LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND SOCIETY

LESSON 1

Language as a Social Phenomenon and Its Functions

Introduction:

Language is often viewed as a tool for communication, but it is also powerful social
phenomenon that plays a significant role in shaping our relationships, cultures, and
identities. As a social phenomenon, language is not just a means of conveying
information, but also a reflection of our social norms, values, and power structures.

What is Language as a Social Phenomenon?

Language is a social phenomenon because it is shaped by the interactions and

relationships between individuals and groups within a society. It is influenced by factors
such as culture, history, power dynamics, and social context. Language is not just a set
of rules and structures, but also a way of expressing oneself, negotiating meaning, and
constructing identity.

Functions of Language:

1. Pragmatic Function: Language is used to convey meaning and achieve practical

goals, such as requesting information, making requests, or providing instructions.
a. Assertive: Used to convey information, make a statement, or express an
opinion. For example: “I’m taking English as my major course.” (Conveying
information)
b. Declarative: Used to make a statement or declaration, often with a sense of
certainty. For example: “I am enrolled.” (Making a statement)
c. Interrogative: Used to ask a question, seek information, or clarify something.
For example: “Who is our course professor?” (Asking a question)
d. Imperative: Used to give a command, make request, or issue an order. For
example: “Close the door!” (Giving a command)
e. Exclamatory: Used to express strong emotions, surprise, or excitement. For
example: “Wow, what an interesting topic on language!” (Expressing
excitement)
f. Implicative: used to imply or suggest something without directly stating it. For
example: “I’m not saying you copied from CHAT GPT, but…” (implying guilt)
g. Appellative: Used to address someone, refer to someone, or to invoke
someone’s name. For example: “good morning, class!” (addressing someone)
h. Nominal: Used to identify or classify something, often using a noun or pronoun.
For example: “Our professor in Language is a doctor.” (identifying someone’s
profession)
i. Adjunctive: Used to provide additional information or clarify the meaning of
something. For example; “I am going to have our lesson be photocopied
because I need them during review sessions.” (providing additional information)
j. Concessive: Used to acknowledge or concede a point, often with the intention of
softening or qualifying one’s own statement. For example: “I know you’re busy,
but I really need you to pass your assignment next week.” (acknowledging and
conceding)

2. Phatic Function: Language is used to maintain a social relationship and create a

sense of community, such as greeting someone or making small talk.
a. Greetings: saying “hello” to acknowledge the presence of another person,
establish a sense of rapport, and set a positive tone for the interaction.
 b. Small talk: Engaging in casual conversation to talk about the weather or recent
events. Phatic language in this context is used to establish a connection with
others and create a sense of shared experience.
c. Idiomatic expressions: “break a leg”- way of expressing support and
encouragement without conveying specific information.
d. Apologizing:
e. Leave-taking: “see you later” or “goodbye”- acknowledging the end of an
interaction and establish a sense of closure.
f. Nonverbal communication:
g. Gift-giving: Giving a gift to someone to express appreciation or affection,
without necessarily conveying any specific information about the gift itself.
h. Flirting:
i. Humor

3. Emotive Function: Language is used to express emotions, attitudes, and values.

a. Alliteration: The repetition of the initial consonant sounds in words that are
close together. For example, “She sells sea shell by the seashore.”
b. Metaphor: Comparison of two things that are not alike but share common
characteristics.
c. Onomatopoeia: sound words
d. Emotive Adjectives: words with strong emotional connotations (beautiful, cruel,
brutal)
e. Imagery: use of language to create vivid mental images in the listener’s mind.
For example, “The sun was setting over the rolling hills.”
f. Rhetorical questions: This are questions asked not to elicit a response, but to
make a point or emphasize an emotion.
g. Hyperbole: exaggeration
h. Personification: attribution of human qualities to non-human entities
i. Irony: conveys a meaning that is opposite of their literal meaning

4. Referential Function: Language is used to refer to objects, people, and events in

the world, such as describing a place or person.
a. Proper nouns: names of people, places, and organizations (have a specific
referent)
b. Common nouns: refer to general categories (refer to specific instances)
c. Pronouns: refer to the specific noun that have been previously mentioned
d. Demonstratives: “this”, “that”, and “those” refer to specific objects or people in
the immediate environment
e. Quantifiers: “some”, “many”, and “few” refer to specific quantities of things
f. Definite and indefinite articles: “the” and “a” refer to specific or general
categories of things
g. Numerals: “one”, “two”, and “three” refer to specific numbers or quantities
h. Adjectives: “big”, “blue” and “happy” describe attributes or characteristics of
objects or people

