Technical Notes

INDEX

 Physical properties of clay brick

 History
 Manufacture of brick
 Sizes, colours, shapes and orientation
 Moisture penetration through brickwork
 Use of waterproofing sealers
 Fire rating of clay brick veneer walls
 Thermal resistance of masonry
 Sound transmission of masonry
 Movement joints
 Sustainability
 Cleaning of brick
 Efflorescence
 CSA A82 requirements
 Freeze thaw tests
 Absorption tests
 Compressive strength test
 Initial rate of absorption (IRA)
 Finish
 Efflorescence test
 Dimensions
 Quantities of brick and mortar
 Physical properties of clay brick

Physical Properties for Exterior Grade(Type EG) Clay Brick

Property Typical Range CSA A-82-06 Standard
24 hour cold water 2 – 11% If not greater than 8.0%, the
absorption (%) C/B ratio is not used
5 hour boil water 3 – 17% Maximum of 17.0 %
absorption
Saturation Coefficient (C/B Less than 0.78 maximum if
ratio) 0.5 – 0.9 cold water absorption is
greater than 8%
Compressive Strength 30 – 100 MPa Greater than 20.7MPa (3,000
(MPa) (4,350-14,500 psi) psi)
(psi)
Mass Loss after 50 cycles 0.0 - 0.5% Not more than 0.5% mass
of Freeze Thaw Testing loss with no breakage of unit
(%)

Other Physical Properties of Clay Brick

Property Typical Range
Fire Rating Clay Brick veneer Typically 1 hr for 90 mm solid brick
Sound Transmission Class STC = 45 to 50
Rating
Thermal Transmission U = 2.38 Btu/(ft2.h.°F)
R Value RSI = 0.074 m2.°C/W , R = 0.42
ft2.h.°F/Btu
Solar Reflectance Index
 History

Brick is the oldest building material known to man. Today, brick is used
extensively in North America primarily as an exterior cladding material for houses
and buildings. Besides the aesthetic appeal of brick, a brick veneer forms a
durable facade to the building, protecting the other more moisture sensitive
components of the wall assembly, from the elements - rain, snow, temperature
fluctuations and winds. Brick veneer also provides additional benefits of low
maintenance, sound insulation, thermal mass and fire protection and penetration
resistance.

Brick veneer construction generally utilizes brick units with 75mm (3”) to
100mm (4”) bed depth, with a clear air space (cavity) behind the veneer. The
function of the cavity is to provide a capillary break between the veneer and
backing and to drain the moisture, which may penetrate the veneer, thereby
protecting the more moisture susceptible components such as sheathing,
insulation, air and vapour barrier and timber or steel studs.

The air space and weepholes also allow pressure equalization of the air in the
cavity and the external air pressure, thus reducing the water penetration due to
wind driven rain. This is known as the "Rain Screen Principle".

The structural back up may be another wythe (thickness) of masonry, steel stud
or timber stud; typically timber stud is used in residential construction. Brick
veneer is non-load bearing by design, whereas the brick wythe of a cavity wall
shares part of the vertical load. The brick veneer shares much of the lateral
loading from wind, seismic etc. and transfers that to the back-up via the ties.

With respect to the rain screen principle and other building science aspects, the
brick veneer is identical to the outer brick wythe of a cavity wall.
 Manufacturing of brick

Essentially, brick are produced by mixing ground shale or clay with water,
forming them into desired shapes then drying and firing them. The
manufacturing process has six phases:

1) Mining. The raw material (shale) is mined and stock piled in quarries
normally situated in close proximity to the plant. The shale is normally
allowed to weather for a period of about three months.
2) Crushing and Grinding. The raw material then passes through the crushing
and grinding operation, which reduces the size of the particle to beach
sand consistency. Screens are used to control the size of the particles.
3) Forming. The fine material is then mixed with water in pug mills (giant
mixers) to form a plastic mix suitable for extrusion. It is then extruded
into a column in a continuous process. Texture, colourant and sand
coating are applied to the face and header of selected brick to achieve a
wide range of product. This column is cut into individual brick size, and
stacked onto a kiln car.
4) Drying. The kiln cars are then placed in a dryer at temperatures around
200°C, to dry the brick to less than 0.5% moisture. The period in the
dryer is between 24 – 30 hrs.
5) Firing. After the dryers, the kiln cars then go through a kiln where the
brick are fired at temperatures in excess of 1000 °C. The period in the kiln
ranges from 24 – 30 hrs.
6) Packaging. After firing, the brick are packaged into cubes, ready for
shipment to the job site.
More information on the manufacture of clay brick can be found in the BIA
Technical Note 9.
 Sizes, colours, shapes and orientation of brick

The most common sizes of brick together with dimensions and other information
are listed in tables 7a and 7b. Colours and shapes of clay brick will vary from
manufacturer to manufacturer. Refer to manufacturers’ websites and literature
for more details.

Various wall patterns can be achieved by changing the orientation of the brick
itself. The names of the various brick orientations include:

 Stretcher-a unit laid with its greatest dimension horizontal and its face
parallel to the wall face.
 Soldier- a stretcher set on its end with its face showing on the wall
surface.
 Header-a unit laid with the face of one end parallel to the wall face.
 Rowlock- a unit laid on its long narrow (backside), with the header and
part of the stretcher face exposed.
 Sailor-a unit laid vertically with the narrow stretcher side exposed
 Moisture penetration through brickwork

Brick veneer cladding and brick cavity walls provide superior protection for a
building against water penetration. However, occasionally there are situations
where there is water leakage into the interior. In many such situations, the brick
is erroneously blamed for the leakage. The fact that water permeates beyond the
brick veneer does not mean the brick, the mortar or the workmanship is
deficient.

