International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education (IJERE)

Vol. 13, No. 5, October 2024, pp. 3345~3359

ISSN: 2252-8822, DOI: 10.11591/ijere.v13i5.27875  3345

A systematic literature review of project-based learning:

research trends, methods, elements, and frameworks

Radhya Yusri, Anuar Mohd Yusof, Azlin Sharina

Faculty of Creative Technology and Heritage, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Bachok, Malaysia

Article Info ABSTRACT

Article history: Project-based learning (PjBL) has been considered an effective learning
model to improve the quality of learning in today’s world of education. This
Received Jun 22, 2023 study aims to identify research trends of PjBL, research methods, elements
Revised Feb 26, 2024 or essential skills that can be improved, and a framework for implementing
Accepted Mar 19, 2024 PjBL from 2016 to 2023. This review procedure includes searching,
screening, evaluating, and synthesizing publications on PjBL. There were 34
articles published in Scopus-indexed popular journal. The research shows
Keywords: that the trends of PjBL from 2016 to 2023 have been conducted by using
qualitative research for 26.47%, quantitative research for 35.29%, mixed
Essential elements methods for 8.82%, action research for 5.88%, descriptive research for
Frameworks 17.65%, and development research for 5.88%. The main elements that could
Methods be developed for students from PjBL are creativity, collaboration, critical
Project-based learning thinking, communication, concept understanding, innovative thinking,
Systematic literature review motivation, problem-solving, and self-confidence. In this study, there are
five frameworks studied. By criticizing those frameworks, a new framework
is proposed called project-based learning and simulation (PjBLS).
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.

Corresponding Author:
Anuar Mohd Yusof
Faculty of Creative Technology and Heritage, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan
16300 Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
Email: [email protected]

1. INTRODUCTION
The challenges facing higher education are to empower students to respond the current and future
conditions by finding out how to solve problems critically, creatively, and innovatively in various issues [1]
and have good abilities and skills [2]. These challenges are difficulties in managing, controlling, and utilizing
technology in learning [3], as well as difficulties in understanding and mastering subject matter [4]. Higher
education is faced with an urgent challenge, which is empowering students to respond to the challenges of the
times with creativity and innovation in solving various problems. Not only that, it is also essential to ensure
that students have strong abilities and skills. However, on this journey, two main obstacles must be
overcome. First, universities must overcome difficulties in managing technology and utilize it optimally in
the learning process. Second, it is also essential to help students overcome obstacles in understanding and
mastering the subject matter. By overcoming these challenges, universities can ensure their students are ready
for the world with solid knowledge and skills.
Project-based learning (PjBL) plays an important role in overcoming these challenges and
difficulties [5], [6]. Through the contributions of various experts, researchers, educators, and practitioners,
PjBL has grown rapidly over the past few years, and it is widely applied in various disciplines [7]. PjBL
allows students to connect concepts to the material being studied with real-world problems [8]. The collected
information provides an opportunity for them to understand difficult concepts or abstract concepts and be

