SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS

TERMS AND DEFINITIONS USED

1. Solar cell modules: These are arrangements of many
solar cells wired in series, sealed between Glass and
plastic and supported inside a metal frame.
2. Photovoltaic device (PV): It is a device which converts
light energy into electrical energy.
3. Array: this is an assembly of several modules on a
support structure together with associated wiring.
4. Solar radiation: This is the measure of the solar energy
received on a specific area over a specified period of time.
It is measured in KWh/M2/day or Peak sun hours per
day.
5. Direct radiation: is the type of radiation which comes in
a straight beam and can be focused with a lens or
mirrors.
6. Diffuse radiation: is the type of radiation reflected by the
atmosphere or scattered by the clouds or dust.
7. Global radiation: This refers to the combination of
diffuse and direct solar radiation arriving on surface.
8. Solar irradiance: It refers to the solar radiation actually
striking the surface or the power received per unit area
from the sun in watts per square meter (W/M2).
9. Insolation: It is the measure of the solar energy received
on a specific area over a specified period of time.
10. Solar constant: this is the radiation which arrives at the
edge of the earth’s atmosphere at the rate of about
1350W/m2.
11. A crystal: This is the regular geometrical state taken up
by elements in certain conditions.
12. Peak sun hours: These are the number of hours per day
during which solar irradiance average is 1000W/M2 at
the site.

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 SOLAR ELECTRIC TECHNOLOGY
Solar electricity is the electric power generated from sun light using
devices called solar cell modules.

SOLAR ELECTRIC THEORY

Solar electric system theory differs from mains or generator wiring
in that the system is based;
1. Low voltage DC, not 240V AC
2. It stores power in batteries
3. Power is generated on site by photo-voltaic equipment (PV)
4. For the system to be economical, all energy produced must be
used efficiently.
Previously, solar electricity was a new technology, used mostly for
telecommunication systems, water pumping and remote clinic
power.
The early systems installed in Africa were un successful because of
inappropriate designs and poor maintenance.
Now days, due to the increased production of solar and reduced
prices, the application of solar electricity has widely increased in
the local market.
Solar electricity is now the most viable power source for lighting,
powering radios and TV’S in rural areas that have not been
electrified.

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APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER
The following are some of the important applications for which solar
electric power is being utilized;
 Providing power for house hold lights, TV’S, cassette players,
radios and small appliances.
 Used in small industries and institutions such as schools and
small businesses in rural areas for lighting, sewing machines,
calculators, light tools, computers, type writers and security
systems.
 Applied in health centres for vaccine refrigeration and lighting.
Such solar refrigerators are also used to freeze ice packs and
to keep blood plasma cool.
 Water pumping. Arrays of solar cell module are connected to
electric pump to pump water from wells or bore holes for
house hold utilities.
 Used in electric fencing which keep wild animals inside game
parks and out of farm land.
 Used for street lighting.
 Also used for road sign illumination.
 Used for railway and marine signal lighting.
 Used in protection of pipelines from corrosion.

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ADVANTAGES OF SOLAR ELECTRIC POWER
The following are claimed to be the advantages of solar electric
power,
 They consume no fuel. Solar modules convert freely available
sun light directly into electricity without being used up.
 They produce electricity quietly without giving off exhaust
fumes or pollutants.
 Compared to conventional generator, solar electric systems
require very little maintenance because they have no moving
parts and last over 20years.
 Solar electric systems are economical for many applications as
the prices of solar cells have been fallen.
 Solar electric systems can be tailored to the power needs of the
individual applications. They can be expanded easily by
adding more batteries and modules.
 Properly installed solar electric systems are safe. Risk of
electric shock is small because of the low system voltage.

DISADVANTAGES
 The initial cost of solar electrical systems is high by rural
standards for people to raise the cash to buy the systems all at
once.
 Solar electric systems require batteries for energy storage
which must be carefully maintained.
 Appliances and lamps which run on low voltage are not easily
available as those run on mains power.
 There is a lack of trained technicians to design and install
solar electric systems which eventually reflect badly on solar
electric technology when installed by un trained technicians.

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 SOLAR CELL AND MODULES

THE PHOTO-ELECTRIC EFFECT

Solar electricity is the direct conversion of sunlight to electricity.
Light striking solar cells is converted into electric energy. This
occurs according to a principle called the photo-electric effect.
The solar electric devices are also called photovoltaic or PV devices.

The figure shows

the Photo electric
effect.

How solar cells work

Solar rely on the special electric properties of the element silicon
which enable it to act as both insulator and conductor.
Specially treated pieces of silicon “sort” or “push” electrons
dislodged by solar energy across an electric field o the cell to
produce an electric current.
Solar energy is composed of millions tiny high-energy particles
called photons. Each photon carries a quantity of energy and some
have more energy than others.

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When a photon of sufficient energy strikes a silicon atom in a solar
cell, it knocks the outmost silicon electron out of its orbit around
the nucleus, freeing it to move across the cell’s electric field.
Once the electrons cross the fields, they cannot move back. As
many electron’s cross the cell’s field, the back side of the cell
develops a negative charge.
If a load is connected between the negative and positive side of the
cell, the electrons flow a current. Thus, solar energy inform of
photons continuously dislodges silicon electrons from their orbitals
and “pushes” the electrons through the wires.
More intense sun light gives a stronger current. If the light stops
striking the cell, the current stops flowing immediately.

SOLAR CELLS
The basic unit of solar electric production is the solar cell. Light
striking solar cells creates a current powered by incoming light
energy. Solar cells produce electricity when placed in sunlight

TYPES OF SOLAR CELLS

Several varieties of silicon-type solar cells and solar cell modules
are available. These include;
1. Monocrystalline cells
2. Polycrystalline cells
3. Amorphous silicon cells

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MONOCRYSTALINE CELLS
These refer to cells cut from single crystals of silicon.
These cells have an efficiency of 11-16% i.e. if a solar radiation is
striking the cells at a perpendicular angle with an intensity of
1000W/M2, 110 to 160W/M2 of solar cell is converted to electricity.
Monocrystalline cells are chemically stable, so they last for a very
long time if properly protected. Monocrystalline cells were the first
to be developed for commercial purposes.

POLYCRYSTALLINE CELLS or (Multi-crystalline)

These refers to cells made from many crystals.
They have a slightly lower efficiency than the monocrystalline cells
i.e. 9 top 13%.
They have a longer life time and do not degrade over time.
They are sliced from cast ingots of polycrystalline – made by
different process than monocrystalline silicon.

AMORPHOUS (Thin film)

These are cells made from silicon that is not in crystalline form and
are less costly than both poly and monocrystalline cells.
With these cells, the silicon material is deposited on the back of the
glass or plastic surface in very thin layers.
The surface is then scored to divide it into a number of cells, and
electrical connections are added. They are manufactured cheaply
than any other type of cells.
They are commonly used in toys, calculators and watches. They
have a lower efficiency of between 3 and 6%.

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SOLAR CELL MODULES
Arrangement of many solar cells wired in series, sealed between
Glass and plastic and supported inside a metal frame are called
solar cell modules.
The process of making solar cell modules from mono- and
polycrystalline silicon cell involves several steps. Once properly
prepared and treated with anti-reflection coatings, solar cells are
soldered together in series and then mounted between glass and
plastic and this process of mounting between glass and plastic is
called encapsulation.
During this process, the cells are sealed at high temperature
between layers of plastic and glass in a such manner that air and
water cannot enter and corrode the cells.
Modules are then cased in a metal or plastic frames to protect their
edges from twisting. The frame may have holes drilled in it for easy
mounting and connection point for earthing cables.
Positive and negative contacts from the cells are fixed onto the back
of the module. With most modules above 40Wp, the terminals are
enclosed in a junction box.