The brick veneer wall system is a “drainage” or “Rain Screen” wall system.
A typical brick veneer / cavity wall comprises of a back up wall (concrete block,
timber or metal studs), the brick veneer, and a drainage cavity (air space) which
separates the brick veneer from the back up wall. The design and construction of
this wall system allows that water may occasionally penetrate the brick veneer,
but on reaching the cavity, will drain downwards and be directed to the exterior
of the building. The cavity provides many very important functions in ensuring
that the interior of the building remains dry, namely:
 A capillary break between the outer wythe (brick veneer) and the back-up
wall
 A drainage path to allow any water that does penetrate the brick veneer
to drain to the base of the cavity and to the exterior
 It allows for the drying out of the elements adjacent to the cavity
 Venting provides partial pressure equalization between the cavity and the
exterior.
 This reduces the amount of moisture, which could be driven through the
brick veneer due to driving rain.
The importance and effectiveness of this cavity is now recognized throughout
North America. Some building authorities now stipulate a drainage cavity in all
wall systems.

For the drainage wall system to operate effectively, the following details need to
be in place:
a) Brick Veneer. Although the leakage of water through the brick veneer does
not constitute a deficiency, it is prudent to minimize the amount of
moisture which does get through. Although a well burned clay brick is
porous, very little water will permeate through the brick itself. Experience
and studies shows that any moisture, which does penetrate the brick
veneer, does so mainly through voids in the mortar joints. The use of well
proportioned mortar and the tooling of the joints (concave) will
significantly reduce moisture penetration.
b) Cavity. The cavity should be clear and continuous. The width of a cavity
behind a brick veneer is typically 25 – 50 mm (1” – 2”). Although some
mortar droppings do fall into the cavity, the cavity should be reasonably
clear. The use of pebbles or proprietary net products placed at the base of
 the cavity help keep the important drainage area free from mortar
droppings.
c) Wall Ties. Wall ties should be so designed and installed so that they do
not allow water to traverse the cavity.
d) Flashing: Through-wall flashing should be installed at the base of the
cavity, above any openings in the wall, and above the roof line at any
point where the wall traverses the roofline. End dams should be
constructed at the termination of flashing, eg against doors, columns, on
lintels and shelf angles etc. Flashing should be adequately lapped and
sealed. Corner details of flashing should be detailed appropriately.
Flashing should extend six inches up the back-up wall, be well secured
and lapped behind the building paper or house wrap, and extend to the
exterior beyond the brickwork. Refer to technical note on Flashing.
e) Weepholes: Weepholes are normally constructed by leaving an open
header on the first course at approximately 600mm (24 inches) spacing.
The weepholes should be unobstructed, to allow for drainage.
f) The flashing and weepholes at the base of the wall should be at least 150
mm (6 inches) above finished grade to allow for free draining.
 Use of water proofing sealers

Many people think that putting water repellent on a clay brick masonry wall will
help keep out the moisture and prolong the life of it. Sometimes water repellents
are applied to address problems of excessive moisture or leakage in the wall. The
fact is that a wall designed and constructed using best practice does not need to
be treated with water repellent. Walls with excessive moisture issues are best
addressed by fixing the root cause of the problem.

Putting water repellents on the wall could lead to premature freeze thaw
deterioration due to entrapment of the water inside the clay brick masonry, even
though many of the repellents on the market today are said to be “breathable”.
Although water repellents may reduce the surface absorption of moisture due to
rain, the cause of deterioration is usually due to moisture sources that build up in
the wall.
These sources include:
 Interior moisture, like warm interior air, condensing on a cold wall
 Exterior moisture that enters the wall through poor mortar joints,
deteriorated sealants or improper application of moisture control features

The entrapment effect is best seen in the graph below. Brick with and without
water repellent were submerged in water for 24 hours and then allowed to dry
with only their faces exposed. The brick without the water repellent dried twice
as fast as the ones with water repellent.

Moisture Release Through Face

60
Moisture Release (% of total water absorbed)

50

40
1 (sealed)
2 (unsealed)

30

20

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Time (hrs)
Even though the water repellent did allow the brick to dry, the higher retained
moisture content can make the difference in the long-term performance of the
masonry wall. The effect of this moisture build up can be quite catastrophic.

The masonry wall show below was treated with a sealer and had moisture
vapour leakage from the interior of the building, leading to moisture entrapment
and eventual freeze-thaw failure.
 Fire rating of clay brick veneer walls

If calculating the fire resistance from the outside, the following can be used as a
guide: Table D. 2.1.1 of the Division B of the Building Code gives rating for clay
brick veneer. Fire rating for a 90 mm thick brick with 80% solid is one hour. Fire
rating for a 90 mm thick brick with 75% solid is 54 minutes by interpolation. The
building code allows for interpolation. The total fire-resistant rating for the wall
assembly is a function of all the wall components on the fire exposed side. The
building code gives the values for the time assigned to wallboard membranes
and the framing in tables D-2.3.4.B and D-2.3.4.C. See Table 1 below.
Irrespective of which framing or wallboard is used, the fire-resistant rating for
the assembly will exceed one hour.
Table 1

Material Table Time (mins)

Brick Veneer (75%) Table D.2.1.1 54 mins
Sheathing: Plywood / Table D.2.3.4.B 10 / 25 mins
Gypsum
Stud Frame: Steel / Wood Table D.2.3.4.C 10 / 20 mins
Total time 74 – 99 mins

Clause D-1.7.1. Determination of Contribution gives Portland cement-sand plaster

or lime sand plaster contribution as solid clay brick in determining equivalent
thickness. So filling the coreholes of a solid clay brick would effective increase
the equivalent thickness to the full depth.

