Sess Ecosystem and Biodiversity Weightage of | Marks = 12, Teaching Hours = 08 3.1 Ecosystem — definition, aspects of ecosystem, division of ecosystem, general characteristics of ecosystem, functions of ecosystem 3.2. Biodiversity — Definitions, levels value and loss of biodiversity 3.3. Biodiversity assessment initiatives in India 3.4. Threats and hotspots of biodiversity 3.5_Conservations of biodiversity objects, various laws DEFINITION, ASPECTS OF ECOSYSTEM, DIVISION OF ECOSYSTEM, GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ECOSYSTEM AND FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM32 Koonyatem and Blodtveryyy EY Definition Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment beca materials and energy for the survival of the former ie. there is an interaction between a biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient unit which jg known as an ecosystem. + Ecosystem, therefore, is the complex of living organisms, their physical environment, and all thejy interrelationships in a particular unit of space Concept of Ecosystem «The term ecosystem is generally understood as to the entire assemblage of organisms (plant, and other living beings—also referred to as a biotic community) living together in a certain space with their environment (or biotope), functioning asa loose unit + Together, these components and their interactions with and relationships to each other form a dynamic and complex new whole, functioning as an “ecological unit", with additional characteristics that can't be found in the individual components. Nor could any organism live completely on its own without involving any other species of organism. «There are no conceptual restrictions on how large or small a space or an area must be to host an ecosystem, nor on the minimum numbers species or individual organisms to be present Politically, the concept has become important, since the Convention on Biological Diversity, (CBD), signed by almost 200 nations. The CBD formulates the concept in the following definition : “Ecosystem” means a dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit” (Convention on the Biological Diversity, 1992). Division of Ecosystem + Different ecosystems develop due to their adaption to different their interaction between each other and with biotic components have resulted in formation of different types of ecosystems. These can be classified in two categories : : Tropical Rain-Forests, 1. Terrestrial Ecosystems-systems which are land based. Examples Temperature Forests, Tropical Seasonal Forests, Temperate Deciduous Forest, Woodland and shrub Land, Boreal Forest, Temperate Grassland, Tundra, Cultivated Land, Extreme desert, Rock, Sand and Ice, Desert/Semi-desert Shrub etc. 2. Aquatic Ecosystems-systems which flourish in water. Examples ‘Streams, Continental Shelf, Estuaries and Brackish Waters, Swamp and Mai Algal beds and Reefs etc. EW] General Characteristics (or Structure) of Ecosystem «An ecosystem comprises of two basic components : (1) Abiotic components and, (2) Biotic components. The relationship between the biotic components and abiotic components of an ecosystem is called ‘holocoenosis’ (1) Abiotic Components : These include the non-living, physico - chemical factors such as air, water soil and the basic elements and compounds of the environment. Abiotic factors are broadly @ classified under tree categories + Climatic factors : which include the climatic regime and physi like atmospheric temperature, wind, ete ¢ the latter provides imal t abiotic factors. These factors and Open Oceans, Lakes and rsh, Upwelling Zones, al factors of the environmentAconystam an Boeray tors) whiich are related to and chemical props soll water, soil organ the structure and composition of soll inchiding ite * lle soll and its types, soll profile, minerals, organic matter ms Inorganic substances jike watey ca Aiphur. nitrogen, phosphorus and 90 on Organic subs like proteins, lipids, carbohydrates Amc substances etc + Blotle Components: 1 comprises the living part of the environment, which Includes the association of @ number of interrelated populations belonging to different apecies in a common environment The populations are that of animal community, plant community and inicroblal community (2) Blotic community is distinguished into autotrophs, heterotrophs and saprotrophs. fa Functions of Ecosystem fin. Functions of Ablotic Components + Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of weathered rock fragments, highly altered soll mineral particles, organic matter, and living organisms Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a growing medium for organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soll is responsible for nutrient cycling + The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation. transpiration and precipitation cycle and recycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface + Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism and the organic food for other forms of life. Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even exceeding 90%, The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%. Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and soil, The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere. FREED me runctions of Biotic components The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi) that are resent in an ecosystem form the biotic components. The biotic components of the ecosystem both live on and interact with the abiotic components. On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classified into three main groups (A) Producers, (8) Consumers, {C) Decomposers or Reducers. (A) Producers ; Producers are the living organisms in the ecosystem that take in energy from sunlight and use it to transform carbon dioxide and oxygen into sugars, Plants, algae and photosynthetic bacteria are all examples of producers. As the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self, trophos = feeder). Producers form the base of the food web and are generally the largest group in the ecosystem by weight, or biomass.Environmental Studies EcOnyatern and Biowivy, 0) > They also act as an interface with the abiotic components of the ecosystem durin, cycles as they incorporate inorganic carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere > The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilized partly by the producers for the ® trier; ir growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use,” (B) Consumers: > Consumers are living organisms in the ecosystem that get thelr energy from consuming othe r organisms. Conceptually, consumers are further subdivided by what they eat. Herbivores eat producers, carnivores eat other animals and omnivores eat both. Along with producers and decomposers, consumers are part of what is known as food chains and webs where energy and nutrient transfer can be mapped out. Consumers can only harvest about 10 percent of the energy contained in what they eat, so there tends to be less biomass at each stage as you move up the food chain. ‘The consumers are of four types, namely (a) Primary Consumers or First-Order Consumers or Herbivores : These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called herbivores. Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc. (b) Secondary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores : The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the primary carnivores. Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc, (c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers : hese are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers. Example are Wolves. (4) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores : These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by any other animal. Examples are lions and tigers (C) Decomposers or Reducers : > Decomposers are the living component of the ecosystem that breaks down waste material and dead organisms. Examples of decomposers include earthworms, dung beetles and many species of fungi and bacteria 7 The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder). They perform a vital recycling function, returning nutrients incorporated into dead organisms to the soil where plants can take them up again. In this process, they also harvest the last of the sunlight energy initially absorbed by producers. Decomposers represent the final step in many of the cyclical ecosystem processes. Ei BIODIVERSITY - DEFINITIONS, LEVELS, VALUE AND LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY Definition + The term biodiversity refers to the variety of life on Earth at all its levels, from genes to ecosystems, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that sustain it. Biodiversity includes not only species we consider rare, threatened, or endangered, but every living thing. + The total diversity and variability of living things and of the system of which they are a part is generally defined as biodiversity, i. the total variability of life on earth. + Totality of genes, species and ecosystems of a given region. Biodiversity includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems. ee,nena Won 7 7 —#4____________—conyotem and Biosiversity Levels of Biodiversity there are three levels of biodiversity Genetic Diversity it is the total genetic information contained variation in genetic information same species. « Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within species; the differences could be in alleles (different variants of same genes), in entire genes (the traits determining particular characteristics) or in chromosomal structures in the genes of all the species. It also refers to the between species as well as the variations between individuals of the + The genetic diversity enables a population to adapt to its environment and to respond to natural selection. If a species has more genetic diversity, it can adapt better to the changed environmental conditions. «Lower diversity in a species leads to uniformity, as is the case with large monocultures of genetically similar crop plants. This has advantage when increased crop production is a consideration, but can be a problem when an insect or a fungal disease attacks the field and poses a thre: to the whole crop. BEEZ) species diversity « It is the variety of species on Earth. it refers to both the number of species and the number of individuals within each species. « Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. Simplest measure of species diversity is species richness, ie. the number of species per unit area. + Generally, greater the species richness greater is the species diversity. However, number of individuals among the species may also vary resulting into differences in evenness, or equitability, and consequently in diversity. EZZE] community and Ecosystem Diversity Itis the variety of habitats, natural communities and ecological processes in the biosphere. Diversity at the level of community and ecosystem has three perspectives. Alpha diversity (within community diversity) refers to the diversity of organisms sharing the same community/habitat. A combination of species richness and equitability/evenness is used to represent diversity within a community or habitat. Species frequently change when habitat or community changes. The rate of replacement of species along a gradient of habitats or communities is called beta diversity (between-community diversity) Species composition of communities may vary along environmental gradients, eg. altitudinal Bradient, moisture gradient, etc. Higher the heterogeneity in the habitats in a region or greater the dissimilarity between communities, higher is the beta diversity. Diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area is called gamma diversity. 13.2.3] Value of Biodiversity Economically there are main two types of values of biodiversity. They are : * Use value that consists of Direct values, Indirect values and Option values. Non use value that consists of Bequest value and Existence value. Direct values are concerned with the enjoyment or satisfaction received directly by biological "esources They can be relatively easily observed and measured often by assigning prices to them There are two types : Consumptive use (non-market value) Productive use (commercial value). Ran, Span Seeennneee”~ SORenenenEEnvironmental Suxdies oe = Consumptive Value is the value of Nature's Products that are consumed directly such as fire fodder and meat. In other words the products which are consumed directly without passing through the market. Consumptive use value seldom appear in National income accounts. + The most important point of consumptive use is that some rural communities closest to the forest, or other natural areas can prosper through the sustainable harvesting of wildlife spectes, Huntin, direct-consumption (e.g. collection of berries, mushrooms, herbs, plants) are all “consumptive use," + Productive Value is the value of products that are commercially harvested for exchange in forma markets, Each species is valuable to humans. The global collection of genes, specles, habitats ang ecosystems is a resource that provides for human needs now. Itis also essential for human survive, in the future. This is often the only value of biological resources that is reflected in the income accounts. + Two types of indirect values that consist of i) Non consumptive use value that includes Social value, Ethical values, Aesthetic values and ii) Option values. : + Non - consumptive values : These are the indirect values of ecosystem functions. Such as the watershed protection, photosynthesis, regulation of climate and Pollination , habitat for other species. + Social value : Biodiversity in INDIA, particularly, is important for its religious, spiritual and other cultural uses. Many plants and animals have ritual significance, The entire ecosystem is utilized for cultural and spiritual purposes. + Ethical values : Although economic arguments can be advanced to justify the protection of biological diversity, there are also strong ethical arguments for doing so. Protecting biological diversity can be justified on ethical grounds as well as on economic grounds. Ethical arguments assert that humans have a duty to protect species based on their intrinsic value, unrelated to human needs. Aesthetic values : Regardless of our own material self-interest, we should treat nature respectfully. Preserving biodiversity and developing our knowledge of it will make us better and happier people. Nearly everyone enjoys wildlife