Journal homepage: http://ijere.iaescore.com

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able to improve the skills that they will need in the future. Challenging and complex problems will be able to
guide students to collaborate with each other in designing, investigating, making decisions, and solving
problems.
Actually, PjBL is not a new learning model for developing in-depth learning competencies needed
to achieve skills [9], [10]. It is a method using problems as the first step in gathering information and
integrating knowledge and skills based on real-world experiences, as well as learning that implements theory
into practice [11]. This means that the implementation of PjBL has several principles, such as
student-centered learning, projects focused on problems, involving students in investigations to construct
knowledge and completion of projects carried out by students collaboratively. A good learning environment
can help students develop their skills through a learning community [12] and can improve their cognitive,
affective, and psychomotor abilities [13] to solve real-world problems [14]. PjBL is also defined as a
constructivist learning method in which students are actively involved [15] and work together in solving
problems [16], as well as helping to train critical thinking skills, communication skills, and problem-solving
skills [17]. Therefore, PjBL is still appropriate to be applied at a higher level of education [18]. Research by
Cervantes et al. [19] highlights that PjBL positively impacts students' academic achievement in learning.
They found that students involved in the project improved their learning outcomes. However, most of the
studies reviewed were observational and were not always able to isolate the effects of PjBL from other
variables affecting student achievement. Carrabba & Farmer's research shows that PjBL can increase student
engagement and motivation in learning [20]. This study tends to use subjective assessment instruments,
which can affect the validity of the results. Then, Martinez's research also shows that PjBL implementation is
effective in developing 21st-century skills, including critical thinking, collaboration, and communication
skills [21]. Yet, the study may not pay attention to contextual factors that may affect skill development.
Although these studies provide insight into the effectiveness of PjBL, there are limitations to note. The
results obtained may vary depending on the proper implementation of the PjBL, teacher involvement, and the
design of the chosen project.
Although many previous studies have proved the impact of PjBL implementation in learning, and
many have been published separately in complex ways, essential elements that can optimize PjBL
implementation in learning need to be investigated. This systematic literature review (SLR) aims to identify
significant journal publications; most active and influential researchers; research methods used in PjBL;
essential elements in PjBL; the most reported method for PjBL; framework used for PjBL; project-based
learning, and simulation. Therefore, a few research questions are developed: i) which journal is the most
studied about PjBL? ii) who are the most active researchers in implementing PjBL? iii) what kind of research
methods are often used in PjBL? iv) what kind of skills or elements can be developed in PjBL? v) what kind
of methods or ways are used to implement PjBL? and vi) what kind of framework is used in implementing
PjBL? By identifying these parts, there are three significant contributions. First, this research provides an
overview of current PjBL trends based on our systematic analysis. Second, it illustrates how PjBL develop
the student’s skills. Finally, it highlights the essential elements of PjBL and make recommendations for
further research.

2. METHOD
Systematic literature review plays an essential role in building theoretical foundations, identifying
research gaps, strengthening methodologies, supporting arguments, and avoiding duplication of previous
studies [22]. It is known as a promising structured literature review to examine previous research [23]. It was
conducted as a SLR following the original guidelines proposed by Linnenluecke et al. [24].
Comprehensively, this literature review is used to search data, such as selecting reliable database sources,
identifying search strings, determining inclusion or exclusion criteria, determining quality criteria [24], [25].
The literature review aims to detect themes, theoretical perspectives, and general issues and to identify the
theoretical concept components [26], [27] from recent studies. It will contribute to the research by
synthesizing the existing research to create a further research agenda [26]. It is defined as the process of
identifying, assessing, synthesizing, and interpreting studies in a more effective manner [24], [28]. As a
literature review, this study relied on secondary sources, such as reputable and high-quality journal articles.
The database is considered the main source that has a broad impact compared to other databases [29].
Systematic literature review, alternatively recognized as the structured literature review, emerges as
a potent instrument for scrutinizing antecedent studies, thereby fortifying the respective field [23]. Within
this review, a thorough protocol has been outlined, delineating the criteria for data exploration. This includes
the selection of dependable database sources, formulation of search queries, establishment of
inclusion/exclusion parameters, determination of quality benchmarks, and other pertinent aspects [30].

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2.1. Database source

The significance of databases lies in their role as the primary reservoirs of publication metadata
and bibliometric metrics. Ensuring the selection of an appropriate data repository is pivotal in assessing the
credibility of a study. It is imperative for a SLR to utilize more than one database [31]. As per existing
literature, the Web of Science (WoS) and Scopus emerge as the two predominant bibliographic databases
employed [29]. These databases are widely favored in systematic review endeavors owing to their global
recognition, comprehensive coverage, and competitive citation indexing [29], [32]. Li et al. [33] described
the WoS from Clarivate Analytics as "the world's leading scientific citation search, instrument, and
analytical information platform across knowledge." As a result, the main data source for the study will be
Scopus.

2.2. Preferred reporting items for systematic review and meta-analysis

The “preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses” (PRISMA) review process
is adhered to by this SLR. Initially introduced in 2009, PRISMA has been succeeded by PRISMA 2020, which
incorporates updated reporting criteria to account for developments in the processes of identifying, selecting,
assessing, and summarizing studies [34]. PRISMA serves as a valuable tool for researchers to enhance the
clarity and effectiveness of their communication in reviews of literature and meta-analyses. Within PRISMA,
there are 27 assessment criteria specifically tailored for randomized trials [35].