Table D. 2.1.1 in the Division B of the building code gives a 1 hour fire rating for
a 90 mm thick clay brick wall. However, 3.1.7.3 (3) and 9.10.3.3 (2) of the
building code states that “Exterior walls shall be rated for exposure to fire from
the inside of the building”. This means that for a brick veneer wall, the brick can
not be included in the calculation of the fire rating, as described in clause 2.3.4
(1) of the Supplementary Guidelines2. A 12.7mm Type X gypsum wallboard on
wood studs 400mm oc will meet the required 45 minutes.

Brick's non-combustibility does however play an important part in preventing the

spread of fire from one building to another. The requirements for exposed face of
residential housing are as follows:
- shall have a fire-resistance rating of not less than 45 minutes where the
limiting distance is less than 1.2m (4 ft)
- be clad with non-combustible material where the limiting distance is less than
600 mm (2 ft).
The limiting distance is the distance from the building to the property boundary.
Figure 8 below shows the requirements for cladding with respect to the limiting
distance to the property line.

Figure 8
Criteria for Cladding Fire Rating and Distance to the Property Line

Limiting Under 0.6 m

distance to 0.6 m to 1.2 m
Property Line
Exposed Greater than 1.2 m
Building
Face

45 minute required required not required

fire
resistance
rating
Non required not required not required
combustible
cladding
Permitted 0% 0% Table
area of 9.10.14.1
glazed
openings
 Thermal Resistance of Masonry - RSI (R) -Values

The RSI (R) - value is a measure of the Thermal Resistance of a material or wall
assemblage. The units are RSI - m2.°C/W and R - ft2.h.°F/Btu . The Minimum
Thermal Resistance of wall systems is 3.80 (R21) for Zone 1 in Ontario for gas
heated building.

Typical value for thermal resistance of brick veneer is:

RSI = 0.074 m2.°C/W , or R = 0.42 ft2.h.°F/Btu.

Brick veneer alone will not provide sufficient resistance to heat flow, and hence
the need for insulation. However, the above figures are based on steady state
heat flow and do not take into account the effect of “Thermal Mass”, i.e. the
ability of the wall to absorb heat during the day and dissipate that heat in the
night. Research carried out at the University of Waterloo, BEGHUT, indicates that
a dark brick wall, particularly on the south or west wall, could result in significant
savings (about 20%) in heating costs. Dark brick veneer will on average be 3-
7°C above ambient temperature in the winter. BIA Tech Note 4B gives a
conservative adjustment calculation, which takes into account the effect of
Thermal Mass.
Sound Transmission Rating (STC)- Bldg. code Sect (9.11.2.1)

The specified STC rating of 50 is considered the minimum, but many builders
prefer to design for STC 55. The code does not give values for brick. BIA Tech
Note 5A gives STC values of 45 for a 95 mm (4 “) face brick wall and 50 for a 92
mm (4”) face brick wall and 13 mm (½“) plaster.
 Movement Joints.

Many people believe that buildings are static, that they do not move. However,
buildings do move due to changes in temperature, moisture and loads. The effect
of this is much more important on the building envelope than on the interior
structure which has a more stable environment.

The National Building Code gives the following deformation properties for clay
brick:

Thermal Movement mm/m per 100°C 0.7

Moisture Movement – Permanent mm/m - 0.2
(expansion)
Moisture Movement - Reversible mm/m +- 0.1
Modulus of Elasticity, MPa x 103 20
Creep Coefficient Ø* 1
* Deformation under sustained loading = short term deformation based on
modulus of elasticity (1+ ø )

These movements are accommodated by constructing movement joints (vertical

and horizontal) at strategic locations throughout the building.

In residential construction, the brick cladding is built after the timber frame and
is structurally independent of it. Apart from flexible ties, there is no rigid
connection between the two elements. Since brickwork and timber have different
moisture and thermal movement characteristics, the design must make provision
for potential different movements.

The largest movement that should be anticipated is due to the drying of the
timber and the effect of loading compression on the frame joints. There could be
as much as 10mm vertical shrinkage movement at the eaves of a two-storey
house, and 15mm at the eaves of a three-storey house. Clay brickwork will tend
to show slight expansion, up to 5mm at the eaves of a two-storey house. See
figure 6.

It is essential, therefore that any place where an element supported by the

timber structure passes across the brickwork, eg at eaves, verges and sills, that a
movement gap is left between the top of the brickwork and the underside of the
element. See Table 2 for recommended design movement gaps to accommodate
relative brick and timber movements.
 Table 2 - Recommended Movement gaps.

Height Movement gap

Up to 1st Floor 10 mm
Up to 2nd Floor 15 mm
Up to 3rd Floor 20 mm

Due to differential vertical movement characteristics, lintels for the brickwork are
required to be independent of the timber frame. Similarly, door and window
frames should not be fixed to the brickwork, although it is not likely to be a
critical factor at ground level.