and joy makes our lives good lives. A loss of biodiversity could very well limit the creative energies of people in the future and thus restrict the development. Option value : Option value is keeping options for the future and simply knowing that certain species exist. A species potential to provide an economic benefit to human society at some point in the future is its option value. As the needs of the society change, so must the methods of satisfying those needs. + Anon-use value (feel good or warm glow) is a value associated that does not concern our use, either direct or indirect, of the environment, its resources or services. © Bequest value : The current generation places value on ensuring the availability of biodiversity and ecosystem functioning to future generations. This is determined by a person’s concern that future generations should have access to resources and opportunities. It indicates a perception of benefit from the knowledge that resources and opportunities are being passed to descendants. + Existence value : This is the benefit, often reflected as a sense of well-being, of simply knowing marine biodiversity exists, even if it is never utilised or experienced, people simply derive benefit from the knowledge of its existence. EEE] toss of viversity + Loss of biodiversity or biodiversity loss is the extinction of species (plant or animal) worldwide, ané also the local reduction or loss of species in a certain habitat.gnvironmental Studien ar Ecosystem and Biodiversity + The latter phenomenon can be temporary or permanent, depending on whether the environmental degradation that leads to the loss is reversible through ecological restoration /ecological resilience or effectively permanent (e.g. through land loss). Global extinction has so far been proven to be irreversible. «Even though permanent global species loss is a more dramatic phenomenon than regional changes in species composition, even minor changes from a healthy stable state can have dramatic influence on the food web and the food chain as reductions in only one species can adversely affect the entire chain (co-extinction), leading to an overall reduction in biodiversity, possible alternative stable states of an ecosystem notwithstanding. Ecological effects of biodiversity are usually counteracted by its loss. Reduced biodiversity in particular leads to reduced ecosystem services and eventually poses an immediate danger for food security, also for humankind. EEE 105s nate + The current rate of global diversity loss is estimated to be 100 to 1000 times higher than the (naturally occurring) background extinction rate and expected to still grow in the upcoming years. + Locally bounded loss rates can be measured using species richness and its variation over time. Raw counts may not be as ecologically relevant as relative or absolute abundances. Taking into account the relative frequencies, a considerable number of biodiversity indices have been developed. Besides richness, evenness and heterogeneity are considered to be the main dimensions along which diversity can be measured. As with all diversity measures, it is essential to accurately classify the spatial and temporal scope of the observation. EW 4 Factors for Loss «Major factors for biotic stress and the ensuing accelerating loss rate are : > Habitat loss and degradation. > Land use intensification (and ensuing land loss/habitat loss) has been identified to be a significant factor in loss of ecological services due to direct effects as well as biodiversity loss. > Climate change through heat stress and drought stress. Excessive nutrient load and other forms of pollution. > Over-exploitation and unsustainable use (e.g. unsustainable fishing methods) we are currently using 25% more natural resources than the planet. > Armed conflict, which disrupts human livelihoods and institutions, contributes to habitat loss, and intensifies over-exploitation of economically valuable species, leading to population declines and local extinctions. Invasive alien species that effectively compete for a position, replacing indigenous species. Ea BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT INITIATIVES IN INDIA * India is known for its rich heritage of biological diversity, having already documented over 91,000 Species of animals and 45,500 species of plants in its ten bio-geographic regions. Nearly 6,500 native Plants are still used prominently in indigenous healthcare systems. Thousands of locally-adapted crop varieties, grown traditionally since ancient times, and nearly 140 Native breeds of farm livestock, continue to thrive in its diversified farming systems. The country is Tecognized as one of the eight Vavilovian Centres of Origin and Diversity of Crop Plants, having more than 300 wild ancestors and close relatives of cultivated plants still growing and evolving ‘Under natural conditions.ae conystem ond = all the diversity observed among species, their populations and ala f . ears eran ewens cin outcome of over 3.5 billion years of vohution® Jopmeat shaped by natural processes and increesingty by hursan influence 7 : the web of life and we fully depend upon it to meet our food. healthcare and other sustains and using it sustainably forms pany of i poverty eradication and national development «+ Biodiversity is not distributed evenly across the globe Certain countries lying mostly in the tropic, are characterized by high species richness and more number of endemic species Called diverse countries. wae na os ge RONG of ike Mind Megadverse Countries (MEY) diodiversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising + Be Onion Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF). the nodal agency for implementing Pemcns Of CBD in India. developed a strategy for biodiversity conservation at macro-level in 199 und enacted the Biological Diversity Act in 2002 followed by the Rules there under in 004 . Shee is ¢ need now ts develop and implement a sutable national action for promoting biodiversity ing of benefits arising from such Main features of the plans are as follows * Strengthening and integration of in situ on-farm and ex situ conservation + Augmentation of natural resource base and its sustainable utilization * Ensuring inter and intre-generational equity Regulation of introduction of invasive alien species and their management. Integration of biodiversity concems in economic and social development © Pollution impacts. * Development and integration of biodiversity databases : ‘Strengthening implementation of policy, legislative and administrative measures for biodiversity conservation and management 46, + Building of national capacities for biodiversity conservation and appropriate use of new technologies. SEES SS eS EE Se See eee EEE eee CeCe SCL ieee laasudion a __Econyatam ond Biodiversity, . 