2.3. Identification and screening

Finding words or phrases that have the exact same meaning as each other (synonyms) and related
terms, including all word variations, is the first step in the identification process. In the process of
identification, researchers enlarge crucial keywords. When researchers use more keywords, the database
might find publications that are more relevant to them. It is important to establish a few fundamental ideas
before choosing keywords that work. The keywords from the previous articles, the database, web resources
full of synonyms, and professional keyword ideas are the four main sources used for keyword research [36].
The keywords for searching are: “PjBL”.
The string link is used because it can make the searching will be effective and efficient. The search
is arranged by considering the need of each database. The database is searched by determining the title,
abstract, and keywords. The searching is started from 2016 to 2023. It is limited to Scopus-indexed articles.
There are 123 articles in Scopus that were found with the above-mentioned advanced search. We classified
each study as quantitative (empirical), qualitative, conceptual, or literature review after compiling the articles
for review.

2.4. Extraction, synthesis, and eligibility

We thoroughly inspected the article to find duplicate articles as we moved forward with the article
identification procedure. Screening followed, with consideration given to the inclusion and exclusion criteria
listed in Table 1. During the third phase, known as eligibility, 123 complete journal articles were viewed. 89
of the eligible publications that were reviewed were excluded because they had nothing to do with the goals
and methods of the study. The synthesis and eligibility phase was the next step, during which 34 whole
papers were carefully read and assessed. The systematic review methodology of [23], [36] will serve as the
foundation for an extensive synthesis of the academic literature on PjBL.

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Criteria Inclusion Exclusion
Study type Quantitative research Review paper
Qualitative research Conceptual paper
Language English Any other language
Document types Final journal article Book, book chapter, proceeding, report, and short survey
Study topics Related to PjBL Other than PjBL

2.5. Data abstraction and analysis

The remaining papers underwent a thorough evaluation and analysis, with an emphasis on particular
research that addressed the review's objectives. After reading the abstracts, the data was first extracted, and
then the complete articles were carefully examined to determine the relevant themes. Figure 1 shows a
comprehensive synthesis of academic literature on PjBL. As shown in Figure 1, this evaluation was
conducted through the identification, screening, eligibility, and incaution phases [35].

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Figure 1. The searching and selecting the primary study

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the results of the analysis that has been conducted in this study, there are several significant
findings. First, significant journal publications. It was identified that there are significant journal publications
related to the theme of this research. These publications have made important contributions to our
understanding and developments in learning. Furthermore, the analysis also highlighted the most active and
influential researchers in this context, whose contributions have shaped the direction of research and best
practices in PjBL. Furthermore, the analysis also reveals the various research methods used in PjBL. These
methods include both qualitative and quantitative approaches. In addition, important elements in PjBL that
influence the effectiveness and success of implementation were identified. Furthermore, a proposed method
for PjBL was formulated. In addition, a framework is proposed to guide the implementation of PjBL in
various educational contexts. Lastly, the integration of PjBL and simulation is covered in the analysis.
Simulation is used as one of the approaches to enhance students' learning experiences in projects that are
relevant to the real world. It allows students to face complex challenges and situations, thus strengthening the
understanding and skills acquired through PjBL.

3.1. Significant journal publications

In this literature review, there are 34 main articles analyzing the implementation of PjBL in
education. The main articles were published from 2016 to 2023. By analyzing the published articles within
this timeframe, this literature review can reflect the current trends, research methods, important elements or
skills, and the framework used by researchers before implementing PjBL. In fact, it can track the recent
changes and identify the approach, theory, or concept used. The analyzed articles were also limited to the
leading and Scopus-indexed journal databases. In this case, the conference proceedings were not included in
the literature review, as shown in Figure 2. In addition, Table 2 shows the Scimago journal rank (SJR) and
Q category (Q1-Q3) journal values. It is also included in the journals studying and implementing PjBL. The
Journal publications are sorted by SJR value.