In addition to provisions for vertical movement, joints to accommodate horizontal

movement are required in the brickwork cladding where there are long walls or
short offsets less than 600mm. The CMCA recommends 10 mm wide expansion
joints at 7-10m centres for clay brickwork. Such vertical joints can often be
concealed behind rainwater pipes.
 Sustainability

Masonry is one of the oldest building materials used by man and has been
around for thousands of years and still the most widely used building material.
The rich heritage of historic masonry buildings in Canada, Europe, Asia and other
parts of the world bears testimony to the sustainability of masonry as a building
material. This article looks at how a number of attributes of masonry contribute
to sustainable design and construction. Some of these attributes are included in
the LEED program; however, a number are not included in LEED. Table 4 at the
end of this article lists the attributes and the applicable credits.

Durability
Masonry units are durable and contribute to building assemblies that remain
useful in the material cycle for long periods of time. The use of masonry units, if
properly detailed, will minimize the risk and environmental costs of premature
failure of building components. Most deterioration occurs to exterior wall
components, therefore good building envelope design is essential. The Ontario
Association of Architects (OAA) insurance plan only covers drained cladding
systems or solid masonry or concrete systems that are moisture tolerant. Canada
Standards Association (CSA) S478-95 (R2001) “Guidelines on Durability in
Buildings” lists brick veneer with a design service life (DSL) of 50 years and
concrete block firewalls with a DSL of 100 years. Masonry durability is recognized
by OAA & CSA and should be part of building envelope design. Further, the
Canadian version of LEED-NC gives a credit for Durability.

Besides the durability of the materials used for construction, the actual
assemblage of the wall system is fundamental in ensuring the durability of the
building. An important aspect of the wall system is the presence of a drainage
cavity or rainscreen wall system. The rainscreen wall system anticipates that
water will get into the wall, either by permeating through the building materials,
or by leakage through deficiencies in windows and other penetrations. The wall
system is designed to direct this moisture back to the exterior. This drainage
cavity is an important aspect of any wall system and is now a building code
requirement for buildings in the high rainfall area (Moisture Index (MI) -greater
than 1).

One of the best reasons for using masonry is its durability and potential for reuse
and salvage. Most masonry units can be reused when carefully dismantled. In
fact there is a significant market in Canada for reclaimed clay brick. However, the
durability of the masonry units should be checked before reuse. Clay brick
manufactured prior to 1950 was often fired in beehive kilns. Brick on the outer
edges of the stack were under-fired and were lighter in colour (salmon). These
brick did not have the durability of facing brick and were used on the inner wythe
of a multi-wythe brick wall. During demolition, it is important that these brick are
kept separate from the facing brick.

Another aspect to consider when using reclaimed clay brick is the absorption
characteristics of the bedding face, which may have been compromised by
cement filling the voids. This can affect the potential bond between the mortar
and the masonry unit. The initial rate of absorption (IRA) should also be checked
before reuse to ensure a proper bond.

Because of the durability of masonry and masonry structures, masonry buildings

are often ideal candidates for building reuse. Masonry also compares favourably
with Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) that includes materials, construction and energy
consumption.

Masonry is also resistant to other forms of degradation such as fire, mould and
termites.
Masonry is inherently fire resistant. Interior masonry fire partitions help stop the
spread of fire. These aspects reduce the environmental impact of fires. Passive
fire protection reduces the costs of buildings.

Masonry units are mould resistant and can be used in most environments where
people work and live.

Structure / Finish Combination

Masonry can provide both structural support and the interior or exterior wall
finish combination, which can reduce environmental and building costs. Both
brick and block walls and columns have high structural load capacity. Most
masonry structures are loaded to a fraction of their capacity. Furthermore, the
face of masonry is visually attractive and does not need any coatings of finishes,
whether installed in an exterior or interior application. LEED offers a credit where
low VOC paints and sealers are used, but masonry does not need either, so VOCs
are eliminated completely.

Masonry walls require very little maintenance, eliminating the need for regular
upkeep and repairs and the associated cost and environmental impact.

Energy Performance
The mass of brick, block, natural and manufactured stone can provide thermal
storage (also known as thermal mass) that can moderate a building’s
temperature. Masonry can store heat energy and slowly release it, keeping the
building cooler during the day and warmer at night. Thermal mass is more
effective when used on the interior of a building and insulated to the outside.
This is ideal for cooler climates. By using masonry in this way, the heating and
cooling needs of the building are reduced and less energy is wasted.
Construction Waste Management
Being modular in nature, and small in size, masonry products are less prone to
waste. Designers can maintain the rigour of modular dimensions, reducing
cutting of units on site. Concrete block are manufactured to a 200 mm height by
400 mm length modules (once the 10 mm mortar joint is added to the unit
dimensions). Many clay brick are manufactured to sizes to coincide with these
measurements to facilitate coordinated modular construction. Sizes are listed in
the Table 3 below:
Table 3

Unit Unit Height Course Units /

Height block
Concrete block 190 mm 200 mm 1:1
Metric Modular / Norman brick 57 mm 67 mm 3:1
CSR / Engineer Norman brick 70 mm 80 mm 5:2
Metric Closure / Jumbo brick 90 mm 100 mm 2:1

Masonry units are inert, so waste on a construction site can be crushed and used
as landscaping.

Recycled Content
Many concrete block manufacturers use fly ash and slag as a portion of their
cement in their products. These products reduce the quantity of cement and thus
reduce CO2 emissions and increase the amount of recycled content. In addition,
quantities of recycled aggregate can be used in some products.