7 valuation of oa and services provided by biodiversity and use of economic instruments in PER RATS AND HOTSPOTS OF Blopivensrry Threats to Biodiversity in 2006 many species were formally classified as rare or endangered or threatened; moreover. scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which have not been formally About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the [UCN Red List criteria are now isted as threatened with extinction—a total of 16,119 | threatened” is defined as “any species wh: the foreseeable future throughout all _ anendangered species is a species ¢ | Arare species is a group of organtem following are the threats to the biodiversity angered species within Habitat Destruction « Habitat destruction has played a key role in extinctions, especially related to tropical forest destruction. Factors contributing to habitat loss are overpopulation. deforestation, pollution ar pollution, water pollution, soil contamination) and global warming or climate change. . Habitat size and numbers of species are systematically related Physically larger species and those living at lower latitudes or in forests or oceans are more sensitive to reduction in habitat area. Conversion to “trivial” standardized ecosystems (eg. monoculture following deforestation) effectively destroys habitat for the more diverse species that preceded the conversion. In some countries lack of property rights or lax law ‘regulatory enforcement necessarily leads to biodiversity loss. EERE] introduced and invasive Species + The term invasive species is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often displacing native species by occupying their positions, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species. + Not all introduced species are invasive. nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. EZEE] cenetic pottution * Endemic species can be threatened with extinction through the process of genetic pollution. ie. Uncontrolled hybridization. introgression and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local genomes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of an introduced species. Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to rare species that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its gene pool This problem is not Always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of gene is normal adaptation, and not all gene and genotype constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species’ existence.Ecosystem a Environmental Studies lOverexploitation © Overexploitation occurs when a resource is consumed at an unsustainable rate. This occurs on lang in the form of overhunting, excessive logging, poor soil conservation in agriculture and the illega, wildlife trade. ‘The international trade of endangered species is second in size only to drug trafficking in illega, trade practices. BREE] ryoriaization, cenetic Pollution/Erosion and Food Security + In agriculture and animal husbandry, the Green Revolution popularized the use of conventions) hybridization to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant tolocal climate and diseases. + Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. «Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread genetic erosion and genetic pollution. This has resulted in less of genetic diversity and biodiversity asa whole. EERE ctimate change ‘= Global warming is also considered to be a major potential threat to global biodiversity in the future, For example coral reefs - which are biodiversity hotspots - will be lost in 20 to 40 years if global warming continues at the current trend. In 2004, an international collaborative study on four continents estimated that 10 percent of species would become extinct by 2050 because of global warming. + From 1950 to 2011, world population increased from 2.5 billion to 7 billion and is forecast to reach a plateau of more than 9 billion during the 21st century. ‘At least until the middle of the 2ist century, worldwide losses of pristine bio-diverse land will probably depend much on the worldwide human birth rate. ERE] Hotspots of Biodiversity * Biodiversity is the collection of flora and fauna of a place. Biodiversity Hotspot is a region which is a prime location for the existence of rich biodiversity but also faces the threat of destruction. It is a place which needs our immediate and constant attention to survive and thrive in the future as well. + This idea of identifying hotspots was put forth by Norman Myers in 1988. By now, a total of 35 biodiversity hotspots have been identified out of which most of them lie in tropical forests. Almost 23% of the land surface of Earth is represented by these hotspots. These also comprise of around 50% of the world’s most common plant species and 42% of terrestrial vertebrates prevalent. Sadly, these biodiversity hotspots have been losing 86% of their habitats some of which are still on the verge of extinction due to serious threats posed by climate change and human intervention. Tobe called a hotspot, a region has to be able to fulfil at least two criteria including : 1. It should comprise of at least 1500 species of vascular plants i.e. more than 0.5% of the world's total plants. 2. It should have lost greater than or equal to 70% of its original habitat. + India has always been on the list of the richest countries in the world for its biodiversity which can easily be seen in the demography of its land. Though biodiversity and demographic diversity are tw0 SEE EEE aa‘environmen ———, completely different topics, the human. fo numerous Ways. Also, as a result of exponen has been dependent on biodiversity since forever ____ Ecosystem and Biodiversity been alread; ue mall a scone and comets India isa country rich in biological diversity. It is situated in the sndomalay? Prises of 2 out of the 35 biodiversity hotspots in the world, The third one, that i, Indo Burma lies partially in North tartisae SP . jnindia, there are approximate ; - js0 mammals which make up 7.6% of word species 4224 birds which make up 2.6% of the world species 4g7 amphibians which make up 4.4% of the world species 408 reptiles which make up 6.2% of the world species 2546 fishes which make up 11.7% of the world species {15000 flowering plants which make up 6% of the world species, some of these biodiversity hotspots are present in India which includes : 1, The Western Ghats and Sri Lanka: These hills are present along the western edge of peninsular India. Since they are situated near the ocean, they are likely to receive a good amount of rainfall. Most of the deciduous, as well as rainforests, are present in this region. Around 77% of the amphibians and 62% of the reptiles found here cannot be spotted elsewhere in the world. Sri Lanka in South India is a country which is rich in species too. It is connected to India through a land bridge which has a width of nearly 140 km. + There are more than 6000 vascular plants here which belong to more than 2500 genus. 3000 plants out of these are endemic. Most of the spices found in the world such as black pepper and cardamom all are believed to have originated in the Western Ghats. Most of the species are however present in the Agasthyamalai Hills situated in extreme South. The region is also home to around 450 species of birds, 140 mammals, 260 reptiles and 175 amphibians. Such diversity is quite beautiful as well as rare but now lies on the verge of extinction. The vegetation in this region was originally spread over 190,000 square kilometres but has reduced to 43,000 square kilometres today. Only 1.5% of the original forest is still there in Srilanka. This region comprises of Bhutan, Northeast India, and Southern, Central and Eastern Nepal. These Himalayan Mountains are the highest in the world and abode to some of the highest peaks of the world including Mount Everest and K2. Some of the major rivers in the world originate from the Himalayas. The Himalayas comprise of more than 100 mountains beyond 7200 meters aeoo” cme Sao su Scone oe Been, + There are almost 16 endangered species in this region including ane-homed rhinoceros. wiig Asan water buffaic and as many as 45 mammals SO birds 12 amphibians. 