Module ratings
All solar cell modules are rated according to their maximum output
or peak power.
The peak power (Wp) is defined as the amount of power a solar cell
module can be expected to deliver at noon on a sunny day when it
is facing directly towards the sun at standard test conditions (STC).
The module’s power rating in peak watts should be specified on the
module by the manufacturer or dealer.
Modules almost always produce less power than their rated peak
power in field conditions.

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ARRAYS
Often, a number of modules are required to meet the power
requirements at a site. When mounted together, groups of modules
are referred to as arrays. E.g.
 a solar vaccine refrigerator might require an array of 3 to
6modules.
 A solar water pump extracting water from a 20M borehole for a
community might require an array of 15 to 20 fifty Wp
modules.

OUTPUT OF SOLAR MODULES

The power output of a module depends on the following;
 The number of cells in the module
 The type of cells
 The total surface area of the cells
The output of the module changes depending on the following;
 The amount of solar radiation
 The angle of the module with respect to the sun
 The temperature of the module
 The voltage at which the load or battery is drawing power from
the module.

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THE I – V CURVE
Each solar cell and module has its own set of operating
characteristics that can be described by the current – voltage curve,
which is better known as the I-V curve.
I-V curves are used to compare solar cell modules, and to determine
their performance at various levels of insolation and temperatures.
The left hand side (I) gives
the current output of the
module depending on the
voltage.
The bottom side gives the
voltage produced by the
module at various currents.
At each point along the line,
it is possible to determine
the power of the module by
multiplying the current
times the voltage.
For example, imagine that the battery is being charged by the
module, and that it has reached 12.0V at point A. the current from
the module is 3.2A at point A and the power output is 38.4W.
i.e. current × voltage = power
3.2 ×12.0 = 38.4W
The shaded portion shows the boundaries with in which a battery is
charged. Note that as the battery gets fully charged, the charging
current begins to decrease.

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POINTS OF INTEREST ABOUT THE I-V CURVE
 Isc the short circuit current.
This is the current measured in full sunlight, when an
ammeter is attached to the positive and negative leads of the
module i.e. where the curve crosses the 0 volts at point B. This
is the maximum current that the module is capable of
producing.
 Voc the open circuit voltage.
This is the voltage measured under full sunlight when a
voltmeter is attached to the positive and negative leads of the
module.it is the point where the curve crosses 0 amps at point
C. this is the maximum voltage that the module can produce
on a sunny day.
 Pm the maximum power point.
This is the point on the I-V curve where the module produces
the greatest power.
The maximum power point is always found at a position where
the curve begins to bend steeply downward i.e. at the knee,
point D.
It is advisable to operate the module as near to the maximum
power point as possible.

Generally,
 The closer the knee of the I-V curve is to a square, the better
output characteristics of the module.
 The flatter the curve is, the poorer the quality of the module.
 Monocrystalline and polycrystalline modules have better I-V
curves than amorphous modules.

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Effect of temperature on a module output
Most solar devices have a lower output as they get hotter. As the
temperature increases, power output of a monocrystalline solar
cells falls by 0.5% per degree centigrade as shown in the I-V curve
below. Thus a 5oC rise in temperature will cause a 2.5% drop in
power output.
This is important because, in strong sunlight, solar cell modules are
usually warmer than the thermometer temperature.
For this reason, installers are encouraged to mount modules on
poles, on structures above the roof, or in places where they are
cooled by wind to keep output as high as possible.

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Choosing a solar cell module
Modules should be chosen according to the energy requirements of
the system load. Other important considerations when choosing
modules include;
 The number of cells making up a module.
 The type of the module.
 The short circuit current.
 The open circuit voltage.
 The current at load.
NOTE:
 It is a good idea to test the module using a multimeter in full
sunlight before buying it and more especially, when it is used.
 Compare its output with its rated output.
 If you cannot test it yourself, find someone who can help you.
 Remember some dealers do not know how to tell whether the
module is good or not.

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 WEATHER AND METEOROLOGICAL DATA

SOLAR RADIATION
Definition:
Solar radiation is the measure of the solar energy received on a
specific area over a specified period of time. It is measured in
KWh/M2/day or Peak sun hours per day.

 Sun shine reaches the earth as the type of energy called

radiation. This radiation is composed of millions of high energy
particles called Photons. Each unit of solar radiation or
photons carries a certain amount of energy.

 Depending on the amount of energy that it carries, solar

radiation falls into different categories including;
 Infra-red i.e. heat
 Visible radiation (radiation that we can see0
 Ultra-violet radiation (with very high energy radiation)
All these groups of radiation energy arrive from the sun and
are categorized according to their wave length.

 Solar energy arrives at the edge of earth’s atmosphere at the

rate of about 1350W/M2. This does not change throughout the
year and is referred to as the solar constant.

 The atmosphere absorbs and reflects much of it and only a

maximum of about 1000W/M2 reaches the surface in tropical
countries.

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ABSORPTION AND REFLECTION OF SOLAR RADIATION BY THE
ATMOSPHERE

NOTE:
 Peak sun hours are the number of hours per day during which
solar irradiance average is 1000W/M2 at the site.
 Therefore, if an area can have an average of 5.2 peak sun
hours per day at an average of 1000W/M2, it would imply that,
that area receives 5.2hrs × 1000W/M2/day
= 5200Wh/M2/day
Or
5.2KWh/M2/day which is the total insolation of the site.

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TYPES OF SOLAR RADIATION
Solar radiation can be divided into two types;
1. Direct radiation
2. Diffuse radiation
Direct radiation is the type of radiation which comes in a straight
beam and can be focused with a lens or mirrors.
Diffuse radiation is the type of radiation reflected by the
atmosphere or scattered by the clouds or dust. Clouds and dust
absorb and scatter radiation thus reducing the amount of radiation
reaching the ground.
On a sunny day, most of the radiation is direct but on a cloudy day,
up to 100% of the radiation is diffuse. Together direct and diffuse
radiation re known as global radiation.

Only 1⁄3 or less radiation is received on a cloudy day. Therefore, it

is necessary to economise the use of energy when it is cloudy or
design solar system which can guarantee enough power in cloudy
months.

Factors affecting the amount of radiation an area receives

annually.
These factors include;
 The areas latitude
 Cloudy periods
 Humidity
 Atmospheric clarity
Near the equator, solar radiation is affected by cloudy periods. Long
cloudy periods reduce the amount of solar energy available.
High humidity absorbs and hence reduces radiation.

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SOLAR IRRADIANCE
Definition:
It refers to the solar radiation actually striking the surface or the
power received per unit area from the sun in watts per square meter
(W/M2).

SOLAR IRRADIANCE RECEIVED OVER TIME ON A FLAT

SURFACE IN E. AFRICA

From the graph above;

 At noon, the amount of power received is the highest.
 In the morning and late afternoon, less power is received
because the flat surface is not at an optimum angle to the sun
and because there is less energy in the solar beam.
 The actual amount of power received at a given time varies
with the passing clouds and the amount of dust in the
atmosphere.
 The angle at which the solar beam strikes the surface is called
the solar incident angle.