3.2. Most active and influential researchers

Based on the selected main articles, researchers have contributed to implementing PjBL. Figure 3
shows researchers who are active in implementing PjBL. Investigators who were enrolled according to the
literature review were included in the main study. In particular, Yulia Muchnik-Rozanov, Afriana, Ai-Jou
Pan, Akhsanul In’am, Alexander MacDonald, Alison Boardman, Anazifa, Ashley Seidel Potvin, Booyuel
Kim, Cheng-Huan Chen, Chin-Feng Lai, Dewi, Dian Safitri, Dina Tsybulsky, Djukri, Dustin Van Orman,
Dwi Listyorini, Eliana are active researchers in PjBL.

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Figure 2. Journal publications and distribution of selected studies

Table 2. SJR of selected journals

No Journal Publications SJR Q Category
1 Educational Research Review 3.27 Q1 in education
2 Teaching and Teacher Education 1.62 Q1 in education
3 Thinking Skills and Creativity 1.15 Q1 in education
4 International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education 1.06 Q1 in education
5 International Journal of Management Education 1.06 Q1 in education
6 Studies in Educational Evaluation 0.91 Q1 in education
7 Learning, Culture and Social Interaction 0.77 Q1 in education
8 Asia Pacific Education Review 0.72 Q1 in education
9 Journal of Educational Research 0.65 Q2 in education
10 Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport & Tourism Education 0.58 Q2 in education
11 Journal on Mathematics Education 0.52 Q2 in education
12 International Review of Economics Education 0.43 Q2 in education
13 Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia 0.36 Q3 in education
14 International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education 0.31 Q3 in education
15 Journal of Technical Education and Training 0.24 Q3 in education

Figure 3. Influential researchers and number of studies

3.3. Research methods used in project-based learning

Although the research methods used in education are various, there are six research methods used in
implementing PjBL, as shown in Figure 4. The figure shows the quantitative research method is the most
dominant method used by previous researchers in implementing PjBL [8], [37]–[45]. Meanwhile, the
quantitative research method is a research approach using data collection and analysis based on numbers and
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statistics to answer research questions. Quantitative research is based on collecting empirical data such as
surveys, measurements, experiments, or secondary data analysis. Then, for the analysis, it uses statistical
techniques to identify relationships or significant differences between the variables studied. Although they
use the same method in conducting their research, the types of research conducted are different. The
following research uses experimental methods in their research, such as [43], [44], [46]. It analyzed the
causal relationship between the dependent variable and the independent variable. They reveal that the
experimental method can involve full control of the variables being studied. The researcher actively
manipulates the independent variables and measures their impact on the dependent variable. It is different
from other researches [8], [37], [38], [41], [42], [45], [47]. They used a quasi-experimental. In their research,
the pretest-posttest design was used to identify student changes during PjBL. Then, it compares the results
between the experimental group and the comparison group.
In addition to these two research methods, previous studies also carried out mixed-method. It is used
by several researchers [48]–[50]. The data were collected in their research by using quantitative and
qualitative data. Quantitative data is used to assess student performance based on the test scores. Then, it is
analyzed by using statistical tests. In contrast, qualitative data are obtained from observations and interviews
with students. Meanwhile, other methods were also used in previous studies, such as the descriptive research
method [51]–[56], development research [57], [58], and action research [13], [59]. The method used [60],
[61] for collecting the research data is by using triangulation. Qualitative data collection is conducted through
observation and distribution questionnaires.

Figure 4. Methods used in PjBL

3.4. Essential elements in project-based learning

Overall, experts agree that PjBL is learning involving students through project activities, and it is
able to support students in developing their skills to solve everyday life problems [38], [52], [60], [61].
Meanwhile, Chen and Yang [54] reveal that PjBL, as a systematic learning method, involves the students in
real-world tasks, produces products, and enables them to gain knowledge and skills. Through a series of
structured and systematic projects, PjBL can help to improve students' knowledge and skills [60] toward
appropriate projects for real life. So that the students learn meaningful learning directly [62].
The results of the literature review's analysis in previous studies show that the student skills can be
developed through the PjBL process, include creative [37]–[39], [41], [42], [55], [57], [63]–[65],
collaboration [42], [43], [52], [55], [60], [63], [62], [64]–[67], critical thinking [37], [39], [42], [46], [50],
[62], communication [42], [43], [62], concept understanding [23], [36], [49], innovative thinking [49], [63],
[68], motivation [7], [38], problem-solving [63], and self-confidence [69]. There are still other skills that can
be developed through PjBL, but they are not too dominant. The distribution of each skill that can be
developed is shown in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that the most dominating elements or skills from the literature review conducted are
creativity, collaboration, critical thinking, communication, concept understanding, innovative thinking,
motivation, problem-solving, and self-confidence. A total of 23.53% of the research focuses on creative skills,
19.61% relates to collaboration skills, 11.76% focuses on critical thinking, 5.88% directs their research on
communication skills, 5.88% on the ability to understand concepts, 3.92% of the research develops innovative
thinking skills, 3.92% motivation, 3.92% problem-solving skills, and 3.92% focuses more on self-confidence.