5. Social Function:
a. Social identity: Language is often tied to our social identity and can be used to
signal membership in a particular group or community.
 Regional dialects: serves as a marker of social identity, distinguishing
people from different regions or cultural backgrounds.
 Slang and colloquialisms: used to signal membership in a particular social
group, such as specific age group, ethnicity, or subculture.
  Linguistic variation: variations in language use, such as accent, vocabular,
or grammar, can be used to signal social identity, including social class,
ethnicity, or nationality.
 Language choice: the choice of language to use in a particular context
can be an important aspect of social identity. For example, speaking a
minority language at home may be a way to signal cultural identity and
affiliation.
 Code-switching: code-switching between different languages or dialects
can be used to signal social identity, such as switching between a
dominant language and minority language to signal cultural identity.
 Idioms and expression: Idioms and expression that are unique to a
particular group or culture can serve as a marker of social identity and
group membership.
 Language use in rituals:
 Linguistic humor
 Language use in advertisement
 Language used in education
b. Social power: Language can be used to exert power over others, such as
through dominant discourse or language policies.
 Language maintenance: efforts of a group or community to preserve and
promote their native language in the face of linguistic imperialism and
globalization
 Linguistic racism: use of language to perpetuate racist attitudes,
stereotypes, or discrimination
 Language ideology: refers to the ways in which people perceive and value
language, including their beliefs about language use, language users, and
linguistic norms
 Language standardization: refers to the process of creating a
standardized form of a language, often with the goal of promoting its use
as national or international language
 Language as a tool of oppression: denying access to certain languages or
dialects
 Language as a tool of resistance:
 Language contact: occurs when speakers of different languages interact
with each other and influence each other’s language use
 Language policy: refers to the official policies and regulations governing
language use
c. Social control: Language can be used to maintain social order and control
through institutions such as education or law enforcement
 Labeling: use of language to label or categorize people, groups, or
behaviors, which can lead to stereotyping and marginalization.
 Norm enforcement: use of language to reinforce social norms and
expectations
 Influence on attitudes: for example, using words like “pandemic” or
“epidemic” to describe a disease outbreak
 Regulation on emotions:
 Social bonding
 Power dynamics: language can be used to exercise power over others
 Social exclusion:
 Cultural Transmission
 Morality and ethics
d. Social Change: Language can be used to challenge existing power structures
and promote social change through movements and activism.
 Environmental Activism: language is used to raise awareness about
climate change, pollution, and conversation
 LGBTQ+ Rights:
 Indigenous Rights
 Disability Rights
 Chapter 2
THEORIES OF L1 ACQUISITION
Lesson 1: Language Acquisition vs. Language Learning

Language Acquisition Language Learning

 A subconscious process where an  an active process that begins at birth and
individual learns to develop language continues throughout life
fluency, including learning to read and  a conscious process which is the product
write of either formal learning situation or a
 Crucially involves change over time self-study programme (Kramina, 2000, p.
towards a state of language knowledge 27)
and use that is more extended (Brooks &  an integral part of the unity of all
Kempe, 2014) languages (Robbins, 2009)
 Unconscious process  Intentional process
 Does not presuppose teaching  Presupposes teaching
 Learner controls the pace  Teacher controls the pace
 Focuses on developing communicative  Focuses on grammar and technical
competence aspects
 Takes place in informal settings  Takes place in formal settings

Lesson 2: Theories on L1 Acquisition

THEORIST OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT LANGUAGE ACQUISITION THEORY