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  The closer the solar incident angle is to 900, the more energy is
received on the surface.
 If a solar module or device is turned to face the sun
throughout the day, its energy output increases. This practice
is called Tracking.

USING METEOROLOGICAL RECORDS

When planning a solar system, you will need to estimate the
amount of solar radiation your site receives over the year.
Using records taped at meteorological stations, you can estimate
the amount of solar energy available. The most useful information is
the monthly men daily insolation in KW/M2.
NOTE:
 The mean daily sunshine hours measure the amount of hours
that the sun shines (up to 12), while the peak sun hours
measure the actual amount of energy received. (rarely more
than 8KWh/M2).
 Locations in east and southern Africa receive between 3 and 8
peak sun hours per day. The exact amount of insolation
depends on the location and time of the year

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SOLAR INSOLATION (Incident solar radiation)

Definition:
It is the measure of the solar energy received on a specific area over
a specified period of time.
It is measured in mega joules, KWh/m2/day and peak sun hours
per day or sometimes Langley’s per day.

The KWh/m2/day measures the amount of radiant energy collected

at the site. It corresponds closely to peal sun hours, for the number
of hours per day during which solar irradiance averages to
1000W/M2 at the site.
A site which receives 6 peak sun hours per day receives the same
amount of energy that would have been received if the sun had
shone for 6 hours at 1000W/M2.
The irradiance at such a site changes throughout the day but still
the energy is equivalent to 6 hours of irradiance at 1000W/M2.

APPLICATIONS OF INSOLATION DATA IN PV

There are two main applications of insolation data in PV systems.
These include;
1. Site planning
2. Solar system sizing

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IN SITE PLANNING
The insolation data of a site is a very important factor for the
planning process of a solar PV system.
In mountaneous areas or regions with high growing vegetations, it
is wise to measure and compare insolation data for several possible
installation sites.
It therefore helps to identify the optimum location for installing a
system. The target should always be to select a site with maximum
solar radiation.
IN SOLAR SYSTEM SIZING
The solar insolation data of a designated solar PV system site
determines the peak sun hours for that location. This factor is
mostly important when sizing the PV system components.

NOTE:
The amount of solar radiation depends mainly on 3 factors;
1. The location of the site
2. The time of the year
3. The time of the day

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 COMPONENTS OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

The following are the major components that make up a solar PV

system;
 Solar modules
 Solar battery
 Solar charge controller (Regulator)
 The load
 Power conditioning units
 Wiring systems(cables)

SOLAR MODULES
Solar modules: These are arrangements of many solar cells wired
in series, sealed between Glass and plastic and supported inside a
metal frame.
The purpose of the solar module is to harvest solar electric energy
during the day when exposed to sun light.
Many factors are considered for the selection of solar modules
including the following;
 The number of cells making up a module.
 The type of the module.
 The short circuit current.
 The open circuit voltage.
 The current at load.

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 SOLAR BATTERIES

Definition:
A battery is a group of electro-chemical cell i.e. devices that convert
chemical energy into electrical energy, connected in series.
A solar module produces electricity during the day time when the
sun is shining. the module cannot store energy.
When electricity should be used during the night, it must be stored
in batteries which chemically store electric charge.

BATTERY PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

Fully charged batteries have –ve and +ve plates consisting of sponge
lead and positive plate (electrodes) consisting of lead dioxide (PbO2).
The plates are sub-merged in an electrolyte solution of sulphuric
acid.
When discharging a battery, the Sulphur leaves the solution and
moves over to the lead plates and gives up an electron and the
moving electron are electricity.
When recharging a battery, the Sulphur is driven back into the
solution. These batteries which can be recharged are called
accumulators or secondary batteries.
As a battery is charged, electric energy is stored as chemical energy
within the cells. When it is being discharged i.e. when connected in
a circuit with the load, stored chemical energy is converted to
electrical energy.

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TYPES OF BATTERIES
There are two most common types of secondary battery system on
the world market today and these are;
1. Lead-acid batteries
2. Nickel cadmium (NiCad) batteries

A. NICKEL CADMIUM BATTERIES (NiCad)

NiCad batteries operate on the chemical reactions between the
positive Nickel hydroxide electrode in a potassium hydroxide
electrolyte.
A fully charged NiCad cell has a voltage of about 1.3V.

ADVANTAGES
 Light and available in small sizes
 Can be operated over a wide range of temperature
 Require less maintenance
 Can be completely discharged without damaging the cells
 Have a long life.

DISADVANTAGES
 Very expensive
 Very expensive to dispose off-Cadmium is considered very
hazardous.
 Non-standard voltage and charging curves may make it
difficult to use on some equipment such as standard inverters
and chargers.

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 B. LEAD-ACID BATTERIES
These batteries operate on the basis of chemical reactions between
a positive lead dioxide late, a negative lead plate and an electrolyte
composed of sulphuric acid with water.
During charge, lead dioxide accumulates on the +ve plate and the
relative amount of sulphuric acid in electrolyte increases.
When the battery is being discharged, lead sulphate accumulates in
the –ve plate and relative amount of water in the electrolyte
increases.
A fully charged cell of lead acid battery is about 2.1 volts
Chemical equation: Discharge
Pb + PbO2 + 2HSO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2O
Charging

HAZZARDS OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES.

1. They contain corrosive sulphuric acid.
Sulphuric acid can burn skin or eyes, burn holes through
clothes and furniture and it will damage cement floor.
Remedy/cure/solution:
Use a lot of water to wash it off and pour soda-bicarbonate on
the acid when it spills on the floor.
2. Batteries give off explosive hydrogen gas when they are being
charged. Therefore, the gas must be vented away to avoid
explosion.
Precaution:
Do not smoke or carry open flames in the battery storage
room.

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 3. Batteries contain a larger amount of energy that can cause an
explosion of fire if the battery terminals are accidentally
shorted.
Precaution:
Take care and avoid short circuits.

TYPES OF LEAD ACID BATTERIES

Lead acid batteries fall into two categories;
1. Shallow discharge batteries
2. Deep discharge batteries

1. SHALLOW DISCHARGE BATTERIES (Automotive batteries)

These are designed to supply a larger amount of power for a shorter
duration. It is sometimes called a starter battery.
They are meant to get combustion engines going.
They have many thin lead plates which allow them to discharge a
lot of energy very quickly for a short amount of time which is un
likely to damage the plates inside.
But because they are manufactured locally cheap and widely
available, that’s why they are widely used for powering lights and
TV’s in rural areas.
If used, they must be managed carefully. They are available as
40 – 100AH automotive batteries.

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 2. DEEP DISCHARGE BATTERIES
These have thicker lead plates that make them tolerate deep
discharge better.
They cannot dispense charge as quickly as he starter battery, but
can also be used to start combustion engines.
The thicker the lead plates, the longer the life span, all things being
equal.
Battery weight is the simple indicator for the thickness of the lead
plates used and this is an indicator of a better battery which will
tolerate deep discharge.
Antimony is added to the positive plate to enable battery withstand
deep discharge of between 50% to 80%. However, they have higher
discharge rates and require more frequent additions of distilled
water.
These types of batteries are better for solar PV than the shallow
cycle batteries.
They are preferred for solar electric systems because more energy
can be taken out of them than the shallow type without causing
damage to the cell.
However, they are more expensive than the shallow type.