17 reptile, mvertebrate ang 36 Plant spenes One suck endangered species found here is the rect Sragonfiy whose only other species 5 Japan. Himalayan Newt is also present in this regia. Comang ts the fauna there are 10,000 species of plants in the Himalayas a third of wnics are endemic and cannot be kuated anpwhere eist in the worid Some of the threstened one, inchade Cheer pheasant Western Tragopan. Himalayan quail Himalayan vulture, White bei, heron and the Lite. Mamas ted here with over 300 species such as Asiat: Gogs sloth bears snow leopard. Mack bear Nue sheep and wild water buffalo. Namadapha d over a distance of 2 milli 7 iversity. it has been worsening over the past few discovered in this region recently incinding large. “i Muntjac. gray-shanked douc, leaf deer, sacla and Annamite striped rabbit Other species such 2s monkeys, langurs. and gibbons too can be found here with 2 populstion as less a5 2 hundred Freshwater turtle species found in the region are however endemic. 1300 species of birds too can be spotted here including the white-eared night-heron, ange necked Patridge most of which are endangered. Almost 13.500 hich are endemic and cannot be found in any Sundaland : nis region lies in South-East Asia and includes Thailand, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, and Malaysia. The Nicobar Islands represent India. These islands were declared as the world biosphere reserve in 2013 by United Nations. These islands have a rich terrestrial as well 25 marine ecosystem including mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs. Species such as dolphins. whales, turtles, crocodiles, fishes, prawns, lobsters and sea shells comprise the mariné FEO ee le lt tte ee el es eo se cis Ls lali, iauman should conserve biodiversity because of 7 which are essential to live our life on earth. z ee : However, it also provides spiritual benefits as ‘8s benefit for example services and biological FEB oviecs sper the Ministry of Environment and Forests. Government of India. the objectives of conservation of biodiversity are + Toincrease public awareness through media, government agencies, NGOs, et + Toimplement strict restrictions on export of rare plants and animals + Topreserve all varieties of old and new flora, fauna and microbes. + Toprotect natural habitats. + Toprotect all critically endangered, endangered, and rare species. + Toreduce pollution. ‘Tomaintain ecological balance. + Toutilize the natural resources in a sustainable way ‘There are two pronged strategies to conserve biodiversity EEE] u situ conservation Strategies + The in situ strategy emphasizes protection of total ecosystems. The in situ approach includes Protection of a group of typical ecosystems through a network of protected areas. Protected areas : These are areas of land and/or sea especially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources. These are managed through legal or other effective means. Examples of protected areas are National Parks, and Wildlife Sanctuaries. World Conservation Monitoring Centre has recognized 37000 protected areas around the world. India has 581 protected areas (89 National Parks and 492 Wildlife ), covering 4.7% of the land surface as against 10% internationally suggested norm. The Jim Corbett National Park was the first National Park established in India. Biosphere Reserves : Biosphere reserves are a special category of protected areas of land and/or Soastal environments, wherein people are an integral component of the system These are Tepresentative examples of natural biomes and contain unique biological communities. ‘A Biosphere Reserve consists of core, buffer and transition zones. The natural or core zone comprises °9 undisturbed and legally protected ecosystem. The buffer zone surrounds the core area, and isSs Ecouyatam and Biodivergy, Yy Environmental Studies managed to accommodate a greater variety of resource use strategies, and research and educat activities. The transition zone, the outermost part of the Biosphere Reserve, is an area of onl cooperation between reserve management and the local people. wherein activities like settlen™® cropping, forestry and recreation and other economic uses continue in harmony with consery, me ation goals. Ex-situ Conservation Strategies The ex-situ conservation strategies include botanical gardens, z00s, conservation stands, and pollen, seed, seedling, tissue culture and DNA banks. Seed gene banks are the easiest way 19°00" germplasm of wild and cultivated plants at low temperature in cold rooms. Preservation of ono resources is carried out in field gene banks under normal growing conditions, Benetic Im vitro conservation, particularly by cryopreservation in liquid nitrogen at a temperature of - degree C, is mainly useful for conserving vegetative propagated crops like potato. Cryopreservaae® is the storage of material at ultra-low temperature either by very swift cooling (used for vation seeds) or by gradual cooling and simultaneous dehydration at low temperature (used for foe culture). The material can be stored for a long period of time in compact, low maintenance refrigeration units. Various Laws + The Biological Diversity Act 2002 was born out of India’s attempt to realize the objectives enshrined in the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992 which recognizes the sovereign rights of states to use their own Biological Resources. The Act aims at the conservation of biological resources and associated knowledge as well as facilitating access to them in a sustainable manner and through a just process. For the purposes of implementing the objects of the Act it establishes the National Biodiversity Authority in Chennai, Biological Diversity Act in 2002 wae followed by the Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 and The National Environment Policy, 2006, seeks to achieve balance and harmony between conservation of natural resources and development processes and also forms the basic framework for the National Biodiversity Action Plan 2008. iological Diversity Act 2002 The Biological Diversity Act, 2002 is an Act of the Parliament of India for preservation of biological diversity in India, and provides mechanism for equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of traditional biological resources and knowledge. The Act was enacted to meet the obligations under Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), to which India is a party. Biodiversity and biological resource : * Biodiversity has been defined under Section 2(b) of the Act as “the variability among living organisms from all sources and the ecological complexes of which they are part, and includes diversity within species or between species and of eco-systems”. The Act also defines, Biological resources as “plants, animals and micro-organisms or parts