For clay brick manufacturers, any waste unfired (green) brick is fed back into the
raw material feed. At some plants, the fired brick (grog) is ground and is also
used as raw material feed for brick making. If the grog is not used for raw
material, it is ground up and sold as landscaping material, or used for repair of
quarry roads. No material is wasted or sent to a landfill.

Local / Regional Materials

Because of the large number of manufacturers, most cities are within 800 km of
a brick or block plant and these materials will help contribute towards the
regional material credit.

Resources Management
The clay brick industry adheres to strict operating principles which ensure the
choices of future generations are not compromised by activities of the current
one. All clay brick quarries operate under License granted by the Ministry of
Natural Resources (MNR), in accordance with the Aggregate Resources Act. The
License requires an approved Site Plan that typically contains operational, water,
progressive and final rehabilitation plans, which are prepared in consultation with
interested parties including the MNR, Conservation Authorities and local levels of
government. Additional targets including control of dust and effluent discharge
are set by the Ministry of Environment (MOE). Once mining operations at a
quarry are complete, the land is carefully and meticulously backfilled and
returned to a state as close as possible to the original, to ensure the land
continues to offer future generations equivalent potential for use and
development.

Quarries do impact the environment to a certain extent, but it is limited to the

area of the quarry and is very controlled. The benefits of the quarry are
significant. For example, a 200 acre quarry will be able to provide sufficient brick
to clad approximately 10,000 houses (1.2 million sq. m. of wall area annually) or
a total of around 500,000 houses over the life of the quarry. By contrast, one
would need approximately 12,000 acres of farmland to produce enough straw
bales to cover the same wall area.

The goal of the clay brick industry is to make clay mining operations
environmentally neutral. In fact, from one perspective, the industry actually
optimizes benefits from the land for current and future generations. If quarry
land had actually been developed before the clay was mined, the mineral value
of the land would be locked in and future generations would not have had the
opportunity to access that clay. By extracting the clay, rehabilitating the land to
pre-quarry use and then developing the land, the community has in fact achieved
double the use of the valuable asset. Although the clay used to make brick is a
very prevalent natural resource (existing resources will supply the needs of
humans for thousands of years), brick manufacturers work diligently to ensure
quarry sites are used responsibly and efficiently by developing them in a manner
consistent with the criteria of the sustainability concept.

Reduced Environmental Impact of Manufacture

Another key criterion of sustainability is a reduction in the amount of energy
required to produce building materials. Over the past 20 years, the clay brick
industry has successfully committed to and accomplished a significant reduction
in the energy needed to manufacture brick. In 2004, the energy required to
manufacture one pound of material of clay brick is just over 50 percent of what it
was in 1981. Since 2004, there has been a further reduction in energy use of
about 10 percent due to improvements in the plants.

The dematerialization within the manufacturing process, also contributes to

reducing energy consumption and the use of resources. In short,
dematerialization translates into doing more with less. One of the goals of
sustainability is to accomplish dematerialization without compromising the quality
or performance attributes of the product or project. The clay brick industry has
achieved this in two ways:
 Over the last two decades, the thickness of the brick veneer has gone
from four inches to three and a half inches to three inches, and still
maintaining the same level of performance
 Investigating increasing the voids (cores) within the brick. Studies at the
National Brick Research Centre (NBRC) at Clemson University, SC show
that the Flexural bond strength, resistance to water penetration and
compressive strength is not affected by increasing the voids up to 32
percent

With the increased use of scrubbers on new and old clay brick plants, the clay
brick industry has aggressively reduced environmental emission and effluent
throughout all steps in the manufacturing process. Ten years ago, approximately
52 percent of brick was manufactured from plants with scrubbers. Today that
figure is 75 percent and expected to grow.

Since clay occurs naturally, it is virtually inert and remains so when formed into
brick. Consequently, clay brick is the only cladding material that emits no gases,
needs no maintenance and is impervious to chemical leaching. Moreover, brick is
naturally fireproof and requires no coatings or cleaning products which could
potentially produce environmentally harmful off gassing, or toxic fumes when
burning.

Rating Systems
Table 4 below lists some of the attributes of masonry and credits they can
achieve in the various rating systems.
Table 4

Attribute LEED - NC LEED for NAHB – NGBS

Homes
Protect open spaces SS credit 5.1
Energy Performance EA credit 1 EA 1 703 & 704
Construction Waste MR credit 2 MR 3 605
Management
Recycled Content MR credit 4 MR 2 604
Regional Materials MR credit 5 MR 2 608
Durable Buildings RP credit 1 609 & 602
Resource efficient materials 601 & 607
Masonry fire place EQ 2 901.2
NC -New Construction and Major Renovation projects
EA -Energy and Atmosphere; EQ -Indoor Environmental Quality;
MR -Materials and resources; RP -Regional priority; SS -Sustainable sites
 Cleaning of new masonry

It is often necessary to clean new masonry to achieve the desired aesthetics.

The first step is for the mason to try and avoid getting mortar smears on the face
of the brick. If there are mortar smears, the easiest cleaning method is to use
clear water and a brush. This method needs to be carried out within 24 hour,
before the mortar has had time to set. If the mortar has set, then cleaning can
be achieved by using a proprietary cleaning agent, high pressure water or a
combination of both. If either of these methods is used, the cleaning should be
carried out between 7 and 30 days of installation. Seven days allows the mortar
to gain sufficient strength so that the mortar is not damaged during cleaning. If
the mortar is allowed to set for more than 30 days, it becomes progressively
more difficult to remove.