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Meanwhile, for other skills, the research conducted was relatively small, with a respective coverage of 1.96%.
So, it can be concluded most researchers only focus on a few skills in implementing PjBL.
PjBL is considered an approach that can develop critical thinking skills, problem-solving skills PjBL
is seen as an effective method for fostering critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and collaboration
[70]–[72]. The PjBL process encourages students to develop these skills. Students are faced with complex
problems or challenges that require abilities and skills to find solutions. According to research conducted
by Rupavijetra et al. [52], skills that can be developed through PBL are creativity, collaboration skills,
problem-solving, critical thinking, and communication. To motivate students' learning and develop their
collaborative skills, PjBL is the most effective model [37], [63].

Table 3. Essential elements in PjBL

Essential elements Percentage (%)
Algorithmic thinking 1.96
Collaboration 19.61
Communication 5.88
Concept understanding 5.88
Confidence 1.96
Cooperativity 1.96
Creative 25.53
Critical thinking 11.76
ICT literacy 1.96
Initiative thinking 1.96
Innovative thinking 3.92
Islamic values 1.96
Motivation 3.92
Problem-solving 3.92
Scientific literacy 1.96
Self-confidence 3.92
Self-direction 1.96
Self-efficacy 1.96

3.5. Most reported method for project-based learning

Various ways and methods have been used to optimize the implementation of PjBL and develop
students' skills. The proposed methods or innovations are: i) using various learning media [65]; ii) creating
project assessment instruments from the early stages to the final stages of learning, and conducting an
assessment [62], [67]; iii) the PjBL process is carried out online [59]; iv) modifying PjBL [48]; v) integrating
PjBL with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) [8]; vi) the use of information
technology during learning [37], [54]; and vii) adapting and combining PjBL with other learning [7], [38],
[46], [47]. Although various ways or methods of PjBL have been proposed, no one has stated that the
proposed framework is truly capable of optimizing processes and improving student skills. So, a new PjBL
framework is needed to optimize the process, improve the effectiveness and quality of learning.

3.6. Frameworks used for project-based learning

3.6.1. Williams’s framework
Williams [59] developed his research framework by combining processes and products. The students
themselves carry out the assessment process. Meanwhile, the teacher's group scores are based on the final
product of the students. Through the framework he developed, the researcher attempted to create process and
product assessments based on student self-assessment. The evaluation is seen from the hard work and activities
carried out by students during the process of working on the project. This assessment tends to be subjective
because it allows students to assess based on their own wishes. To see student contributions when working on
projects, researchers utilize online media, which is useful for monitoring student activities and project
progress. It is to gather much information to draw a detailed picture of the process before assigning a value.
Williams argues that the group assessment process is complex, where each individual collaborates to produce
a product. Through this stage, the researcher proposes to monitor the project, and the assessment carried out
needs to be considered. Because the assessment carried out is still subjective, and the assessment method
carried out is not perfect. Teachers should gather more information regarding the project process and use a
number of assessment steps, such as self-assessment, peer evaluation, and online tools. By making evaluations
visible to ensure fair assessments and by giving students greater awareness of the assessment process and
expectations, this process can be made more efficient. Figure 5 shows Williams’ PjBL framework [59].