thereof, their genetic material and by- products (excluding value added products) with actual or potential use or value, but does not include human genetic material” National Biodiversity Authority and State Biodiversity Boards : + The National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) is a statutory autonomous body, headquartered in Chennai, under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India established in 2003 to implement the provisions under the Act. State Biodiversity Boards (SBB) has been created in 29 States along with 31,574 Biological management committees (for each local body) across India. ee ee amee 3.18 Ecosystem and Biodiversity 315 Ecosystem jon! pone ylation of acts prohibited under the Act. + Révise the Government On conservation of biodiversity + jpavise the Government on selection of biological heritage sites. take appropriate steps to oppose grant of intellectual property rights in foreign countries, arising . mn the use of biological resources or associated traditional knowledge. ‘a foreigner non-resident Indian as defined in clause (30) of section 2 of The Income-tax Act, 1961 OF * a foreign company or body corporate need to take permission from the NBA before obtaining oat piological Tesources or associated knowledge from India for research, survey, commer iilisation. Indian citizens or body corporate need to take permission from the concerned State piodiversity Board . result of research using biological resources from India cannot be transferred to a non-citizen or a foreign company without the permission of NBA. However, no such permission is needed for blication of the research in a journal or seminar, or in case of a collaborative research made by Jnstitutions approved by Central Government, No person should apply for patent or other form of intellectual property protection based on the research arising out of biological resources without the permission of the NBA. The NBA whi ‘ granting such permission may make an order for benefit sharing or royalty based on utilization o: such protection. penefit Sharing : Benefit sharing out of usage of biological resources can be done in following manner: 4 Joint ownership of intellectual property rights . transfer of technology « location of production, research development units in the area of source «payment of monetary and non-monetary compensation « setting up of venture capital fund for aiding the cause of benefit claimers. Penalties : + Ifa person, violates the regulatory provisions he will be “punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to five years, or with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees and where the damage caused exceeds ten lakh rupees such fine may commensurate with the damage caused, or with both.” + Any offence under this Act is non-bailable and cognizable. Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 : * These Rules prescribe provisions on selection, appointment, salary, allowances, conditions of service, Powers and duties, etc. of the Chairperson and other Members of the National Biodiversity Authority. Section 6 lists the general functions of the Authority. To access biological resources one shall apply for approval from the Authority. Sections 15 to 19 deal with matters related to revocation of approval, restriction on activities related to access to biological resources, transferring results etc. Late erate Sor (4) MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 1 . The species with thin population localised within restricted area is said to be (@) Rare (b) Threatened (© Endangerea (a) VulnerableEnvironmental Stasis (@ Hunting (©) Natural calamities 3 The Red Data Book maintains a record of the a Econyston and Bog Wray, ‘The reason for certain animals getting endangered are (b) Pollution of environment (@) allof these (a) Plants and animals present in the whole world ()) Relationship between man and biosphere (©) Plants and animals which are known to be endangered (@) Forest wealth in the whole world 4. Planting trees in a deforested land is known as (a) afforestation (© Silviculture S manational park protection is given to (@ The entire flora (© The plants and animals & The endangered animal of the following is (©) Deforestation (@) Sericulture () The entire fauna (@) The entire ecosystem (@) Cow (b) Parrot (c) Red jungle fowl (@) Cock conc =S Dona mnie of toxic chemicals into the food chains and more concentrated at a) Biological control (®) biomagnification (© algal bloom (d) Red tide & The sopical forests in India are located in a) Himachal Pradesh (©) Jammu and Kashmir (©) Andamans (@) Orissa 3. Bharatpur bird sanctuary is situated in (@) Kerala (b) Karnataka (© Gujarat (@) Rajasthan 10. Autumn colouration of leaves appears only in (a) Tropical regions (b) Evergreen plants (©) Deserts (d) Temperate deciduous plants 11 MAB programme stands for (a) Man and biology (b) Man and biotechnology () Man and biosphere (d) Material and biology 12. The ICUN headquarters are at: (a) Morges, Switzerland (b) Paris, France (©) Vienna, Austria (@) New York, USA 13. How many bio-geographical regions are present in India? {a3 (b) 4 7 (@) 10 14. Lime is added to the soil which is too (a) Sandy (b) Salty (©) Alkaline (@) Acidic 15. Which one of the following has maximum genetic diversity in India? (a) Tea (0) Teak (©) Mango (a) Wheat rysonia SMB Biodiversity. — 37 _Ecosystem and BiodiVerS = ich one of the following areas in india, isa hotspot of biodiversity? gunderbans (b) Western Ghats (@) Eastern Ghats (@) Gangetic Plain swin’s finches are a good example of a) ‘convergent evolution @ : 7 connecting link he least Porous soil among the following is a 6 46: ” (b) Industrial melanism. (4) Adaptive radiation 38 (a) Loamny soll () Silty soil (@) clayey sol _ (d) Peaty soil which one of the following is not a renewable, exhaustible natural resource? 2) Aquatic animals () wad life (@) Soil fertility _. (4) Minerals 20. which one ofthe following is an example of ex stu conservation? (@) National park (b) Wildlife sanctuary © seed bank a (a) Sacred groves 33, Which one of the following is not observed in biodiversity hotspots? (@) Species richness (b) Endemism (@) Accelerated species loss (d) Lesser inter-specific competition gp, sacred groves are specially useful in (a) Generating environmental awareness (b) Preventing soil erosion (© Year-round flow of water in rivers (4) Conserving rare and threatened species 23, The term Alpha diversity refers to (a) Genetic diversity (>) Community and ecosystem diversity (©) Species diversity (@ Diversity among the plants 24, The percentage of forest cover recommended by the National Forest policy (1988) is (a) 33% for plains and 67% for hills (b) 37% for plains and 63% for hills (©) 20% for plains and 70% for hills (@) 23% for plains and 77% for hills 25. Select the correct statement about biodiversity (@) The desert areas of Rajasthan and Gujarat have a very high level of desert animal species as well as numerous rare animals (b) Large scale planting of BT cotton has no adverse effect on biodiversity (c) Western Ghats have a very high degree of species richness and endemism (@) Conservation of biodiversity in just a fad pursued by the developed countries Biodiversity of a geographical region represents (a) Genetic