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MATTER THE PHASE CHANGE

Matter – anything that occupies space and has Phase change – the physical state change but
mass. its chemical composition retained

PHASES OF MATTER Melting

Solid • Solid to liquid
• Definite shape • Temperature increases, kinetic energy
and volume increases
• Particles are
compacted and Evaporation
strong attractive • Liquid to gas
force • Temperature increases, kinetic energy
• Difficult to increases
compress
Sublimation
Liquid • Solid to gas
• Definite volume and • Temperature increases, kinetic energy
takes the shape of increases
container
• Particles have Deposition
enough space and • Gas to solid
less attractive force • Temperature decreases, kinetic energy
• Can be compressed decreases
a little bit
Condensation
Gas • Gas to liquid
• Takes the volume and • Temperature decreases, kinetic energy
shape of container decreases
• Particles are far from
each other Freezing
• Weak attractive force • Liquid to solid
and flow easily • Temperature decreases, kinetic energy
• Occupy entire space decreases
available
• Highly compressible
THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS
CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATTER • Elements are arranged from left to right
1. Pure Substance – has constant and from top to bottom in an increasing
composition and its property remain order of atomic numbers
regardless of the size • There are 118 elements discovered as of
a) Compound – made up of two or 2019
more different elements
combined Periods
b) Elements – it is the simplest pure • Horizontal rows of the periodic table
substance that is made up of one • There are 7 periods
type of atom, and it cannot be
broken down into components by Groups or Families
mechanical and chemical means. • Vertical columns of the periodic table
• Each group number corresponds to the
number of valence electron
2. Mixture – combination of two or more
• Valence electron – electrons in the
pure substances
outermost shell
a) Homogeneous – a mixture whose
composition is uniform and
constant throughout
b) Heterogeneous – a mixture in
which creates two or more layers
or phases
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Features of Groups or Families of • Hard

Elements • Good conductors
• Representative Elements – main groups
of the periodic table Nonmetals • Dull
Group 1: Alkali Metals • Brittle
o Very reactive, soft, malleable, • Poor conductor
and ductile Metalloids • Semiconductors
o Good conductors of heat and
• Conductors when the
electricity
temperature is high
o Has one valence electron
• Insulators when the
Group 2: Alkaline Earth Metals
temperature is low
o Second most reactive
o Malleable, ductile, good
REACTIVE AND NONREACTIVE METALS
conductors of heat and electricity
Reactivity
o Has 2 valence electrons
Group 13: Boron Group • It is how quickly an element undergo
o Post-transition metal except chemical reactions like burning or
boron and nihonium dissolving acids.
o Has 3 valence electrons • Reactivity from TOP to BOTTOM, and
Group 14: Carbon Group (Tetrels) from RIGHT to LEFT.
o Key important for semiconductor
technology ATOMS
o Has 4 valence electrons • smallest particles of matter
Group 15: Nitrogen Group • From Greek word “atomos” meaning
o Pnictogen group invisible
o Has 5 valence electrons
Group 16: Chalcogens SUBATOMIC PARTICLES OF AN ATOM
o Oxygen group o Proton
o Nonmetals • Positively charged particles
o 6 valence electrons • Mass: 1.36x10-27 kg
Group 17: Halogens • E. Goldstein
o Salt formers • Location: inside nucleus
o Exist in solid, liquid, gas
o 7 valence electrons o Electron
Group 18: Noble Gases • Negatively charged particle
o Stable gases • 9.11x10-31 kg
o Non-reactive or inert elements • J.J Thomson
o 8 valence electrons except He • Location: outside nucleus

• Transition Block o Neutron

Group 3-12: Transition Metals • No charge
o Hard except Hg • 9.67x10-27
o Malleable, ductile, good • Location: inside nucleus
conductors of heat and electricity
o 1 or 2 valence electrons Electric Charges – mutual attractions or
Inner Transition Metals repulsions between protons or electrons
o Group 67-71 (Lanthanides)
o Group 89-103 (Actinides) Conductors – materials that allow electrons to
flow freely from atom to atom.
Classifications of Elements
Classification Properties Insulators - materials that prevent the free
Metals • Lustrous – shiny flow of the electrons from atom to atom.
• Malleable - can be
reshape or hammered
into thin sheets
without breaking
• Ductile – can be drawn
out into thin wire
without breaking
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MODELS OF ATOM 3. Isotopes

