Liquids and gases are collectively known as fluids. Fluid flows under the action of an applicd force and does not have a shape of its own. It takes the shape of the vessel in which it is placed. In this chapter, we shall study hydrostatics and hydrodynamics. The study of fluids at rest is known as hydrostatics or fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion is named as hydrodynamics or fluid dynamics. ‘The key property of fluids is that they offer very little resistance to shear stress: their shape changes by application of very small shear stress. Thrust A that and this force act The total force exerted by a liquid on any surface in contact with it is called thrust. It is because of this thrust that a liquid flows out through the holes of the containing, vessel. ‘As thrust is a force, so its unit is newton (N). uid in equilibrium has a fundamental property exerts a force on any surface in contact with it 's perpendicular to the surface.Liquid in Equilibrium eee ne iquid is in equilibrium. ther the net force ane on the liquid always acts perpendicular to its surface. Titan be easily proved as below- Tee te a liquid kept in a vessel. Let us suppose that ers IE the equilibrium of rest and the nee force she Hauicd it ingle © with the direction parallel co the Fakes ffiquid as shown in the following figure. Parallel and perpendicular components of the force The force F can be resolved into mvo components such @ F cos © as tangential component acts parallel co the surface of liquid. . Gi) F sin © as normal component acts perpendicular to the surface of liquid. perpe Since, the liquid is ae i vince; the liquid is ae rest Ge. there is no flow of sane oP she Maid met Be cers, nore Paraltat £0 ome F cos@ =OAs F cannot be zero, we have cos8 =0 56 =90° Hence, if a liquid is in equilibrium state of rest, then. the net force acting on it is always perpendicular to its surface.Pressure "The pressure of liquid at a poine is the thrust GeaSemal force) exerted by the liquid ar rest per unic ol fround that point. If the total force acts Atmally over a flac area 4, then the pressure thrust sbewst or | Pressure, p =F 2 in CGS system and ‘The unit of pressure is dyne/em N/m? in SI system and dimensional formula of pressure is (ML~'T~?]. Pressure of 1 N/m? is called 1 pascal in the honour of the French scientist Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) who Carried out the pioneering studies on fluid pressure. 1 Pa (or 1 Nim?) = 10 dyne/em* ‘The another common unit of pressure is atmosphere (atm). 1 atm is defined as the pressure exerted by the atmosphere at sea level. 1 atm = 1013 x 10° Pa If the force is not di surface, then pressure will be different at different points. Ifa force AF acts normally on a small area AA g a given point, then pressure at that point will be AF aE = lim SS == P= 0 AA dAPractical Applications of Pressure (i) A sharp knife cuts better than a blunt one. (ii) A camel walks easily on sand while it is difficult to walk on a sand for man. (iii) Railway tracks are laid on. large sized wooden or iron sleepers. (iv) A sharp needle peers the skin easily but not a dull needle although the force applied in both the cases is the same. — . nePascal’s Law ych scientist Blaise Pascal observed that pressure ins finish ae rene is the same ac all pores if they are ae ‘This is known as Pascal's law. Proof of Pascal’s Law Te can be proved by using two principles as given below @ ‘The force on any layer ofa fluid av rest is normal to the layer. ie GD Newton’ firs law of motion Ip given figure, consider an clement in the interior of a utd ac rest. ‘This clement ABGDEF is im the form of a right angled pris, “This prismatic clement is very small so that every pare of ie can be considered at the same depth from che ligula Surface and therefore, the effect of the gravity is the same or all chete pointes, Let we extend this clement for our clarification. “Lhe forces on this clement are those exerted by the rest Of the fluid and they muse be normal to the surhaces oF the clemene as discussed carlier- Suppose, che fluid exere pressures p., Py and p. on che facet BEEC, ADFC and ADEB, reapecvely of this Element and the corresponding normal forces on these faces are f,. Fy and F. Lec 4., 4; and 4, be the respective areas of the three faces.ZACB =0 F, sin © F, cos ® In right triangle ABC; Along horizontal direction, ‘Along vertical direction, From the geometry, we have ‘A, sin @ = A, and A, cos © From the Eqs (i), (ii) and G F,sin® _ F, A, sin © : Fi . Ae = Hence, the pressure exerted by the fluid at rest on 2 body in the fluid is same in ail directions. Thus, pressure is not a vector quantity because no direction can be assigned to it. e.g. Consider a horizontal bar of uniform cross-section is placed in the fluid at rest. The bar is in equilibrium because the horizontal forces exerted a its two ends are balanced or the pressures at the ow ends are equal. ‘This proves that for a liquid in equilibrium, the pressure is same at all points in a horizontal plane.Hydrostatic Paradox When we talk about liquid at rest, the liquid pressure is the same at all points at the same horizontal level (or same depth). This statement can be demonstrated by an experiment called ‘hydrostatic paradox: Let us consider three vessels of different shapes A, B, and C as shown in Figure 7.11. These vessels are connected at the bottom by a horizontal pipe. When they are filled with a liquid (say water), it occupies the same level even though the vessels hold different amounts of water. It is true because the liquid at the bottom of each section of the vessel experiences the same pressure.Archimedes principle It states that when a body is partially or Weight of wholly immersed in a fluid, it experiences 4 — an upward thrust equal to the weight of 3 the fluid displaced by it and its upthrust acts through the centre of gravity of the liquid displaced. upthrust or buoyant force = weight of liquid displaced. Law of floatation is well-known ships, and Ie that boats some wooden objects move on the upper part of the water. We say that they float. Floatation can be defined as the tendency of an object to rise up to the upper levelsof the uid or to stay on the surface of the the law of floatation states that a boay will float