diversity present in the dominant species of the region (®) Species endemic to the region (©) Endangered species found in the region (4) The diversity in the organisms living in the region Global warming can be controlled by {a) Reducing deforestation, cutting down use of fossil fuel ) Reducing reforestation, increasing the use of fossil fuel (© Increasing deforestation, slowing down the growth of human population () Increasing deforestation, reducing efficiency of energy us 26.a 18 Econytton ond Bey, Eevronmenan Seas 28. Which one of the following is not used for ex situ plant conservation? (a) Field gene banks (@) Seed banks (©) Shifting cultivation (@ Botanical Garden 2S. Which of the following represent maximum number of species among global biodiversity? (@) Algae (®) Lichens (©) Fungi (@ Mosses and Ferns 30. Prolonged liberal irrigation of agricultural fields is likely to create the problem of (2) aridity (®) Metal toxicity (©) Salinity (@ Acidity 31 The greatest problem of water conservation is to reduce the amount of (a) Precipitation (>) Runoff water (© Groundwater (@ Evaporation 32. Maximum nutritional diversity is found m the group: (a) Monera (©) Plantae (@ Animalia (Q Fungi 33. Which one of the following is not included under in situ conservation? (b) Wild life sanctuary (a) National park (© Zoological garden (@ Biosphere reserve 34. Which one of the following expanded forms of the followings acronyms is correct? (a) TUCM = International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (®) IPCC = Intemational Pane! for Climate Change ¢) UNEP = United Nations Environmental Policy @ EPA= Environmental Pollution Agency 35. Wild life conservation aims at: @ Maintaining the ecological process (ii) To enrich the wildlife diversity with exotic species (Ge Preventing migration of species _(iv) Maintaining the diversity of life ‘The correct statements are: ) ttt © m @iiv 36. Plants like Aegie marmelos, Ocimum sanctum and Ficus religiosa are a group of plants designated as (a) Traditional food crops (b) Sacred species of plants (@) Medicinal plant species (@ Lesser known food plants ~t°C to 13°C annual variations in the intensity and duration of temperature and 50 to 250 cm annual variation in precipitation, account for the formation of major biome as : (®) Coniferous forest (a) Tropical forest (c) Temperate forest (@) Grassland 3. Sacred groves are specially useful in (©) Preventing soil erosion (a) Generating environmental awareness () Year-round flow of water in rivers (@) Conserving rare and threatened species Some of the nutrient cycles are labelled as below : Sulphur cycle (ii) Carbon cycle and @ Phosphorus cycie Gi) Nitrogen cycie (Gv) Of these, the sedimentary cycle is represented by 2) only (©) Gi) only (@) i) and (ii) only () (if) only SEE Ce Eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee eee eee eo eee eetproduction of chemicals such as nicotine. strychnine by the plants are metabolic disorders 00 ro correct statements are " @ mana) 0) Gi) and af) fo cand) © Gana gm ig. which of the following countries has the highest biodiversity? @ srazil (>) South africa (© Russia _. (@ india iz. which of the following s nota cause for loss of biodiversity? {@) Destruction of habitat (b) Invasion by alien species Keeping animals in zoological parks (@ Over-expicitation of natural resources 3 (© Jon ofthe following is not an invasive alien species in the indian contex? (a) Lantana (©) Cynodon (© Parthenium ; (@ Eichhornia 44, Where among the following will you find pitcher plant? (@) Rain forest of North-East India (0) Sunderbans (Q Thar Desert (@ Western Ghats 4s, Which one of the following is not a major characteristic feature of biodiversity hot spots? (@) Large number of species () Abundance of endemic species (©) Large number of exotic species (@) Destruction of habitat 46. Match the animals given in column A with their location in column B Column A Column (@ Dodo (@) Africa (i) Quagga (©) Russia Gi) Thylacine (© Mauritius (Gv) Stellar's sea cow (@) Australia Choose the correct match from the following (@) ia, ii-c, ili-b, vd (0) id ii< iia, iv-d (©) ic ii-a, ifi-b, iv-d (@) ic, ii-a, iii-d, vd 47. What is common to the following plants : Nepenthes, Psilotum, Rauwolfia and Aconitum? (2) Allare omamental plants (©) All are phylogenic link species (©) Allare prone to over exploitation (@) Allare exclusively present in the Eastern Himalayas. 48. The one-horned rhinoceros is specific to which of the following sanctuary @ iar Kanta (>) Bandipur Kaziranga (@ Corbett park 49. Amongst the animal groups given below, which one has the highest percentage of endangered Species? (@) Insects (>) Mammals (©) Amphibians @ ReptilesEmvronmantal Studie -EO0/HOM AN Body 50. Which one of the following is an endangered plant species of India? (@) Rauwolfia serpentina () Santalum album (Sandal wood) (c) Cycas beddonei (@) All of the 51, What is common to Lantana, Eichhornia and African catfish? {@) Allare endangered species of India (0) Allare key stone species. (©) Allare mammals found in India. (@) Allthe species are neither threatened nor indigenous species of India, 52, The extinction of passenger pigeon was due to : (a) Increased number of predatory birds. (0) Over exploitation by humans, (©) Non-availability of the food. (@) Bird flu virus infection, 53, Which of the following statements is correct? (a) Parthenium is an endemic species of our country. (b) African catfish is not a threat to indigenous catfishes. () Steller’s sea cow is an extinct animal. (@) Lantana is popularly known as carrot grass. 54, Among the ecosystem mentioned below, where can one find maximum biodiversity? (a) Mangroves (0) Desert (¢) Coral reefs (@) Alpine meadows 55, Which of the following forests is known as the ‘lungs of the planet Earth’? (a) Tiaga forest (0) Tundra forest (©) Amazon rain forest (@) Rain forests of North East India 56. The active chemical drug reserpine is obtained from : (a) Datura (&) Rauwolfia (©) Atropa (@) Papaver 57. Which of the following group of plants exhibit more species diversity? (@) Angiosperms () Algae (©) Bryophytes (4) Fungi 58. Which of the below mentioned regions exhibit less seasonal variations? (a) Tropics (0) Temperates (©) Alpines (a) Both (a) & (b) 59. The historic convention on Biological Diversity held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is known as: (a) CITES Convention (©) The Earth Summit (©) 6-16 Summit (@) MAB Programme 60. What is common to the techniques (1) invitro fertilisation, (2) Cryopreservation and (3) tissue culture? (a) Allare in situ conservation methods. (b) Allare ex situ conservation methods. (c) All require ultra modern equipment and large space. (4) All are methods of conservation of extinct organisms. 