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RATED STORAGE CPACITY
The amount of energy a battery can store is called its capacity.
The capacity of a battery is measured in ampere hours (AH). This
indicates the amount of energy that can be drawn from the battery
before it is completely disc charged.
The rated storage capacity is not an exact measurement of the
battery’s size, as the capacity changes with battery’s age, condition
of service, the temperature and the rate at which power is
withdrawn from it.
If current is drawn from the battery at a higher rate, its capacity is
reduced.
The capacity of lead acid batteries is reduced with decreasing
temperature e.g. a typical battery will hold about 20 less charge at
00c than one at 400c.

Note: Energy(Watthours) = Ampere hours × battery voltage.

E = AH × V (Wh)

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 CHARGE AND DISCHARGE

(a) CHARGE:

Definition:
Charge current is the electric current supplied to and stored in a
battery.
The battery depends upon the rate of current at which it is
being charged.
Batteries are charged by solar cell modules, mains power
connected to a battery charger, diesel, petrol and auto-mobile
engines attached to a properly sized alternator or Generator.
The amount of charge a battery has received can be
determined by the charging current i.e.
Q (battery charge) = I(A) × T(Hours)

Q×V = Energy in Watts.

(b) DISCHARGE
This is the state of the battery which is when its energy is
being consumed by the load.
The discharge current is the rate at which current is drawn
from the battery. If a lamp draws 1.5A for a period of 4hrs, it
uses 6AHrs of energy.

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STATE OF CHARGE (SoC)
Definition: This is the measure of the energy remaining in the
battery. E.g.

A fully charged battery has a state of charge of 100% and if 1⁄4 of

its capacity is removed, then its state of charge is 75%.

MEASURING BATTERY STATE OF CHARGE.

Two methods are employed for measuring the battery state of
charge.
(a) The voltmeter
(b) The hydro meter

1. The voltmeter
As the state of charge of battery decreases, it’s voltage also
decreases and this can be measured by a voltmeter.
A solar battery at 100% state of charge has a voltage of 12.7V. when
discharged to 50% state of charge, it’s voltage drops to about 12.1V
and when completely empty (dead) it is about 11.5V or lower.
2. Hydro-meter
The hydro-meter measures density or the weight per unit volume of
the sulphuric acid electrolyte in each cell and this is called specific
gravity which is directly related to the state of charge of a battery.
During charge in lead acid batteries, the sulphuric acid within each
cell is converted to water which has a lower density than sulphuric
acid.
So, during discharge, the battery electrolyte becomes less dense
and the battery’s state of charge decreases. Hydrometers contain a
floating scale with specific gravity readings.
CYCLE, CYCLE LIFE AND DEPTH OF DISCHARGE
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A battery is charged during the day through a solar module and is
discharged by the load during the night.
Each charge period together with the discharge period is called a
cycle.
The rated cycle life of a battery is the number of cycles a battery is
expected to last before its capacity drops to 80% of its original rated
capacity.

Factors affecting the cycle life of a battery.

The actual cycle life of a battery is shortened by
 A deep discharge,
 High temperatures
 Too much discharge at a higher rate.
A deep discharge cycle is the cycle in which a battery is
completely or almost completely discharged.
NOTE: several deep discharges will destroy an automotive battery.

DEPTH OF DISCHARGE (DoD)

This tells how much batteries are discharged in a cycle before they
are charged again.
Shallow cycle batteries should not be discharged below 80% state of
charge on a regular basis.
Deep cycle batteries should not regularly be discharged below 40%
state of charge.
Deep discharge cycle may occur during long cloudy periods or when
the load is much larger than the solar charge.

Expected cycle life of two battery types t various DoD’S

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 Daily depth of Modified Deep discharge
discharge automotive battery battery.
10% DoD 750 Cycles 7200 Cycles
50% DoD 310 Cycles 3000 Cycles
80% DoD 200 Cycles 1200 Cycles

NOTE: If the battery is very low after a week or cloudier weather, it

should immediately be charged by an alternative method.
Under these conditions, the load should be reduced to protect the
battery until the weather gets sunny again.

SELF DISCHARGE
This is a condition in which batteries lose their charge slowly when
left standing un charged.
This occurs because of the reactions within the cells of the battery.
The rate at which batteries lose their charge depends on the
following factors;
 The temperature surrounding the battery
 The type of battery
 The age of the battery
 The conditional services given to batteries.
What should be done to avoid self-discharge?
 Store the battery off the floor in a wooden box or non-metallic
tray.
 Keep the top surfaces of the battery clean (avoid accumulation
of acid mist on top i.e. dirty batteries.
 Keep the terminals clean and greased (use petroleum jelly but
not grease).
NOTE:

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  Lead acid batteries left in a low state of charge for long
periods lose some of their capacity due to a permanent
chemical change in the plates called sulphation. This affects
its rated capacity or may not recharge at all.
 NiCad batteries and GEL cells can be left discharged for long
periods without any damage.

OVER CHARGING
This where batteries are left to charge after being fully charged
under the presence of excess current flowing from the module on a
sunny day.
Over charging the battery causes;
 the loss of electrolyte
 damage to the battery plates
 a shortened cycle life of the battery.
The loss of electrolyte by gassing is a chemical reaction which
changes water in the electrolyte to hydrogen. The gas escapes as
bubbles causing two problems;
i) the level of electrolyte in each cell goes down. Therefore,
distilled water must be added to replace it.
ii) Explosive hydrogen gas is given off. to avoid the risk of
explosion, this gas must be vented from the battery storage
room.

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What should be done to avoid gassing and damaging the battery
by overcharging?
The following steps should be taken;
 A device called the charge controller should be connected
between the battery and the solar module. This controls the
charging of the battery thus prevents the loss of electrolyte by
gassing.
 The battery’s state of charge should be checked regularly to
determine whether it is being over charged.
 If the battery is being regularly over charged, the load should
remain on longer, or if there is no charge regulator, the solar
charge should be disconnected when the battery is fully
charged.

TYPES OF SHALLOW CYCLE BATTERIES

1. Automotive (S.L.I) batteries.
Automotive batteries are also called starting lighting and
ignition batteries. These are shallow discharge lead-acid
batteries used mainly for starting car engines.
Because of their thin plates, they are easily damaged when
deeply discharged i.e. 80% state of charge. They are not good
energy storage choices for solar electric system.
They should not be used below 80% state of charge, only
remove 20% per cycle.
During cloudy weather, they should be carefully maintained
and taken for charging in town if necessary.

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2. Improved automotive (portable) batteries.
These are sold as solar or portable batteries with capacities
between 70 and 100AH.
They have thicker plates, larger acid wells, and often with rope
handles for carrying batteries.
They are used as better alternatives than standard automotive
batteries.

3. Captive electrolyte (GEL) batteries.

They use a non-liquid electrolyte to avoid the problems of
water loss through gassing.

Advantages.
 They are sealed at the factory; they don’t leak or spill and
so they are easily transported and require no
maintenance.
 They withstand deep discharge and have a good cycle life
i.e. 2years when cycled 50% state of charge and 3years
when cycled to 25% state of charge at 25oC.
 They have a low self-discharge rate.
Disadvantages.
 They have a poor performance characteristic at high
temperatures, therefore, they should not be used in hot
sites.
 They lose electrolyte when charged at high voltages.
Application.
GEL cell batteries (6-7AH) are used in several types of solar
lanterns.