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Figure 5. Williams’s framework [59]

3.6.2. Barak and Yuan’s framework

The framework developed by Barak and Yuan [49] focuses more on students' innovative ideas. They
consider that the five stages of PjBL, which have been developed, have a positive effect on students' abilities
and skills and can stimulate innovative ideas. The implementation of the developed framework can
encourage students to think for themselves about real-life problems. Students are encouraged to exchange
ideas, choose a problem, and look for alternative solutions so as to produce a feasible product from the
projects they are working on. Students are involved in constructing feedback for their peers and perfecting
their projects. Then, present their project in an interesting and innovative way. Overall, the PjBL framework
developed by Barak and Yuan can be used as an instructional framework, which is capable of developing
innovative thinking and innovative ideas for students. In the research conducted by Barak and Yuan the level
of students' innovative thinking was examined through a questionnaire, and it was validated. The results
show that although the implementation of PjBL has an effect on students' innovative thinking in both groups,
the innovative ideas provided by the two groups are different. Differences in students' innovative thinking
depend on the attitudes and behavior of students in learning. Overall, the five stages in PjBL are a learning
framework that can be adapted to various educational programs. Nevertheless, further research is
recommended to evaluate students' skills through peer assessment and project outcomes. Figure 6 shows the
PjBL framework of Barak and Yuan.

Figure 6. Barak and Yuan’s framework [49]

3.6.3. Wu’s framework

Wu [44] conducted PjBL and SCAMPER instructional activities to investigate students' cognitive
abilities, motivation, and attitudes in working on projects or assignments. They adopted Moodle as a learning
platform. They are guided to design, develop and construct projects. To investigate and see students' cognitive
abilities, motivations, and attitudes, Wu and Wu [44] carried out experimental activities by grouping students
into two groups, called high and low-creativity students. The results of their research show that students with
high creativity are more proficient and enjoy their work than students with low creativity. In this study, they
put more emphasis on how students are motivated and can generate many ideas during discussions and
interactions. Even though the given projects challenge the students with high creativity, the results are
consistent with the attitudes shown by students. Students' skills in working on projects increase, and
difficulties experienced can be overcome. They are active in finding solutions. Meanwhile, the thinking skills
of students with low creativity also increased. Even though during the discussion, they are passive and just
accept ideas or views from others. They tend to accept other people's views without conveying ideas and are
used to developing ideas based on knowledge or concepts they have previously obtained. These findings are
largely the same as the results of a literature review that students who have high creativity are challenged to
solve problems in different ways. Therefore, Wu [44] combined SCAMPER's PjBL and instructional activities
before creating a PjBL framework. By adopting Moodle as a learning platform, it allows students who have
low creativity to solve difficult problems and can improve students concept understanding skills and problem-
solving abilities. Figure 7 shows the PjBL framework of Wu and Wu [44].

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Fill in the Torrance

Explanation Grouping the Operating the
test of creative
objectives students learning system
thinking

Presentation and Implementation SCAMPER teaching

Preparation stage
evaluation stage stage strategies

Fill in the WPL, and

Fill in the Torrance
achievement goals
Revision stage test of creative
and problem-
thinking
solving style

Figure 7. Wu’s framework [44]

3.6.4. Mustapha’s framework

This literature review finds eight important elements or skills that facilitate PjBL. The eight
elements are knowledge, supervision, collaboration, communication, creativity, e-SOLMS, facilities, and
accessibility. The lecturer's and students' knowledge increases before starting to work on the project. In this
case, knowledge and skills are obtained from institutions through training on technical skills and supervision
of PjBL. Collaboration and communication play an important role in completing a project. If collaboration
and communication in working on a project are weak, it will make the project unfinished. Another element
that must be possessed is critical and creative thinking in completing a project. This can be shown in their
final product. The research results of Mustapha et al. [53] showed that the projects completed by students are
not innovative. This is due to the lack of creativity of students in working on projects. Other important
elements are e-SOLMS, facilities, and accessibility. Based on this research, the framework for PjBL needs to
include new elements so that projects or assignments can be carried out properly and optimally. The
framework developed is considered necessary to include new elements so that its implementation is able to
optimize the improvement of students' soft skills. In addition, it is necessary to ask for input from various
parties, such as experts, lecturers, students, and others, for the improvement of the framework. Figure 8
shows the PjBL framework of Mustapha et al. [53].