61. The edge effect the amount of habitat typical to an ecosystem (a) increases (b) reduces (©) keeps same (@) none of the above eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eel| studies: — — yonment — aa aol ——— __ Ecosystem and Bioaiversi paint Peanut agent 6 @ So lation (b) Keystone population (oe) metaP chi a (4) sink population a inction > - ~ "2 community could lead the extinction of other members of community @ decompo = (b) primary consumers (c) Keystons pec (4) numerically dominant species hat organist is near extinction due to overexploitation? Om (a) exotic pets (b) rare cacti ¢) Siberian tiger (4) all of the above gutrophication is caused by runoff containing nutrients that does what to kill fish in a lake? (a) algae overproduce and dle; bacteria use up all the oxygen so fish die algae overproduce and crowd out fish and other species (@) fish overproduce and eat al possible sources of food then starve (@) algae overproduce oxygen, which is toxicto fish in high quantities ¢¢, Humans have introduced alien species into the environment in all these ways except (a) genetic engineering (&) human colonization (0) horticulture and agriculture (d) accidental transport «7, What percentage of coral reefs have already been destroyed? (a) 10% (b) 25% () 60% (@ 100% 68, What activity does not constitute habitat loss? (a) highway construction (b) forest fragmentation as new towns are built () converting wetland into housing areas (@) none of these 69. Which of these is not an indirect value of biodiversity? (a) runoff from natural ecosystems pollutes sources of fresh water (b) regulation of the climate (©) prevention of soil erosion (@) participation in biogeochemical cycles 70. Why is biodiversity valuable and desirable to humans? (a) for medical purposes (b) for agricultural diversity (©) for consumptive use (4) all of these 65. (8) ADDITIONAL OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 1. The study of ecosystems is called as (@) Environment (b) Ecology (©) E-study (@) Cosmos 2 The term Ecology was GIVEN BY wns (a) Earnest Haeckel (b) Newtons ©) S.W.Flemig (@) S.D.Lal ~ Photosynthesis is also known as @) photo citosis (b) photo-crysis (©) photo autotrophs (@) photo-geology—__Eeoeystem Environmental Studies 4. The sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as (0) Food constant (a) Food supply (©) Food habit (@) Food chain 5. Grass + Rabit > Fox is an example of (a) parallel food chain (b) grazing food chain (c) detritus food chain (a) animal food chain 6 There are mainly two types of food chain, one is grazing food chain and other is (a) animal food chain (b) auto food chain (@) detritus food chain (©) grazing-auto food chain 7. The grazing food chain derives energy from. (a) plant () sun (©) animals 8 Tomaintain ecological balance and regulate the population size of different animals, this is usefu fa) Sunchain (0) Wind chain : (©) Food chain (@) Grass chain 9. Food web is a network of (a) food resort (0) food balance (©) food chains (4) food supply and demand 10. Number of options of eating and being eaten at each trophic level is available in (a) food chain (b) food web (©) solar chain (d) cosmos web 411. Ecological pyramids are of three types. One is pyramid of numbers, second is pyramid of biomass and third is pyramid of (a) sun (®) wind (c) water (d) energy 12. The most important feature of energy flow in ecosystem is that it is (a) one way flow (0) two way flow (©) three way flow (@) no flow 13. The flow of energy follows the two laws of (a) kinetics (b) kinematics (©) statistics (d) thermodynamics 14. Energy flow through an ecosystem was explained by (a) E.P. Odum (b) E.P.Rax () E.P.Zen (d) E.P. Watson 15. Double channel energy flow model is also called as (b) Y-shaped energy flow model (a) X-shaped energy flow model (©) Z-shaped energy flow model (d) A-shaped energy flow model 16. About 1/3" of our land area is covered by (a) deserts (b) grassland (c) water (@) forest 17. Dal lake is in (a) Srinagar (b) Delhi () Yavatmal (a) Nainital 18. Fishes are the example of .. (a) Neustons (0) Nektons (c) Benthos (@) Periphytons— preci —23___ ecosystem ang Biosiversity, ivores means 9. Heant eaters (Poh plant and meat eaters (©) meat eaters 2 pivores are also called as (@) none of these 20. consumers 7 tertiary consumers (©) secondary consumers , (@) none ofthese organisms who feed directly on produc ne ‘ earivores "er (0) herbivores . © ores mest (@) none of these 7% (a) plant eaters (b) meat eaters (c) fisheaters (@) none of these sa, camivores are also called as (a) primary consumers (b) secondary consumers (¢) tertiary consumers (@) omnivores 4, Pyramid of ~~ is always upright, (a) energy () biomass (Q) forest ; (@) mass 25, Movement of nutrients in an ecosystem is cyclic, while flow of energy is. (e) zero directional () unidirectional (¢) two directional (@) YandZ directional 26. The organisms which fed on dead organic matter is called as (a) saprotrophs (>) fungi (©) zooplanktons (@) algae 27, The organisms which feed on dead organisms, wastes of living organisms are called (a) chemotrophs (b) carnivores () detritivores (@) decomposers 28. The progressive accumulation of some non-biodegradable chemicals through the food chain is knownas (@) Ecological balance (b) Biological inflection (©) Biological magnification (@) Bio-degradation 29. The totality of genes, species and ecosystem of a region is called as (@) Bio-society () Bio-diversity (©) Bio-living 30. Approximately (@) 31 © a 31 Only... (@) 2100 (b) 2760 (©) 4650 (@ 1111 582. Thar in India is a (@) desert (b) sea (©) river (@ muddy land 5. Chilka lake is in (@) Maharashtra (b) Bihar () Orissa @ UP.Environmental Studies 34, The biological diversity include three hierarchial leaves (1) genetic diversity, (2) species diversity “y ang third is (a) community and ecosystem diversity (b) animal and plant diversity (6) local diversity (@) mollusks diversity 35, The genetic variation existing within a species is called (a) genetic diversity (0) local animal diversity (c) species diversity (d) ecosystem diversity 36. «Plays a key role in the maintenance of diversity at species and community level. (©) Species richness (a) Speciation (c) Roll of species in land (@) Evenness of species 37. The evolution of new species is called as (a) ciation (b) mutation (©) mitigation (4) speciation 38. The species diversity ofa region is measured on the basis of two parameters one is evenness ‘ nd otheris (a) species richness (0) equitability (6) odness (@) speciation 39, The number of species per unit area is known as. (@) evenness (b) equitability of species (©) species richness (4) speciation 40. There are three perspectives of the diversity at the level of communi ()beta diversity and (()...... diversity. ity. There are (a) alpha diversity (a) sigma () zeta (©) gamma (@) magma 41, The diversity within the community is involves in (a) sigma diversity (b) beta diversity (©) gamma diversity (@) alpha diversity 42, Diversity between the communities is refers in (b) beta diversity (a) sigma diversity (©) gamma diversity (@) alpha diversity refers to the diversity of the habitats over the total landscape or geographical area. (b) Alpha diversity (d) Sigma diversity 43. (a) Beta diversity (©) Gamma diversity 44, Species determining the ability of large number of other species to persist in the community is called as {a) keystone species (b) alpha species (©) grass species (@) variant species 45. About... % of the Indian landmass is occupied by Deccan peninsula. (a) 25 (b) 35 (¢) 42 (@ 61 46. About 42% of the Indian landmass is occupied by (a) Deccan peninsula (0) Thardesert (©) Sea (@) Grassland 47. The species which are condifined to a particular country is called (a) Magnified species (0) Definite species (d) Endemic species (c) De-magnified species