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 4. Lead- calcium (maintenance free) batteries.
These batteries come in sealed cases and are sometimes sold
for PV applications.
They don’t require electrolyte re-fill but they don’t tolerate
deep discharge well and can be damaged if left in a partial
state of charge.

5. Stand-by batteries.
These are used to power vital equipment like telephones
exchanges in the event of grid or generator failure.
They have thick lead plates (without addition of antimony) and
are very heavy.
They are not designed for deep discharge, therefore, they are
kept in a high state of charge as they are constantly on float
charge.
They don’t have as long cycle life as traction battery. They are
mostly used in post offices.

DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES

1. Traction/motive batteries.
They are for purposes that range from fork lift operation to golf
cart operation.
They tolerate deep discharge and have a good cycle life.
They are available in 2, 4 or 6V cases i.e. 1-3 cells.

2. PV flooded deep cycle batteries.

They are manufactured purposely for solar electrical
applications.
They come n clear cases that allow easy viewing of the
electrolyte level and they are sold in 2-6V sizes.
They are expensive but are made to withstand deep discharges
with a good cycle life

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 MANAGING AND MAINTAINING BATTERIES
Depending on the type, batteries will last between 2-10years or even
longer if they are properly maintained and managed. Maintaining
batteries involves the following tasks;
 Check the state of charge regularly.
 Scheck the electrolyte level in each cell and replacing lost
water only with de-ionised water. If de-ionised water is not
available, rain water will do. Never add tap water to batteries.
 Cleaning the top of the battery prevents a higher rate of
discharge.
 Cleaning the terminals and contacts ensures a good electrical
contact with the solar module and load. Application of
petroleum jelly to the terminals prevents them from becoming
corroded.
 Giving the battery accessional equalizing charges to mix up
the electrolyte by burbling especially during cloudy season.

BAD CELLS
A battery may have a bad cell. This means that other cells in the
battery are working and only one cell has stopped working may be
due a short circuit in the plates.
When a battery’s voltage is low about 10.5V or less, but the state of
charge in most of its cells is high, the battery probably has a bad
cell.
How to check for a bad cell?
 Measure the battery state of charge of each cell using a
hydrometer or voltmeter.
 Alternatively, remove the caps of all the cells and short the
terminals with an insulated wire. If a cell is bad, it will burble
furiously and produce a disagreeable smell.

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NOTE:
 Never do this with a battery in high state of charge.
 It is advisable and usually more economical to purchase a new
battery rather than repair a single load cell.

ALTERNATIVE SOLAR CHARGING

Users should protect the battery from deep discharge by charging it
with an alternative method e.g. during length cloudy periods when
the modules are un able to keep batteries in a high state of charge.
 Charging with a battery charger from mains powered battery
chargers.
 From the cars alternator either by running the engine when
the car is stationary for enough time to bring the battery to a
high state of charge or driving a car on a journey with a solar
battery.
 Charging with a bicycle generator.
 Using a transformer, small batteries of 50AH, 6 and 12V
batteries can be charged.

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SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLERS (REGULATORS)
Solar electric systems use charge controllers or regulators to;

- Manage the e electrical power produced by the modules,

- Protect the batteries and
- To act as connection point for all the system components.
Any solar electrical system must be managed so that the energy
flow from the batteries to the load is not greater than the energy
harvest and so that the energy flow into the batteries from the
modules is not so high that it will cause damage to the batteries,
hence the charge controllers are used.

Characteristics and Functions of Charge Controllers.

 It provides a central point for connecting the module, the load
and the battery.
 It regulates the charging of the battery and allows the battery
to be charged up to a certain voltage. This prevents the
boiling of the electrolyte.
 The low voltage disconnect is used disconnect the load
automatically if the battery falls below a certain point that is
deep discharge and charging levels.
 It allows the end user to monitor the system and locate
potential problems in the system.

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Features of a charge controller.
When buying a regulator, check its rating and which features it has
and always keep the user’s manual.
Modern charge controllers are offering the following features;
 High voltage disconnect (over charge protection)
 Low voltage disconnects
 Battery state of charge regulation
 Equalizing charge
 Automatic load re-connection
 Automatic voltage selection i.e. 12/24V
 Temperature monitoring
 Positive grounding (earthing)
 Load times switches that connect and disconnect loads after a
certain amount of time.
 Ammeters and voltmeters to measure current and voltage.
 Blocking diodes to prevent current from flowing from the
battery to the solar when it is not working at night.
 Surge protectors for protection against rapid increase in
power.
 Fuses and circuit breakers for system protection.
Part of the work of charge controllers is to inform the user whether
the system is properly working. Light emitting diodes (LED’s)
beepers or alarms are used for such purpose. E.g.
(i) The solar charge light indicates whether the current is
flowing from the solar array to the battery. If it does not
come ON in either presence or absence of sunlight, the
following could be one or some of the causes;
- Loose connection on the charge conductor
- Bad fuse or disconnected circuit breaker
- Loose battery terminals
- Bad cell or battery
- Broken solar cells or module.

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 (ii) The low battery light notifies the user that the battery is in
low state of charge.
(iii) The battery full light tells the user that battery is fully
charged and to some controllers, that it has reduced the
battery charging current to trickle charge.
(iv) The battery disconnect continuously measures the state of
charge of the battery. If the voltage falls low, it disconnects
the battery automatically commonly for disconnect voltages
between 11.1 to 11.9V.
(v) The charge regulator prevents the array from over charging
the battery by monitoring the state of charge. It turns the
charge OFF and ON over a period of time and the cut off
voltage should be specified on the controller.
Managing the system without a charge controller
Without using the charge controller will only rely on “good luck” to
manage the energy flow, and the results in a battery to last for every
short time and thus a pure reputation of solar energy.
When one cannot afford controllers, the following must be done;

 Learn to maintain the system

 Install safety devices such as switches and fuses
 Protecting the battery through careful energy management so
that it is not ruined.
 Plan to include a charge controller on the system when you
can afford.
 Check the battery state of charge regularly with a hydrometer
or a voltmeter.
 Calculate the energy harvest of the module and adjust use so
that it is approximately the same as energy harvest. When the
battery state of charge is low, limit the use of appliances.
 Charge the battery by other means at least once every two
months when it is being over used especially during cloudy
weather.

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CHARGING CURVES
The three stage charging
process results in a faster
charging compared to
ON-OFF relay type or
constant voltage solid
state regulators.
Faster charging increases
the performance of the
system by storing more of
the PV arrays limited
output.

The final float voltage setting reduces battery gazing, minimises

watering requirements and ensures complete battery recharging.
Battery voltage and current vary during the 3-stage charging
process as follows;
1. Bulk: During this stage, the battery is charged at the bulk
voltage setting and maximum current output of the DC
source. When the battery voltage reaches the bulk voltage
setting, the controller activates the next stage (absorption).
As the battery comes closer to this stage, the status LED
(green) blinks more time before pausing.
2. Absorption: During this stage, the voltage of the battery is
held at the bulk voltage setting until an internal timer has
accumulated one hour.
Current gradually declines as the battery capacity is reached
and LED(green) blinks five times and pauses and repeats.
3. Float: during this stage, the voltage of the battery is held at
the float voltage setting.
Full current can be provided to the load connected to the
battery at this stage from the PV array. Once this stage is
reached, the green LED will be solid green.