1. The Plum Pudding Model o These are the atoms having the same
o Joseph John Thomson atomic number but with different
o Negatively charged electrons mass number.
were embedded in a cloud of o A = 𝑝 + − 𝑛0
positive charge.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
o It is a network of organs that help you
digest and absorb nutrition from your
food.
o Main function: DIGESTION
2. The Nuclear Model
o Ernest Rutherford Digestion - is the breakdown of food into
o The protons and neutrons which smaller components that can be absorbed
comprise nearly all the mass of into the blood stream.
the atom are in nucleus.
o Electrons are distributed around Roles of Digestion
nucleus. o Movement
o Growth
o Repair and Reproduction
TYPES OF DIGESTION
• Mechanical Digestion
o Occurs in mouth
o Food is physically broken up into
smaller pieces
3. The Planetary Model
o Niel Bohr • Chemical Digestion
o Electrons orbit the nucleus at o Starts in the mouth
fixed energy level o Occurs in gastrointestinal tract
o Enzymes break down food

PROCESSES OF DIGESTION
1. Ingestion
o The process of taking food
through the mouth.

TYPES OF ATOMS 2. Digestion

1. Neutral Atoms o The process of breaking down large
o The number of electrons is equal to food molecules into smaller
the number of protons. molecules.
The atomic number (Z) is equal to o Mechanical and chemical digestion
the number of protons/electrons happen.
(Z= 𝑝+ = 𝑒 − ) o Mastication or chewing - bolus
o The mass number (A) is equal to the o Salivary glands
number of proton and neutron Salivary amylase – enzyme that
(A= 𝑝+ + 𝑛0 ) breaks down starch into smaller
carbohydrates.
2. Ions o Esophagus – a tube that attaches
o An atom that gains or lose electrons the mouth to the stomach
o The number of protons and electrons o Peristalsis – wave-like muscle
is not equal contractions that pushes the move
o Charge of ion = 𝑝+ − 𝑒 − downward
o Negative means gaining electron o Stomach – J-shaped, bag-like
o Positive means losing electron muscular organ that can hold fluid
TYPES OF IONS and food.
• Anion – negative charge ion o Chyme – semifluid material formed
• Cation – positive charge ion from bolus that is acted upon by
gastric juices.
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o Accessory Organs COMMON HEALTH PROBLEMS ASSOCATED

▪ Liver – produces bile WITH DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
▪ Gall bladder – stores bile Digestive Disorders
▪ Pancreas – makes enzyme • Group of conditions that occur when
amylase, peptidase, and lipase the digestive system does not function
o Small intestine – breaks down food as it should.
into substances that can absorbed
by villi. COMMON DIGESTIVE DISEASES
▪ Duodenum – continues • Acid Reflux - Stomach contents come
breaking down process, back up into the esophagus
partially receive chyme, • Hemorrhoids - Swelling of veins or
resume chemical digestion, & blood vessels in and around your anus
prepares for absorption. and lower rectum.
▪ Duodenum • Constipation - Condition in which stool
Secretion – production and becomes hard dry, and difficult to pass,
release of enzymes and acids and bowel movement don’t happen
▪ Jejunum – its wall works for the very often.
absorption through columnar • Diarrhea - Frequent passing of loose,
cells of small nutrient watery and unformed feces.
particles. • Irritable bowel Syndrome - Disorder
that leads to pain in abdomen and
3. Absorption changes in bowel movements.
o The process of passing the soluble • Colorectal Cancer - Cell in the colon or
food molecule in the wall of the rectum grow out of control forming a
small intestine through villi. mass called tumor.
o Villi – tiny, finger-like projections
from the epithelial lining of the Different Screening Tests
intestinal wall. It increases the • Laboratory tests: Fecal blood test, stool
amount surface area available for culture
the absorption of nutrients. • Imaging tests: Ultrasound, Computed
Tomography scan, Colorectal Transit
4. Assimilation Study, Magnetic Resonance Imaging.
o The movement of digested food
nutrients into the blood vessels of Preventing digestive Problems
the small intestine through • Eat small, frequent meals.
diffusion. • Drink plenty of water.
o Microvilli – microscopic cellular • Exercise regularly
membrane projections • Maintain healthy body weight.
o Small intestine • Eat balanced diet.
▪ Ileum – absorption and • Manage your stress level
reabsorption of
conjugated bile salts. Macronutrients - Nutrients needed on larger
o Large intestine – reabsorption of quantities that provides the body with energy
liquid, electrolytes, and some and maintain the body’s structure and
vitamins from the undigested systems.
food. Compacts waste. 1. CARBOHYDRATES
o • Instant energy
5. Egestion • Storing energy
o The release of undigested food • Digestion
collected. • Helps feel full
o Rectum – receive stool from the 2. PROTEINS
colon. • Building and repairing
o Anus – last part of the digestive • Providing structure
system.
• pH balance
• Creating enzymes and hormones
3. FATS
• Cell membrane health
• Storing energy and Insulation
• Transport and absorption
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Micronutrients 4. Telophase - Two new nuclei form

o Nutrients such as vitamins and minerals around each set of chromosomes.
needed in smaller amounts Chromosomes decondense and
o Support growth, brain development, the cells begin to split from each
immune, function, and energy other.
metabolism 5. Cytokinesis - The cytoplasm of
the parent cell splits to form two
THE FOOD PYRAMID - Visual representation of identical daughter cells.
different foods and drinks contribute towards
healthy balanced diet.