Figure 8. Mustapha’s framework [53]

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3.6.5. Pan’s framework

Pan et al. [38] conducted research by integrating possibility-thinking (PT) and PjBL into
instructional frameworks and looking at their impact on students' motivation, creativity, and understanding of
concepts. In PT, the framework developed by Pan et al [38]. includes important features, including asking
questions, answering questions, immersion, imagination, innovation, self-determination, development,
intentional action, and peer collaboration. However, they consider the existing features incomplete. So, they
also use "gold standards" in the PT-PjBL framework. The standards cover challenging questions, inquiry,
originality, student voice and choice, criticism and revision, reflection, and public product. The activities
conducted are to emphasize the interest and involvement of students. Researchers give time to students to
identify the problems they will solve. Students are encouraged to identify, analyze, discuss, respond, and find
solutions. To assist students in learning, process-outcome facilitates them in creating projects independently
and based on their choice. Then, students are brave to make decisions. The outcome can facilitate them. They
assume that the combination of PT and PjBL can increase students' creativity and learning motivation. In
accordance with the results of his research, learning through PT-PjBL has a positive effect on student
motivation and creativity. Figure 9 shows the PjBL framework of Pan et al. [38].

Figure 9. Pan’s framework [38]

After reviewing and analyzing the existing PjBL implementation and framework in the literature, the
authors assume several weaknesses. They are: i) inappropriate timing: PjBL takes time to plan, implement,
and evaluate projects. If time is not well managed, students may have difficulty completing projects within
the allotted time limit; ii) complicated organization: PjBL implementation requires good coordination and
organization between teachers, students, and other resources. Otherwise, projects can become unstructured
and difficult to complete; iii) difficulty in measuring results: in PjBL, assessment can be challenging because
of the focus on projects and collaboration; it is not just based on individual knowledge or skills. Therefore,
determining objective and relevant assessment criteria can be difficult; iv) limited resources: projects in PjBL
often require additional resources such as equipment, technology, or materials that are not always available.
This resource limitation can limit the project possibilities that students can undertake; v) classroom
management challenges: PjBL encourages collaboration and independence, but in some cases, it can create
classroom management problems. Students with varying levels of motivation or skill may encounter
difficulties working in teams or overcoming project constraints; vi) dependence on the facilitator: the role of
the teacher as a facilitator in PjBL is very important. However, if teachers do not fully understand the PjBL
framework or do not have the necessary skills, the effectiveness of PjBL can be hampered; and vii) subjective
evaluation: Project assessment in PjBL tends to be subjective, depending on the assessment of the teacher or
assessment team. It can give inconsistent and different scoring results between different students or teachers.

3.7. Project-based learning and simulation

This study tried to integrate PjBL and simulation by reducing and adopting PjBL developed by
previous researchers. It aims to increase student participation and challenge them to understand the concepts
of the material. PjBL and simulation are two different learning models, but they complement each other in an
effort to increase student motivation and ability to understand concepts. In this case, students use simulation

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Int J Eval & Res Educ ISSN: 2252-8822  3355

as a tool to assist them in solving problems related to a given project or task so that they can have a better
understanding about the concept of the material being studied. Through simulations, students will experience
an environment closer to the real situations. So that, they can test the ideas and concepts that they have
learned in a safe and controlled situation. The stages of PjBL and simulation in this study consist of:
i) formulating a project; ii) designing a project; iii) simulating; iv) monitoring students and project progress;
v) evaluating; and vi) reflecting and presenting the project. In the context of simulation, PjBL will find its
perfection. Students' skills will improve and practical competencies through immersive experience will be
awakened. They combine theoretical knowledge with practical application in simulations that present real
challenges. As a result, students do not only understand concepts but they also develop their skills. By
combining of PjBL and simulation, the students will be ready to face the real world with confidence and
strong expertise.
The existence of simulation as a supporting tool before making decisions can make it easier for
students to understand the concept of material and help them solve the problems they face, time efficiency,
simple and easy to obtain equipment. In this study, simulation contributes to problem-solving by connecting
the concepts studied. Difficult concept challenges in the form of abstract can be overcome [73], [74]. The
proposed new framework is seen in Figure 10.