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 SOLAR PV SYSTEM SIZING AND DESIGN

1. PREPARATION
Before making a major investment in solar electric system, it is
important to perform some detailed planning.
If the planning is omitted, the solar electric system will most likely
turn out to be;
 Less functional than expected
 More expensive than expected
These might cause disappointment which in turn would bring solar
technology in disregard.

2. SITE SURVEY
Part of the planning process should be a site survey on that location
where the solar electric system should be installed and the following
considerations should be met;
 Where should the panel be installed
 Is the location partly shaded during peak sun shine hours?
 Could the installation be made safely taking the weight of the
panel into consideration e.g. roof top installation?
 Is there electrical installation already in place that should be
partly used in the solar electric systems e.g. lights, switches
and cable?
 How far is the distance between panels battery and the load?
This will have an effect on the sizing of the cables.
 Is there a dry and ventilated space available for installing the
battery?

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 3. DATA GATHERING
The meteorological and solar radiation data can be obtained from
different source.
The factor of peak sun shine hours at the site is very important for
any further sizing considerations.
4. SIZING SHEET
In order to design and size a solar electric system properly, the use
of the sizing sheet is very helpful.
The work sheet requires a certain input of data and allows to
calculate the size of the required components in multiple steps such
as;
 The appliance required
 The system voltage
 The power rating of the appliance
 Daily use in hours
 Daily energy use requirements
 Sizing of the module
 Charge controllers
 Inverters
 Cables and fixtures

The work sheet below should be used to calculate the energy which
must be supplied by the modules each day to power all the
appliances in the system.
Appliance Voltage Power Daily use Daily energy use
(Volts) (W) (Hours) (Watt hours)

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 5. LOAD CONSUMPTION ANNALYSIS
The load is defined as the amount of electric power being consumed
at any given moment and it is measured in watthours.
Because the battery capacity and module output are generally
measured in ampere hours, solar electric planners often use
ampere hours to indicate energy instead of watt hours.
Example:
A 12V system in a house with 4 lamps and an 80W TV has an
energy demand of 250Wh/day. How many ampere hours does
the system consume/day?
Solution:
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑
Total required (AH) =
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒
250𝑊ℎ
= 12𝑉

= 20.8AH
NOTE:
1. To determine the load for energy demand, it is necessary to
select the units that will rely on the system for power e.g.
lights, radios, TV, etc.
2. Then to determine the wattage of each item either in watts or
volt amperes, check on the name plate. If only amperes are
listed, multiply it with the voltage.
3. The next step is to decide how many hours per day (average)
each item is to be used. The load estimate must be precise in
order not to over size or under size the system capacity and to
avoid power shortage if under sized.

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WORK SHEET
Appliance Voltage Power Daily Daily energy use
(Volts) (W) use (Watt hours)
(Hours)
Kitchen lamp 12V,DC 13 2 26
Bed room lamp 12V,DC 11 2 22
Sitting room lamp 12V,DC 13 3 39
Coloured TV 240V,AC 100 2 200
Total daily energy 287Wh
demand

SYSTEM ENERGY LOSS

This system loss is influenced by factors such as;
 Loading factor for the battery
 The use of an inverter
 Energy loss through resistance of cables

 The client and the technician must estimate system loss. To

determine the system energy loss is to add 15% to the total
daily energy demand which equals 43Wh.
 In the example above, the inverter is used to power the TV
which is about half the load. So another 15% of the TV load is
calculated which equals 30Wh and this implies, total watts
will be, 43 + 30 = 73Wh. This is estimated energy loss.
 Therefore, the total daily system energy requirement will equal
to: The load demand + the system losses.
= 289 + 73
= 360Wh

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CHOOSING SYSTEM VOLTAGE
Solar electric systems for home use are most often based on 12V or
24V, DC.
The advantage of 12V, DC system is that appliances are more
readily available for DC voltage.
The advantage of 24V, DC system is that the system is operating on
a lower current which has an influence on the cable sizing.
Now, taking 12V, DC system, the daily system charge requirement
would be determined as follows;

System charge requirement (AH)

𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑊ℎ)
=
𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 (𝑉)
360
=
12
= 30AH
This will be the amount of charge that must be provided by the
module each day.

SIZING THE PV MODULE

The size of the module or array is calculated using the daily total
energy requirement and the solar resource figures for the site as
follows;
 Estimate the solar energy available at your site
 Check which month has the lowest mean daily insolation. This
is called the design month.

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DIAGRAMS SHOWING MEAN DAILY INSOLATION PER MONTH

ANNUAL AVERAGE

7 DESIGN MONTH 6.6

6.1
5.9 5.8
6 5.7 5.7
Peak sun hours (KWh/SQ.M

5.2 5.1
4.9
5 4.5
4.2 4.3
4

0
Jan Feb March April May June July AUG Sept Oct Nov Dec
Months

MONTH Peak sun hours (KWh/M2)

January 5.2
February 5.7
March 5.7
April 4.9
May 4.5
June 4.2
July 4.3
August 5.1
September 6.1
October 6.6
November 5.9
December 5.8
Average 5.3

Note: most sites in East Africa have mean daily insolation levels
of between 4 and 7 peak sun hours, so the value taken should be
between 4 and 7.
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Calculating the system design current.

The modules in the system must be chosen so that their energy

output matches the total daily system energy requirement.
Therefore, the average daily energy output of the modules must
equal to the daily energy requirement.

Design solar insolation value is determined as 4.2 peak sun

hours and the daily system charge requirement in (AH) is
determined as 30AH.

30
System design current =
4.2
= 7.14A
Modules to produce 7.14A will be required.

Determining the module in watts

If the load demand and the losses equal to 360Wh/day and the
mean daily insolation of the site is 4.2 peak sun hours per day, it
implies that;

𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑑

Rating of module in watts =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑑𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

360
= 4.2

= 85.7Wp

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CHOOSING THE SYSTEM BATTERY

When choosing the system battery, the following should be done;

 Determine the daily system charge requirement which is 30
AH as calculated before.
 Determine the number of storage days (days of autonomy)
required. This is the maximum expected consecutive days of
cloudy weather when the battery will supply most system
power.
In sunny areas, this number may be as low as 2-3 days and
in places with long cloudy seasons, the number of days may
be as large as seven days or more. For now, assume 2 days.
 Determine the maximum depth of charge as 0.4
 Finally, calculate system battery capacity as;

Battery capacity in AH

𝐷𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠

=
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 (𝐷𝑜𝐷)

30 𝑥 2
=
0.5

= 120AH

CHOOSING THE CHARGE CONTROLLER

Before choosing the charge controller, the planner must;
 Decide if a charge controller is required. Systems with
modules larger than 40Wp should invest in charge
controllers.
 Decide what controller size is needed
 Decide what controller features are required.
Taking account of the system design current 7.14A, the charge
controller can be determined as 10A.