B.F. Skinner Behavioural Theory

Jean Piaget Cognitive Theory

Noam Chomsky Nativist Theory

Jerome Bruner Interactionist Theory

1. The Behavioristic Approach: BF Skinner Theory of Language Acquisition

Behavioral theory of language acquisition (sometimes called the Imitation Theory) is part of
behaviorist theory. Behaviorism proposes that we are a product of our environment. Therefore,
children have no internal mechanism or ability to develop language by themselves. BF Skinner
(1957) suggests that children learn the language first by imitating their caregivers (usually
parents) and then modifying their use of language due to operant conditioning.
The Behavioristic Approach
 Language is a fundamental part of total human behavior
 Focused on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior the publicly
observable responses-and the relationships or associations between those responses and
events in the world surrounding them
 Effective language behavior is the production of correct responses to stimuli
 Views imitation and practice as primary processes in language development
Imitation: Word for word repetition of all or part of someone else’s utterance
Practice: Repetitive manipulation of form
B. F. Skinner
 commonly known for his experiments with animal behavior, but he also gained recognition
for his contributions to education through teaching machines and programmed learning
 theory of verbal behavior was an extension of his general theory of learning by operant
conditioning
 use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior (use of rat in the
experiment)
 refers to conditioning in which the organism (in this case, a human being) produces a
response, or operant (a sentence or utterance), without necessarily observable stimuli
Operant conditioning
 a way of learning that focuses on the reward (positive reinforcement) or punishment
(negative reinforcement) of desired or undesired behavior.
 Example: You can train a dog to sit by feeding it a treat when it obeys your commands, or
you can stop it from sleeping on your bed by ignoring it or verbally discouraging it.
How does operant conditioning apply to language acquisition?
Skinner suggested that children first learn words and phrases from their caregivers or others
around them and eventually try to say and use those words correctly. In this case, operant
conditioning occurs when a caregiver responds to the child's attempt at using language. If the
child uses language correctly, the caregiver may respond by telling the child they're clever or
otherwise showing their approval. If the child makes a request, such as asking for food, the
caregiver may reward the child by providing it. This is positive reinforcement. If the child uses
language incorrectly, makes a mistake, or is incoherent, they are more likely to receive negative
reinforcement from the caregiver. They can be told they're wrong and then be corrected or
simply be ignored. Negative reinforcement teaches the child which mistakes to avoid and how to
correct them.
Applying the Behaviorism Theory in the Classroom
Teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:
1. Use of positive reinforcement and modeling to increase desired behavior
2. Minimize use of punishment
3. Maintaining a positive learning environment
4. Applying different kinds of behavior reinforcement: (a) direct; (b) social reinforcers (c) activity
reinforcers; (d) tangible reinforcers; (e) token reinforcement (classroom reward system)
2. The Cognitive Theory
The Cognitive theory of language acquisition suggests that the primary driver behind our actions
are our thoughts and internal processes.
Jean Piaget (1923)
 assumes that children are born with relatively little cognitive ability, but their minds develop
and build new schemas (ideas and understanding of how the world works) as they age and
experience the world around them. Eventually, they can apply language to their schemas
through assimilation (fitting new information into what is already known) and accommodation
(changing one's schemas to support new information).
 Piaget believed that cognitive development had to come before language development
because it would be impossible for children to express things that they don't yet understand.
For example, a younger child with no sense of time couldn't express things in the future tense
or speak hypothetically, no matter how much they are taught language.
 Piaget's four stages of cognitive development
1) sensorimotor stage (0-2)
 At this stage, the child is developing sensory coordination and interacting with
their environment by feeling and playing with things. Their use of language
extends primarily to babbles and few spoken words
2) pre-operational stage (2-7)
 At this stage, children are able to use language with a better grasp of
grammatical structure, context, and syntax. Child thinking at this stage is still
very egocentric (their understanding of the world is limited to how it affects
them).
3) concrete operational stage (7-11)
 At this stage, children understand concepts such as time, numbers, and object
properties and gain reasoning and logic, which allows them to rationalise their
beliefs and speak in greater detail about their own thoughts and the world
around them. They can also speak to others about their beliefs and understand
how outcomes or viewpoints may differ.
4) formal operational stage (12 – adulthood)
 At this stage, children can engage in higher reasoning and think and speak
about the abstract, such as hypotheticals, morals, and political systems.
Language is essentially unlimited, as there is no cognitive limit to one's
understanding of the world at this stage

Applying the Cognitive Theory in the Classroom

Teachers should encourage the following within the classroom:
1. Consider the stages of cognitive development
2. Provide concrete experiences before abstract concepts
3. Provide challenges that promote growth without causing frustration
4. Focus on the process of learning rather than the end product
5. Encourage active learning
6. Foster social interaction
7. Differentiated teaching
3. The Nativist Approach
 derived from the fundamental assertion that language acquisition is innately determined, that
we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of the
language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language
Noam Chomsky
 claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language develops in
the child in just the same way that other biological functions develop
 Children are born with a special ability to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a
language system
 The environment makes a basic contribution in this case - the availability of people who
speak to the child. The child, or rather, the child’s biological endowment, will do the rest
Noam Chomsky The Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
 LAD is the imaginary “black box” which exists somewhere in the brain.
 It is thought to contain all and only the principles which are universal to all human languages.
 For the LAD to work, the child needs access only to samples of a natural language. These
language samples serve as a trigger to activate the device
McNeill (1966) described LAD as consisting of four innate linguistic properties:
1. the ability to distinguish speech sounds from other sounds in the environment;
2. the ability to organize linguistic data into various classes that can later be reformed;
3. knowledge that only a certain kind of linguistic system is possible and that other kinds are
not;
4. the ability to engage in constant evaluation of the developing linguistic system so as to
construct the simplest possible system out of the available linguistic input.

4. Social-Interactionist Theory
Proposed by Lev Vygotsky (1978) an influential, Soviet psychologist
 Vygotsky believed that learners bring two levels of development to their learning:
1. an actual developmental level
2. a potential developmental level, which he referred to as Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD).
 The Social Interaction Theory proposes that through social interaction, adults and peers
can assist learners to move from their zone of actual development to the zone of potential
development through the following by:
a) using simplified language
b) choosing topics that are concrete in the learner’s immediate environment;
c) providing elaboration and clarification so that learners can understand input provided
to them