structure of the brain, an fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)
shows actual brain activity and indicates which areas of the brain are active when engaged in a behaviour or
cognitive process. The fMRI measures changes in blood flow in the active brain. These scans have a higher
resolution than PET scans, and they are easier to carry out. This is one of the most frequently used technologies
in biopsychological research today. It tracks changes in blood flow and oxygen level as a measurement of neural
activity. When a specific brain area is active, it uses more oxygen, and therefore the blood flow increases. This
can be detected by the fMRI scanner.

fMRIs are also non-invasive but the quality of the image is much better and rather than a static image, the fMRI
produces a film that demonstrates a change in the brain over the period of the scan.
For both the MRI and the fMRI, there are certain precautions that must be taken to protect the safety of the
participant. Since the technology works with a powerful magnet, it is important that objects that contain iron be
removed. In rare cases, a participant may have to be removed from a sample because of a metal implant e.g.
certain types of pacemakers or cochlear implants.

When neurons in a particular region are active, more blood is sent to that region. The fMRI machine maps
changes in the brain’s metabolism (specifically, chemical changes within the cells) to show precisely which
parts of the brain are active during a wide range of human behaviours. As well as investigating the correlation
between behaviour and brain activity in certain areas (think localisation of brain function), fMRI scans are also
used to help assess the effects of stroke, trauma or degenerative disease (such as Alzheimer's) on brain function.
fMRI scans are generally more precise than PET scans.

Advantages and Disadvantages

+ fMRI does not require the use of radiation, so possible health risks are minimised.
+ fMRI is best for research necessitating a three-dimensional analysis of function, as it has superior spatial
definition
+ fMRI is a relatively easy technology to use, which is an advantage shared by all brain imaging technologies
thanks to advanced software.
+ The attractions of fMRI have made it a popular tool for imaging normal brain function, especially for
psychologists. Over the last decade it has provided new insight to the investigation of how memories are
formed, language, pain, learning and emotion to name but a few areas of research. fMRI is also being applied in
clinical and commercial settings.

- The fMRI scanner is not a natural environment for cognition. Therefore, research may lack ecological validity.
There is a lot of noise in the tunnel and participants may experience anxiety due to the claustrophobic nature of
the machine. There is a question of artifacts in the imaging – that is, some of the activity may be related to
anxiety or reaction to the machine, rather than the behaviour that is being studied.
- The use of colours may exaggerate the activity of the brain. Much of the activity of the brain is spontaneous
and is not a reaction to stimuli. Therefore, it is difficult to know exactly which areas of the brain are active in a
behaviour.
- Brain areas activate for various reasons – just because the amygdala lights up, doesn’t mean that fear is
necessarily part of the response being observed.

Studies: Sharot et al (9/11 in NY), Baumgartner (Hormones)

Extra for knowledge only: Montague/Kilts (Coke v/s Pepsi)
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(3) PET

In order to observe the activity of the brain, other technologies are used. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
is used to observe metabolic processes in the brain by detecting the gamma rays emitted indirectly by a tracer.
PET neuroimaging is based on the assumption that areas of high radioactivity are associated with brain activity.
Positron emission tomography (PET) is a type of nuclear medicine imaging that is currently the most accurate
method of studying brain activity.

Before a PET scan begins, a patient is given a safe dose of a radioactive tracer compound introduced into the
body by a modified glucose molecule [FDG].

The injected FDG enters the bloodstream, where it can travel to the brain. If a particular area of the brain is
more active, more glucose will be needed there. When more glucose is used, the radioactive tracer is detected by
the PET scanner. The scan, which usually takes between 30 minutes and two hours, produces a multi-coloured
image that shows which parts of the brain were the most active. The colour of each dot shows the intensity of
the energy signal.
A PET scan detects the rays emitted from the glucose mixture and turns them into computer images of brain
activity. The brain activity is then colour-coded by software based on the amount of glucose metabolised in
specific regions of the brain. These scans are used to examine functions, such as blood flow, oxygen use and
sugar (glucose) metabolism, to identify activity in certain regions of the brain.

The key word in all of the above is 'activity.' Not all brain imaging technologies can show the brain in action, as
it functions, but PET scanning does. Therefore, PET is often used when static scans like the CT scan and MRI
scan are inconclusive. PET scans have the advantage of sensitivity of brain function over fMRI and MRI.
Because PET is able to pinpoint molecular activity in the brain, it offers the potential to identify a variety of
diseases and illnesses in their earliest stages, on a cellular level. PET is useful for showing abnormalities in
brain activity levels in diseases that do not show structural changes until much later, such as Alzheimer’s
disease (see figure below). Although the radioactive tracer might hurt when first injected into the body it doesn't
stay radioactive for long, so the risk from radiation is very low.

Less active regions of the brain are expressed as hues of purple and blue, whereas active regions of the brain are
expressed as hues of red/yellow depending on activity level.

Advantages and Disadvantages

+PET scan allows participants to perform psychological tasks while the researcher observes brain activity.
- PET scan requires an injection with a small amount of radioactive material. Although this will not cause harm
to the participant, it is still an invasive practice and raises ethical concerns.
- PET scanning is quite slow and has relatively poor resolution. So, although it does indicate where brain
activity is taking place, it is not as clear as more modern technology like the fMRI.