If a proprietary cleaning agent is used, it is important that the brickwork is

prewet so that the cleaning agent remains on the surface of the brickwork where
it is most effective.
Check with your brick manufacturer for recommendations on what cleaner is best
suited for their product.

If high pressure water is used, then the pressure should not exceed 4850 kPa
(700 psi) at a 2 ft. minimum distance. Also use a fan nozzle with a spray angle of
at least 60º. Use gentle strokes.

As with all masonry cleaning projects, it is important to carry out the cleaning on
an inconspicuous area of brickwork first to ensure that the desired results are
achieved. Allow a day or two for the brickwork to dry before inspection. If the
desired are achieved, proceed with cleaning the rest of the brickwork.

For more information on cleaning of masonry, see BIA Technical Note 20.
 Efflorescence

Efflorescence is a white crystalline deposit left on the surface of masonry. It is a

very complex process whose occurrence is very difficult to predict.

In new masonry construction when efflorescence is observed it is called new

building bloom. In most cases, new building bloom will dissipate over time if the
brickwork is allowed to dry after completion and if environmental factors such as
wind and rain are given sufficient time to naturally clean the brick work. There
are several factors that contribute to new building bloom. These include:
 High moisture levels in the wall: This can be caused by walls under
construction being exposed to rain, concentrated moisture at contact with
grade and under horizontal elements such as sills and caps and sheet
drainage from non-absorptive surfaces. The moisture will dissolve soluble
elements of the wall and bring them to the surface.
 Cement reactions: One of the main soluble elements is calcium hydroxide.
It is found in all cement-bearing materials. It is a product of the cement
hydration process. The calcium hydroxide reacts with CO2 in the air to
form calcium carbonate, which is a white powder.
 Reaction between the brick and mortar: The calcium hydroxide in the
mortar can react with trace elements in the brick to form efflorescence as
well.
 Temperature: Calcium hydroxide becomes more soluble when the
temperature decreases with maximum solubility reached at 40 °F. This is
why efflorescence is more prevalent in the spring and fall.

If more immediate removal of efflorescence is required, it can be removed by

scrubbing with a bristle brush and clean water. Cleaning of efflorescence should
only take place once the efflorescence has ceased. If the brickwork is cleaned
while the efflorescence is still occurring, it will continue to effloresce and will
need to be cleaned again. As most means of cleaning efflorescence use water, it
is not recommended to clean the efflorescence during cold months (Oct to Mar),
as this will add more moisture into the brickwork increasing the risk of more
efflorescence.

If efflorescence occurs in an older building, it is an indication that excess

moisture is getting into the masonry. The best method of addressing this is to
identify the source of the moisture and correct the offending detail. Once this has
been done, the efflorescence can be removed.
 CSA Standard A82-06 requirements

CSA Standard A82-06 “Fired masonry units made from clay or shale” sets down
the requirements for manufacture of clay brick in Canada. The previous version
of this standard is A82.1-M87 “Burned clay brick, manufactured from clay of
shale’. This latter standard is the one that is referenced by the current building
codes. The other CSA masonry standards refer to the former more recent
standard. Architects and engineers are at liberty to specify a newer standard.

There have been a number of changes in terminology between the two

standards. These are summarized in the table 5 below:

Table 5 - Comparison of current and previous standards

Terminology CSA Standard A82-06 CSA Standard A82.1-M87

(current standard) (previous standard)
Grade of Brick EG (exterior grade) SW (severe weathering)
IG (internal grade) MW (moderate weathering)
Type of Brick X FBX
S FBS
A FBA
Solid units 100% solid 75 – 100% solid
Cored units 75 - 100% solid NA
Hollow units < 75 % solid < 75% solid (A82.8)

This following is a commentary on the CSA A82 standard on fired clay brick. The
purpose is to provide background information on why certain tests are carried
out and why certain values have been adopted. It has been complied and edited
by members of the Clay Brick Association of Canada (CBAC). It is not an official
CSA document and has not been vetted by the CSA technical committee.
 Freeze-thaw test

Clay brick is one of the most durable building products available. However, clay
brick can be susceptible to damage (spalling) if they are subjected to freeze-
thaw cycles in a saturated condition. This condition does not take place in
properly designed masonry veneer (see BIA Tech Notes 7, 7A, 7B) but can occur
due to improper masonry design or workmanship or if sealants are applied to the
face of the brick. At a certain level of saturation and when exposed to repetitive
freeze-thaw cycles, the expansion of the ice in the pore structure of the brick can
lead to damage.

The freeze-thaw test is used to determine the brick’s capacity to resist damage
during freezing and thawing. In the test, the brick is subjected to fifty cycles of
20 hours of freezing followed by four hours of thawing. At the end of the test,
the units must not have lost more than 0.5% of their mass, nor have broken, or
developed visible cracks.

After a 15 year joint CBAC-NRC research program, a number of changes were

incorporated into the 2006 Standard, where the severity of the test was
increased, by ensuring that the brick remains in a frozen state during any
interruptions in the testing. Previously the standard allowed the brick to drain (air
dry) during these periods such as weekend. The saturation level of the samples
continuously increases dramatically increasing the severity of this test. This test
takes approximately 10 to 12 weeks to complete.