in a liquid if the weight of the liquid displaced by the imumersed part of the body equals the weight of the body. Por example, a wooden object weighs 300 kg (about 3000 N) floats in water displaces 300 kg (about 3000 N) of water. Cause of viscosity Gensider a liquid flowing over a horizontal surface with two neighboring layers. The “pper layer tends to accelerate the lower Jayer and in turn, the lower layer tends to retard the upper layer. As a result, a backward tangential force is set-up. ‘This tends to destroy the relative motion. ‘Th: accounts for the viscous behaviour of fluids.Coefficient of viscosity: Consider a liquid flowing steadily over @ horizontal fixed layer (Figure 7.15). The velocities of the layers increase uniformly as we move away from the fixed layer. Consider any two parallel layers A and B. Let v and v + du be the velocities of the neighboring layers at distances x and x + dx respectively from the fixed layer. — a » + oe dxlaw. This force is proportional to (i) area A or the liquid and (ii) the velocity gradient @¢ dx dv «x dP x 22 F x Aan: = 7 dv =F nA a (7.20) Where the constant of proportionality n is called the coefficient of viscosity of the liquid and the negative sign implies that the force is frictional and it opposes the relative motion. The dimensional formula for coefficient of viscosity is [Am~'T~'] . When a liquid flows such that each particle of the liquid passing through a point moves along the same path with the same velocity as its predecessor then the flow of liquid is said to be a streamlined flow.EZEMrurbutent flow When the speed of the moving fluid exceeds the critical speed v., the motion becomes turbulent. In this case, the velocity changes both in magnitude and direction from particle to particle and hence the individual particles do not move in a streamlined path. Hence, the path taken by the particles in turbulent flow becomes erratic and whirlpool-like circles called eddy current or eddies (Figure 7.17 (a) and (b)). The flow of water just behind a boat or a ship and the air flow behind a moving bus are a few examples of turbulent flow.Stoke's law and its eed applications When a body falls through a viscous medium, it drags the layer of the fluid immediately in contact with it. This produces a relative motion between the different layers of the liquid. Stoke performed many experiments en the motion of small spherical bodies in different fluids and concluded that the viscous force F acting on a spherical body of radius r depends directly on i) radius (r) of the sphere ii) velocity (Vv) of the sphere and iii) coefficient of viscosity n of the liquid ‘Therefore, F=ky ru Experimentally, Stoke found that the value ofk = 6x B=6nn rv ‘This relation is known as Stoke's lawpractical applications of Stoke’s law Since the raindrops are smaller in size ang their terminal velocities are small, remain suspended in air in the form of clouds. As they grow up in size, their terminal velocities increase and they start falling in the form of rain. This law explains the following: a) Floatation of clouds b) Larger raindrops hurt us more than the smaller ones c) A man coming down with the help of a parachute acquires constant terminal velocity.10.31 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY 45. Obtain the equation of continuity for the incom pressible non-viscous fluid having a steady flow through a pipe. Equation of continuity. Consider a non-viscous and incompressible liquid flowing steadily between the sections A and Bof a pipe of varying cross-section. Let a, be the area of cross-section, 2, fluid velocity, p; fluid density at section A; and the values of corresponding, quantities at section Bbe a, , v, and p3- bevy Atal a ar Fig. 10.31 Equation of continuity. As m= Volume = density Area of cross-section x length x density -. Mass of fluid that flows through section A in time Ar, my, =a, 0, At py Mass of fluid that flows through section B in time At, mm, = a, V2 At PyBy conservation of mass, Mie or a YY Atp, =4, Vy At Pp, As the fluid is incompressible, so P1 =P, and hence 4,0, =4,%, Or av=constant. This is the equation of continuity. It states that during the streamlined flow of the non-viscous and incompressible fluid through a pipe of varying cross-section, the product of area of cross-section and the normal fluid velocity (av) remains constant throughout the flow. a10.32 ENERGY OF A FLUID IN A STEADY FLOW 47. What are different forms of energy possessed by a flowing liquid ? Write expressions for them. Energies possessed by a flowing liquid. A liquid in a steady flow can have three kinds of energy (i) kinetic energy (ii) potential energy and (iii) pressure energy. () Kinetic energy. The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its motion is called its kinetic energy. KE. =4 mv? where m is the mass of the liquid and v is the velocity of the liquid. K.E. per unit mass of the liquid =4 v The kinetic energy per unit weight of the liquid is known as the velocity head. 2 2 g 2 mv 1 2 vy 28 g * Velocity head = Nien K.E. per unit volume =(ii) Potential energy. The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its position above the earth’s surface is called its potential energy. P.E. =mgh where h is the average height of the liquid from the ground level. P.E. per unit mass of the liquid = gh The potential energy per unit weight of the liquid is known as the potential head. Potential head = mgh =h mg P.E. per unit volume = "eh =p gh(tii) Pressure energy. The energy possessed by a liquid by virtue of its pressure is called its pressure energy. A liquid under pressure can do work and so possesses energy. For example, a liquid in a cylinder can drive a piston as shown in Fig. 10.32. Let P be the pressure exerted by the liquid on a frictionless piston of area 4. Suppose the piston moves through distance x under the pressure P.‘rig, 10.32 Pressure energy of a liquid. tees Fer tttance = Preature x area distance chee pv where V nay = volume swept bythe Pston. Thin work done te otred ae the Prana energy of hguta otvotume V . Pressure energy of volume V = PV Prewoure energy per unit volume PY. paccoss pressure "Pressure energy per unit mass = PV =P m8 Pressure energy per unit weight of the liquid is called pressure head. na Pressure head = ae