Study: Kaye (Serotonin / Bulimia)

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Advantages of using brain imaging technology
 Brain imaging technologies allow psychologists to look into healthy, functioning human brains without
any real fear of damage or change. These technologies have made it much more possible to study the
biological relationships with human behaviour, in the brain especially.
 They are much less invasive than exploratory surgery. Scientists can use brain scan technology to
establish evidence of links between a given behaviour and brain region. This can provide insight for
further research or triangulate existing research.
 They can expand knowledge about the relationship between biological factors and behaviour. All
studies are evidence to that.
 They can help with the early diagnosis and treatment of disorders like autism, Alzheimer's disease or
schizophrenia.
 They can help with identifying the brain area involved with problems like phantom limb pain, therefore
assisting the sufferer to overcome the pain.
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Disadvantages of using brain imaging technology
While brain imaging technologies have allowed for tremendous insights into the functioning of the human brain,
they are far from perfect.

Some disadvantages include:

  The main issue is the sheer complexity of human behaviour: even the most precise brain scan is
unlikely to reduce any given behaviour to a single neuron or molecule. Most human behaviour results
from the interaction of multiple biological, cognitive and social processes, and brain imaging doesn't
capture this.
 Two main issues are those of application and causality: Brain scans provide useful information, but
they do a poor job of articulating conscious experience. Mapping between activity in neurons or
circuits and subjective experience remains a huge conceptual, indeed philosophical, challenge.
Additionally, just because a correlational link is established between a certain brain physiology and a
behaviour, it does not necessarily mean the behaviour's etiology (cause) is entirely biological, as
environmental influences may have affected the brain physiologically.
 Of course brain function is influenced by genetics; but it is also profoundly influenced by the
environment, particularly the social environment. To put it another way, brain-based explanations of
symptoms are neither ‘biological’ nor ‘psychosocial,’ but instead must incorporate both.
 Lack of precision: all brain imaging technologies rely on software to interpret the measurements.
Therefore, any given brain imaging technology is only as precise as the software that runs it.
 Errors could occur without the researcher's knowledge, thus reducing validity.
 Stress for participants, especially those who suffer from claustrophobia.
 Lack of ecological validity: the situation is far from natural, so how is it possible to know if the brain
activity is that which would occur naturally? This is especially the case with fMRI and PET scans,
which focus on functionality.
 It is expensive to use brain scan technology, which has two disadvantages within it: (i) it reduces the
total number of participants per study as well as the likelihood of replication and (ii) the expense of
brain imaging makes it a technology to which many do not have access, and therefore the scans are
generally carried out on people living in wealthier parts of the world.
 Ethical problems associated with sensitive data; for example, if a reliable marker for a degenerative
brain disease such as Alzheimer’s were discovered, the data could be used to preclude participants
from health insurance due to a pre-existing condition, or other opportunities in life such as career
advancement due to a fear of inability to perform professionally. Therefore, participants must be
assured of confidentiality and the data must be handled with extreme care.
 Problem of interpretation: the contrasting colours used to illustrate changes in structure or activity may
give the impression of more change than has actually occurred.
 Correlation is not causation: even if there is a high correlation between a particular cognitive task and a
brain pattern, we cannot be sure that when the particular brain pattern in question is observed, the very
same correlated task must be happening. Furthermore, just because two things occur at the same time
does not prove that one thing causes the other.
 Eklund, Nichols and Knutsson (2016) found that there may be even more serious issues with fMRI
results than the scientific community has realised. The researchers put their collective statistical
expertise to work to analyse the functions used in a variety of fMRI software packages to interpret
brain activity levels. What they found was that the most popular software currently in use by the vast
majority of fMRI machines has a misapplication of the Gaussian curve, which results in false positives
(so a result might be reported as positive when in fact there is no change or no activity). These results
question the validity of the results of a number of fMRI studies.
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ATL: Thinking Critically
The use of PET and fMRI scans has helped psychologists to identify brain patterns for dysfunctional behaviours.
In fact, some scientists say that these scanning images are like fingerprints. There is a certain pattern for people
with schizophrenia, alcoholism, and depression, among other disorders. These patterns are present, even if the
person does not show any symptoms of the disorder. You see in the news an article that says that your
government is considering having all members of government who need security clearance have a PET or fMRI
scan in order to determine whether they are “fit” for this position. Class: as a psychologist, how would you
respond to this suggestion?

Exam Tip
An exam question that requires you to 'discuss' or 'evaluate' the use of brain scanning techniques requires that
you make explicit links between the use of these techniques and the aim of the research. You, therefore, need
to analyse why the brain scanning method used in the study you cite helped the researchers to achieve their aim.
You must discuss strengths and limitations of the brain scanning technique while doing so. It is essential to link
each brain imaging technology to a specific example of research, and then describe the research in detail.
The following video not only discusses technology, but also the question of localization of function.
Definitely worth watching Video: A neural portrait of the human mind https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Yj3nGv0kn8
Sources: Notes on Managebac, Kognity, 2.A.2, InThinking, 2021, You tube video links mentioned above
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