The results of the freeze-thaw test take precedence over those of the absorption
procedures, where the absorption properties do not meet the requirements
shown below.
 Absorption tests

Because the freeze-thaw tests take up to three months to complete, they are not
practical as a quality control test, the absorption tests were developed which
have a strong correlation to freeze-thaw durability and the freeze-thaw tests.
These tests include:
Cold water absorption (C) - Dry brick are placed in water for 24 hours and
the percentage moisture absorbed is recorded as the % Cold Water Absorption.
Boiling water absorption (B) - After the cold water absorption test is
complete, the same brick are then placed in water and brought to a boil and held
for a period of 5 hours and the total percentage moisture absorbed is measured.
Saturation Coefficient (C/B) -The saturation coefficient is calculated as the
ratio of the cold water absorption over the boiling water absorption. It is also
known as the CB Ratio.

The standard sets the following upper limits for each of these tests:

C less than 8% and B less than 17 % or;

C/B less than 0.78 and B less than 17 %

Note that to comply with the standard, the brick must satisfy the requirement of
either cold water or the saturation coefficient criteria. The reason for this is that
the various clay bodies have different properties and that the criteria that
ensures durability of one clay body may not be applicable to another.
For a particular clay body, the more it is fired in the kiln, the lower the
absorbency and the higher the durability. However, for the same level of
durability, the darker brick tend to have lower absorbencies and the lighter
coloured brick tend to have higher absorbencies.

The rationale behind the saturation coefficient is as follows:

The cold water absorption reflects the amount of water which the brick will take
up in wet field conditions in properly designed and detailed veneer walls.
The boiling water absorption reflects the maximum volume of voids which can be
filled with water. If the brick has a saturation coefficient of less than 0.78, it
means that even if the brick is saturated in field conditions when subjected to
freezing, there is still 22% of the voids unfilled which allows the ice to expand
into these voids without damaging the brick structure.
 Compressive strength test

In this test, the brick is subjected to a compressive force until failure and the
failure load over gross area is recorded as the strength. Originally, the
compressive strength was considered an important indicator of durability as it is
a measure of the fired bond strength in the brick. However, the compressive
strength is no longer considered as a critical indicator of durability, but it is used
in determining the load-bearing capacity of the masonry.

In order to achieve the above absorption levels, the brick has to be fired
extremely hard and the resultant compressive strength of the units is several
times higher than the standard requires. Also, in most applications, the stresses
that the brick is subjected to, is very low, well below the strength of the unit.
 Initial Rate of Absorption (IRA)

In this test, the bedding face of the brick is placed in a shallow tray of water for
a period of one minute and the amount of water absorbed in calculated as in g/
(min. x 20 000 mm2). The IRA is an indication of the potential bond between the
brick unit and the mortar.

The brick does require a certain absorption range in order to draw the water and
cement into the surface voids and create a mechanical bond. If the IRA is too
low, the lack of absorption can inhibit bond development. If the absorption is too
high, the unit will draw the water out of the mortar too quickly, causing the
mortar to lose plasticity and inhibit its strength and the bond development of the
mortar.

The IRA is an optional test and is not a requirement of the standard because
there are more factors on site that can affect the IRA than simply the properties
of the brick.
Corrective measures for brick with low IRA and or cold weather may include:
 Using type S mortar or increase amount of lime in mortar
 Keep brick dry and warm prior to installation
 Increase time between laying of the units and tooling
Corrective measures for brick with high IRA or hot weather may include:
 Pre-wet the units and/or keep them in shade prior to laying
 Use admixtures which increase water retentivity
 Finish

Clay brick can be either “through-the-body” colour (where the colour on the face
is the same as the clay body), or a clay brick can get its colour from a coating on
the exterior faces only. Some extruded brick will have all or some of the following
surface treatment applied to the face and headers of the brick prior to firing;
texturing, engobe and/or coloured sand coating. This treatment enables
manufacturers to provide a wide range of brick styles and appearances.

Some brick may exhibit surface defects. The following are some of the surface
defects that can be present on a brick:

Chips - Although every endeavor is made by the manufacturer to ensure that all
brick delivered to a site is free of chips, chips can occur as a result of handling,
transportation or during installation. The standard does make an allowance for
these chips. (see Table 8 below)

Hairline cracks -Clay brick are fired at temperatures in excess of 1000ºC. As the
brick expand and contracts during the firing process, hairline cracks can
sometime develop on the face or back of the brick.

These imperfections do not affect the integrity or durability of the brick. Masonry
should be judged on its overall aesthetics rather than a close scrutiny of the
individual units. The CSA A82 Standard states that those imperfections that are
not visible from a distance of 4.5m (15 feet) for type X brick and 6.1 m (20 feet)
for type S or A, are acceptable.
 Efflorescence test

For this test, five brick are placed in a shallow tray of water for a week. The brick
are then dried and compared with a control set of brick to determine whether or
not there is efflorescence. Brick are rated as “no efflorescence”, “slightly
effloresced” or “effloresced”. The first two categories are acceptable.

This test is optional, because there are more factors on site which can contribute
to efflorescence than the properties of the brick. Some of the factors on site
which can affect efflorescence are; moisture content of the masonry at
installation, adjacent materials, mortar composition, whether or not the masonry
walls are covered during work stoppages, freezing during construction, exposure
of the walls to runoff from slab or roof above.
 Dimensions

The CSA A 82-06 Standard does not stipulate the dimensions of the brick but
rather lists the tolerance of the dimensions to nominal size and job lot average,
and to warpage and distortion. These tolerances are variances which may occur
during the manufacturing process due to shrinkage of the clay during drying and
firing, wear of the mold or extrusion die, or undue stress on the units during
handling prior to firing. There are two sets of tolerances for dimensions shown in
Table 6 below; one regarding the specified nominal dimension and one relative
the job lot average.