Figure 10. A framework of project-based learning and simulation (PjBLS)

The combination of PjBLS is a precious theoretical contribution to this study. This study tried to
adopt several steps of PjBL implementation based on research conducted by previous researchers by
considering the efficiency and effectiveness of the model. Then, it also investigated the important elements
developed from the implementation of PjBL.
The practical contribution of this study is that it provides a deep insight into PjBL in various
educational contexts and disciplines. This is very useful for educational practitioners, teachers, and
curriculum developers in designing, implementing, and evaluating effective PjBL approaches that suit
students' needs. Thus, they can choose or design PjBL that best suits the learning objectives and student
characteristics, as well as consider the obstacles that may arise in the implementation of PjBL. Theoretically,
this study can help in deepening the understanding of the methods used and the skills that can be developed
through PjBL. This allows for the development of effective learning that is more holistic and inclusive.
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3356  ISSN: 2252-8822

Methodologically, this study provides a framework for PjBL that contains clear, systematic, and structured
steps. As such, this study not only facilitates a more comprehensive understanding but also serves as a guide
for educational researchers and practitioners in designing advanced learning or implementing PjBL. By
providing a methodological framework and presenting a proposed new framework, this study supports the
improvement of learning effectiveness and quality. It provides a strong foundation for stakeholders to use in
designing and implementing PjBL approaches that are efficacious and relevant to educational needs. As such,
this study is not only a practical, theoretical, and methodological contribution but also a foundation for
continuous innovation and improvement in learning practices.

4. CONCLUSION
This literature review identified and analyzed research trends, research methods, essential elements
or skills, and PjBL frameworks from 2016 to 2023. Based on inclusion and exclusion criteria, 34 articles on
PjBL were analyzed and investigated. Its findings provide valuable insights for academics seeking to
improve the learning process by implementing PjBL. The results of the literature review reveal that
sequentially the research methods that are often used in PjBL are quantitative research methods, qualitative
research methods, descriptive research methods, mixed methods, action research methods, and development
research methods. The dominant elements or skills that can be developed through PjBL are creative,
collaborative critical thinking, communication, concept understanding, innovative thinking, motivation,
problem-solving, and self-confidence. This literature review also identified five frameworks used in
implementing PjBL. Based on the findings from the literature review, a new framework is proposed.
The limitations of this study include several aspects that need to be considered. First, limitations in
the scope of the literature used may affect the overall representation of each aspect studied. Although
rigorous methodological measures have been applied in the literature search and selection, it is inevitable that
some relevant literature may be missed. Secondly, in evaluating the quality of the included literature, there is
potential for assessment bias. Although quality assessment criteria have been consistently applied, the
assessment is still subjective. This may affect the validity of the conclusions drawn from this study. Thirdly,
limited time resources may affect the depth of analysis and synthesis of the findings conducted in this study.
Although efforts have been made, these limitations may restrict exploring each aspect in depth. Future
studies should concentrate on deeply identifying the essential elements that can optimize the implementation
of PjBL in learning and looking at the factors that can influence it, both internal and external. In addition,
future researchers must also look at the potential influence of these elements in implementing PjBL,
including choosing and using the PjBL framework that is suitable for the learning process.

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BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS

Radhya Yusri is currently a student Doctor of Philosophy in Faculty of Creative

Technology and Heritage, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan and also as a lecturer at the
Mathematics Education Study Program, Faculty of Science and Technology, University PGRI
West Sumatra with Geometry, Computer Programming Algorithms, and Database Courses. He
can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Anuar Mohd Yusof is an Associate Professor of Edutainment Technology. He

also Academic Director of Centre for Academic Management of Universiti Malaysia
Kelantan. Interest in pedagogical of e-learning with new paradigm for inclusive education and
creative multimedia. Previously, He had been awarding many awards from national level until
international recognitions. Previously, he had been awarded Special Award of Ministry of
Education Malaysia 2018 with his innovation on an online course called "MOOC in MOOC
Technique". He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

Azlin Sharina is an accomplished author and senior lecturer at Universiti

Malaysia Kelantan, specializing in interaction design, human-computer interaction, and user
experience. With a Ph.D. in Digital Arts from the University of Surrey and over 11 years of
teaching experience, she has made valuable contributions to her field. Her research focuses on
understanding human behavior and optimizing digital interfaces for better interactions. Azlin
Sharina’s expertise lies in bridging the gap between humans and technology, creating
user-friendly systems. He can be contacted at email: [email protected].

A systematic literature review of project-based learning: research trends, … (Radhya Yusri)