Example one:

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The table below shows a load requirement of a solar PV system
Loads Power (W) Quantity Daily use (hours)
Indoor lights 3 4 3
Outdoor lights 5 2 8
Phone charging 5 1 2
Coloured TV 21” 60 1 3

Assume;
System power loss = 15%
Peak sun hours = 5
System voltage = 12V DC
System efficiency = 90%
Days of autonomy = 2
Battery depth of discharge = 60%
Only DC loads are used.
Calculate;
(a) Daily energy demand for the system in WH
(b) Daily energy requirements for the system in WH
(c) Daily system charge in AH
(d) Size of the module in W
(e) Size of the charge controller in A
(f) Size of the battery capacity in AH

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Example two
A client has the following load demand
S/N LOAD POWER RATING IN QTY DAILY USE
WATTS IN HOURS
1. Lights 5 5 4
2. Laptop computers 25 2 2
3. 14” colour TV 40 1 4

Assume the following;

 Only DC loads are used
 System voltage = 12V
 Peak sun hours = 7hours
 Battery D.O.D = 50%
 Days of autonomy = 1
 System power loss = 5%
Calculate for the client the correct size of the following for his
installation.
(i) Daily energy demand
(ii) Solar module current rating
(iii) Battery capacity

Assignment
Table below shows load requirements for a customer who is
planning to install solar PV in his house
S/N Items Qty Power rating in Daily use
watts in hours
1. 12V, DC lamps 2 5 3
2. 12V, DC colour TV 1 40 2

(Assume: P.S.H = 7hours, Battery max D.O.D = 80%, System

voltage = 12V and days of autonomy = 1)
Calculate the right size of:
(a) Solar module
(b) Charge controller
(c) Battery for this customer.

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 INSTALLING SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
Once the installation has been planned and the necessary
equipment obtained, installation can begin.
This should be according to the local electric safety codes and so
that no person is injured or equipment damaged during
installation.

RECOMMENDED INSTALLATION PROCEDURES

 Check to make sure that all equipment is on site.
 Lay cables to loads and attach lamps and sockets.
 Locate site for solar modules, lay cables and install array.
 Locate site for battery, lay cables and install.
 Locate site for controller, lay cables and install.
 Complete final condition sequence and commission the
system.

INSTALLATION TIPS
 Before beginning an installation, make sure that all
equipment is at hand.
 Follow the recommended sequence of installation.
 Complete the installation with the help from an electrician.
 Always try to use proper tools for each task.
 Maintain high working standards.

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 RECOMMENDED TOOLS FOR SOLAR ELECTRIC
INSTALLATION

S/N TOOL PURPOSE OF TOOL

1. Crimp tool Attaching ring & spade lugs to wires
2. 12V DC soldering Connecting wires to terminals and
iron fixing electrical parts
3. Multimeter Testing connections, measuring
voltage, current and resistance.
4. Star and flat Tightening screws and terminals
screw drivers
5. Hydrometer Measuring battery state of charge
6. 12V hand drill Drilling holes for various purpose
and bits
7. Tape measure For measuring distance and marking
wire clip placement
8. Remote and paper Taking notes on measurements
9. Hack saw Cutting metal frames
10. Utility knife Various cutting jobs
11. Wire cutter and Preparing cables
stripper
12. Torch Laying cables in dark places
13. Pliers Holding bolts and nuts during
tightening
14. Adjustable Tightening battery terminals
spanner
15. Hammer Various construction tasks
16. Shovel Digging trenches
17. Level Checking grade of mount
18. File Smoothing rough surfaces after
cutting
19. Extension cord Running power from battery to the
loads
20. Product literature For some of reference information
for fixing
components
21. Roll punch Punching holes in walls
22. Funnel, plastic Filling batteries
tubing, gaggles
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SAFETY

Solar electric systems have a good record for safety. Never the
less, installers should be aware that the equipment they are
working with has potential to cause serious injury if safety
standards are not observed.

In general, to avoid shock risks when working with electricity,

you should:
 Always remove rings and jewelry
 Use insulated tools
 Keep loose cables and metal tools away from the control,
batteries and arrays so that they do not accidentally come
into contact with live terminals or leads.
 Always be aware of possible shocks from modules and
batteries and take steps to avoid them.

Safety with Batteries

 Battery acid is extremely corrosive. Wear protective clothing
and glasses and use a funnel to avoid splashing when
refilling
 Batteries are heavy. Carry them up right from the bottom or
by the handles provided. Never, lift batteries by the
terminals.
 Make sure that the batteries are located in a ventilated
space. Do not smoke near by the batteries.
 Beware of the electrical charge in the batteries. Do not short
the battery terminals to avoid the possibility of explosion
and shock.

Safety with modules

Modules are expensive and potentially breakable. So;
 Transport with care. Beware of the backside of the module
which is especially fragile.
 Beware of shocks when wiring and installing modules.
Disconnect or cover the array with a blanket when wiring to
avoid shocks.

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Safety with ladders/roof mounting.
A high percentage of the injuries from solar electric installations
are caused by falls from the roof. When on the roof:
 Use stable ladders, and position them correctly. Have
somebody hold the bottom part of the ladder.
 Use ladders or planks while walking on the roof to prevent
tin from ripping.

First Aid.
First Aid kits should be on the site during any installation.
 Keep the kit well-stocked and ready.
 Make sure some one knows how to use it.

LAYING CABLES
Laying cables is usually the first task during a solar electric
installation.

Wiring guide-lines
During wiring of the solar PV system components, the following
guide lines should be followed:
 Use a circuit diagram and keep a copy near the control box.
 Follow the established cabling colour codes.
 Always label cables during work.
 Always double check polarity when wiring.
 Earth module frames and loads.

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 Electrical wiring codes
East African/British colour coding system

Direct Current
Black - negative
Red + positive

Alternating Current
Blue/Black neutral
Brown/Red live/line
Yellow/Green earth

American Colour coding system

Direct Current
Black - negative
Red + positive
Green/bare 0 ground

Alternating Current
White neutral
Black live/line
Green/bare earth
Red or any other “live”

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MOUNTING SOLAR MODULES
Solar cell modules should be mounted in places where they receive
a maximum solar radiation and where they are not to be shadowed,
over heated or covered with dust.
They should be positioned as close as possible to the batteries and
in places that are safe from vandalism and theft.
Along the equator, the sun’s position varies from 230 norths to 230
souths over the course of the year.
Modules should be mounted with 5-100 north or south tilt towards
the direction of the sun during the cloudiest periods
A rule of thumb is to mount modules facing the equator at an angle
which equals the sites latitude plus 100.

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HANDLING SOLAR CELL MODULES
These are usually built in aluminium frame and are covered with
glass that withstands the impact of hailstones.
However, like any other piece of glass, modules can be broken by
stones and may break if they are dropped. Once broken, modules
are impossible to repair i.e. they are ruined.
 Care must be taken when transporting modules especially the
back side which must be protected during travel or work.
 Care must be taken not to punch through the frame into a cell
if holes are to be drilled in the frame for mounting purposes.

Choosing the mounting site

When choosing the mounting site of the modules, the following
should be considered vital;
 Modules should be mounted off ground, away from dust,
animals and people.
 They should not be located close to chimneys as soot and
smoke will cover the module surfaces.
 They must not be covered by shadows during peak sun hours
 Modules should not get too hot as his affects their output
performance.
 Modules should be mounted in a secure place to avoid theft.
 Modules should be mounted as close as to the battery and
control to avoid voltage drop.

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SUPPORT STRUCTURE
 They shall be made of permanent materials and should be
strong enough to withstand climatic conditions without
deflection of vibrations.
 Frame support structure and other metal parts shall be made
of no clouding materials and should be protected from
corrosion by galvanizing or painting.
 If wood is used, it should be coated with a suitable vanish.
 Bolts, nuts and washers used should also be water proof and
corrosion resistant.