Table 6- Tolerances on dimensions

Maximum permissible variation from specified dimension

and
from average specimen size in the job lot sample, ± mm
Dimension From Specified From Job Lot Sample Average
(mm) Dimension
Type X Type S Type X Type S Type S
(smooth) (rough)
75 and under 1.5 2.5 1.5 1.5 2.5
Over 75 to 2.5 3.0 1.5 2.5 3.0
100
Over 100 to 3.0 5.0 2.5 2.5 5.0
150
Over 150 to 4.0 6.0 2.5 3.0 6.5
200
Over 200 to 5.5 8.0 3.0 5.0 8.0
300
Over 300 to 7.0 10.0 5.0 6.5 9.5
400

Table 7 –Tolerance on distortion

Maximum face Maximum permissible distortion, mm

dimension, mm Type X Type S
200 and under 1.5 2.5
Over 200 to 300 2.5 3.0
Over 300 to 400 3.0 4.0
 Table 8 -Tolerance on chippage

Maximum Chippage Chippage Remaining Chippage Chippage

Type allowed, in from in from allowed, in from in from
%* Edge Corner, %* Edge, Corner,
mm mm mm mm

X 5 or less 3.0-6.5 6.5-9.5 95-100 0-3.0 0-6.5

S(plain)** 10 or less 6.5-8.0 9.5-13.0 90-100 0-6.5 0-9.5
S(textured) 15 or less 8.0-11.0 13.0- 85-100 0-8.0 0-13.0
*** 19.0
A As
specified

*Percentage of exposed brick in the job lot permitted to have chippage

extending from an edge or corner to the dimensions in this Table.

Of all the brick that will be exposed in place, a small percentage of the brick may
have chips that range in size greater than that allowed for the majority of the
brick. This special allowed percentage, as shown in the “Maximum allowed, %”
columne, ranges up to 5% for X, up to 10% for S (plain), and up to 15% for S
(textured). The remainder of the brick that will be exposed in place, as shown in
the “Remaining allowed, % column, shall conform to the maximum allowed
chippage shown in the last two columns of this Table.

** Plain brick are dry-pressed brick or extruded brick with an inbroken natural
die finish face.
*** Textured brick are moulded brick or extruded brick with the face sanded,
combed, engobed, scratched, or scarified, or the die skin on the face entirely
broken by mechanical means such as wire cutting or wire brushing.
 Quantities of Brick and Mortar

Tables 9a & 9b give the theoretical quantities of brick and mortar required per
area of wall, based on 10 mm joint width. Allowances for breakage and wastage
vary, but, as a general rule, at least 5 % should be added to the quantity of brick
and 10 to 25 % to the net mortar quantity

Table 9a - Brick and Mortar Quantities-Metric Units

Brick Size Nominal Size Brick m3 of Mortar Wt/brick Wt/m2

(mm) Units

L x H x B /m2 /100 /1000 kg Kg/m2 *

Metric Modular 190 x 57 x 90 75.0 1.7 0.22 1.73 162

Ontario 213 x 60 x 102 64.5 1.8 0.28 2.11 170

CSR 230 x 70 x 90 52.0 1.5 0.27 2.41 154

MAX / PRP 257 x 79 x 90 42.0 1.3 0.30 3.05 153

Metric Closure 190 x 90 x 90 50.0 1.3 0.25 2.50 152

Metric Jumbo 290 x 90 x 90 33.0 1.3 0.34 3.35 135

Eng. Norman 290 x 70 x 90 42.0 1.3 0.32 2.77 141

Metric Norman 290 x 57 x 90 49.8 1.6 0.31 2.17 138

Québec 204 x 57 x 95 70 1.8 0.26 1.76 157

* Based on mortar density of 1900 kg/m3

** Does not include wastage (Add 25%)
 Table 9b - Brick and mortar quantities (Imperial units)

Brick Size Nominal Size (in) Brick ft3 of Mortar Weight/ Weight/
**
L x H x B /ft2 brick ft2 wall
/1000 /1000 (lb) (lb/ft2)
brick *

Metric 7½x2¼x3½ 7.0 56 7.8 3.8 33

Modul
ar

Ontario 8 3/8 x 2 3/8 x 4 6.0 59 9.9 4.6 35

CSR 9 1/16 x 2 3/4 x 3 ½ 4.9 49 9.5 5.3 31

MAX / PRP 10 1/8 x 3 1/8 x 3 ½ 3.9 43 10.6 6.7 31

Metric Closure 7 ½ x 3 ½ x 3 ½ 4.5 43 8.8 5.5 25

Metric Jumbo 11 ½ x 3 ½ x 3 ½ 3.0 43 12.0 7.4 28

Eng. Norman 11 ½ x 2 ¾ x 3 ½ 3.9 43 11.3 6.1 29

Metric 11 ½ x 2 ¼ x 3 ½ 4.6 53 10.9 4.8 28

Norm
an

Québec 8 x2¼x3¾ 6.5 60 9.2 3.9 32

* Based on mortar density of 120 lb/ft3

** Does not include wastage (Add 25%)