METHODS OF MOUNTING
1. Roof top mounting
This is done by use of racks or
brackets to fix the array to the roof
structure.
Their advantage is that they are
safe and secure, although it may
be difficult to clean modules
mounted high on the roof.
Brackets may be constructed so
that they pivot downward for easy
cleaning. Roof top mounting.

2. Pole mounting
These are popular with systems that have up
to four modules.
They keep the modules well off the ground in
secure highly visible places.
Pole mounts are more expensive that roof top
mounts as they require metal pipes and
sometimes a foundation.
Pole mounting method

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3. Ground mounting
These are used for modules of four or more.
They secure modules to racks
fixed in concrete foundations
and may be fenced off to protect
the array from animals and
curious people.
Panels shall not be mounted
closer than 0.8M from the
ground to avoid shading by
grass or other vegetation. Ground mounting method

4. Tracking mounts
These are available which
automatically track the sun
throughout the day.
With this system, the output can be
increased up to 25%. However,
tracking systems are not economical
for small installations as they add
costs and complexity to the system as
well as increasing system
management work.
Fixed modules must be aligned so that
rain water runs off the module. Track mounting method

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WIRING THE MODULES
Un less batteries are being charged to power equipment, do not
attach the module leads to the battery or control until the final
connection sequence.
The following practices are advisable during wiring;
 Use properly sized cables
 Earth the entire array by connecting the frame and negative
terminal of each module to an Earthing cable.
 Wire the junction boxes carefully.
 If there is more than one module, they must be wired in a
configuration that matches the system voltage.

Wiring the modules in series

If the system voltage is 24V, the two standard modules must be
wired in series to charge two 12V batteries in series.
The effect is to increase the system voltage and maintaining a
constant value of charging current.

Series connection of modules and batteries.

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Wiring the modules in parallel
If the system voltage is 12V and more than one modules are to be
connected in an array, they must be connected min parallel
charging one or two or more batteries in parallel.
The effect is to increase the system charging current and maintain
the system voltage constant at 12V.

Parallel connection of modules and batteries

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BATTERY AND CONTROLLER INSTALLATION
After installing the module, the battery and controller should be
installed in the most appropriate room or building.
Choosing the Battery Location
The battery should be located in a cool, vented room where is little
traffic. The following considerations should be taken into account
when locating and installing the battery.
 The battery should be installed as close as possible to the
array and controller to reduce voltage drop.
 The battery should be installed in a clearly ventilated room to
keep off hydrogen gas released during charging.
 The battery should be located in a place where the
temperature does not get too high.
 Batteries should not be kept on the floor, as this will increase
their self-discharge rates. Wooden vented boxes are advisable
to be used.
Mounting the charge controller
It should be mounted on a piece of wood but not the wall as it is
easier to fix the board on the wall than a small controller device.
It is better to fix the controller on a hinged board so that wires run
in the space behind the board and passed out through drilled holes
near the controller terminals.

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MAINTAINING AND SERVICING SOLAR ELECTRIC SYSTEMS
This explains how to take care of your solar electric systems and
how to fix them if they break down.
Routine maintenance
These are maintenance practices that are done on regular basis to
identify and prevent problems before they result in the system
failure.
Battery maintenance
When maintaining batteries, beware of the acid and do not short
the terminals. Always do the following tasks;
 Clean the top and outside of the battery, the terminals and
posts until they are shiny.
 Replace the clean terminals and tighten bolts. Apply petroleum
jelly to connected terminals.
 Check the level of electrolyte and top up in case of reduced
electrolyte. Add de-ionised or distilled water until the level is
above the plates.
 Always check the battery state of charge. If the SoC is low,
reduce use of the load.
 Records should always be kept regarding battery SoC, age and
performance. This allows the user to judge more easily
whether it needs replacement.
Module maintenance
Since modules do not have moving parts, they require minimum
maintenance.
 Always inspect modules for dust and clean with water and if
necessary, with a mild soap.
 Always check connections in the junction box at the back of
the module for tightness and that wires are not eaten by
rodents.

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Wiring and control
It is useful to check the wiring at least once a year, especially in
places where it might be chewed by rodents, tempered with or
accidentally pulled.
 Check the tightness of screws on all connector strips, controls,
switches.
 Inspect the system wire runs for breaks, cracks in the
insulation or places where it has been chewed by rodents.
 Inspect joint boxes for loose connections, insects and ensure
that they are water tight.
 Check for switches to ensure that they are operating properly.
 Check for fuses to find if any has blown and if so, find the
cause and repair or replace it.
 Check the indicator lamps on the control to ensure that they
are all in good working condition. If any is no properly
functioning, rectify the problem.
 Check grounding wires to make sure they are still intact.

TROUBLE SHOOTING
This means fixing problems as they occur.
The first thing to do when trouble shooting is not to panic because
most problems have very simple causes. This can be discovered
simply by checking a few key places.
The battery is the most likely source of problems in small solar
electric systems.
It is especially useful to have a voltmeter when trouble shooting as;
 You can use it quickly to measure the batteries state of charge
 Can easily check for broken wires and shorts
 Can check the output of the module and measure voltage
drops
Also learn how to tell whether a fuse is blown where you buy
your fuses and electrical equipment.
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Detailed trouble shooting guide
Problem Cause How to fix
 There is no solar charge  Check and fix connection to
Battery state of charge is  Battery acid low module
low  Bad connection to control  Add distilled water to cells
terminal  Check for broken wires or
“Battery low” indicator  Defective battery or bad cell loose connection
comes on, low voltage  Loose or corroded battery  Check state of charge of
disconnect turns OFF load, terminal each cell. If there is a
or battery state of charge  Dusty modules significant difference
below 11.5V  Over use of system between cells, replace or
 Battery will not accept repair
charge  Clean and tighten battery
 Voltage drop between terminals
module & battery too high  Clean modules
 Defective controller  See “blown fuse” section
below
 Leave appliances and lamps
OFF for a week to allow
recharging or recharge
battery by other means
 Find age and history of
battery. Replace if old or if
ruined by careless use
 Check voltage drop. Replace
cable with larger diameter if
required
 Check operation of the
controller with dealer.
Replace or repair if
necessary
 Short circuit along wires to  Locate and repair short
No solar charge modules circuit
 Loose connection in wires  Locate and repair loose
Solar charge indicator does connecting battery to the connection
not light up during the day. control  See “blown fuse” below
There is no current in the  Blown fuse  Clean module with water
module  Thick coating of soot or dust and soft cloth
on module  Check for broken cells,
 Broken module glass or poor connection
inside module. Replace
solar cell module.
Lamps Lamps
 Bad tube or globe  Replace with new lamp
Appliances or lamps do not  Bad ballast inverter  Locate broken or loose wire
work  Bad connection in wire and repair
 Switch is “OFF”  Turn switch “ON”
One or more appliance fails  Tubes or globes have very  Check voltage system: too
to come ON when connected short lifetimes. low or too high?
(voltage is always lower when
load is ON)

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 Appliances Appliance
 Bad connection in wire  Locate broken or loose
 Switch is OFF wire and repair
 Bad socket  Turn switch ON
 Broken appliance  Check socket. If bad,
replace. Check fuse in
socket
 Try appliance where
there is a good power
supply. Replace or
repair.
 Short circuit along wire to  Locate and repair short
Blown fuse solar cell module, battery or circuit
When the fuse is removed, cell  Use fuse 20% larger
the wire inside is broken.  Fuse was too small than combined power
 Lightning or power surge of loads
 Replace fuse

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