Go – Energy giving (Carbohydrates)

Grow – Body building (Proteins and Fats)
Glow – Body regulating (Fruits and Vegetables)

CELL CYCLE o Meiosis - A type of cell division where a

o A series of growth and developmental single cell divides twice and produces
steps a cell undergoes between its birth four daughter cells with half the
and reproduction. amount of genetic material (sex cells).
Phases of Cell Cycle Meiosis makes sure that all organisms
1. Interphase – the cell grows by obtaining produced via sexual reproduction
nutrients, metabolize, and replicating contain the correct number of
DNA chromosomes - half from each parent.
SUB-STAGES OF INTERPHASE
1) First Gap Period (𝑮𝟏 ) – cell grows STAGES OF MEIOSIS
initially, protein and RNA is o Meiosis I
synthesized 1. Prophase 1 - The chromosomes
2) Synthesis Stage ( S phase) – DNA condense, and the nucleolus breaks
are synthesized and replicating down. As chromosomes move around,
chromosome crossing over happens - this means
3) Second Gap Period (𝐺2 ) – cell genetic material can be exchanged.
grows rapidly and prepare for 2. Metaphase 1 - The chromosomes align
actual cell division in pairs in the centre of the cell.
Random assortment occurs which
2. Mitotic phase (M phase or Cell Division) means that chromosome pairs line up
– the process by which a parent cell randomly.
divides into two or more daughter cells. 3. Anaphase 1 - Chromosome pairs
TYPES OF CELL DIVISION separate and move to opposite ends of
o Mitosis – the nucleus of the cell the cell. This ensures each cell
divides into two nuclei with contains half the number of
identical genetic material. It is chromosomes (haploid).
used for growth, development, 4. Telophase 1 - Two new nuclei form
repair of tissues, and in asexual around each set of chromosomes. The
reproduction. cytoplasm splits and two (haploid)
STAGES OF MITOSIS daughter cells are formed.
1. Prophase - The chromosomes 5. Cytokinesis - The cytoplasm of the
(genetic material) condense (coil parent cell splits to form two identical
tightly) and the nucleolus daughter cells.
disappears.
2. Metaphase - The chromosomes o Meiosis II
align in the center of the cell and 6. Prophase 2 - Phase 2 happens to allow
attach to microtubules in 4 haploid sex cells (sperm and egg
preparation to split apart. cells) to be created. The chromosomes
3. Anaphase - Chromatids separate condense and the nucleolus breaks in
and move to opposite ends of the both cells.
cell. This stage ensures that each 7. Metaphase 2 - The chromosomes align
cell contains identical single file in the centre of the cell.
chromosomes after splitting.
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This occurs to ensure sister chromatids

separate in the next stage.
8. Anaphase 2 - Sister chromatids Phenotype
separate and move to opposite ends of • Phenotype refers to the observable trait
the cell. This ensures the daughter of an organism.
cells remain haploid which means they • Phenotype is a result of the expression
have half the genetic material of the of one or more genes.
original parent cell.
9. Telophase 2 - Four new nuclei form Phenotypic Ratio
around each set of chromosomes. The • The ratio of different phenotypes
cytoplasm split and four (haploid) present in the offspring of a cross.
daughter cells are formed.
10. Cytokinesis - The cytoplasm of the ALLELE
parent cell splits to form two identical • Alternative versions of genes which
daughter cells. account for variations in inherited
characters.
TYPES OF ALLELES
• DOMINANT - A dominant gene allele is
expressed when either one or both is
present. A dominant allele overrules a
recessive allele.
• RECESSIVE - A recessive gene allele is
expressed only when both are present.
GENETICS: HERIDITY AND VARIATION HOMOZYGOUS
TRAIT – refers to each variant of character such • A pair of identical alleles.
as purple or white in color. • A homozygous plant is said to be TRUE
GENES – the basic unit of inheritance or the BREEDING or PURE BREED.
carriers of traits.
• Homozygous Dominant
• Homozygous Recessive
Mendelian Genetics
• Gregor Johann Mendel
HETEROZYGOUS
• For any given trait, an individual inherits
• It is made up of two different alleles.
one gene from each parent so that the
• Organisms that are heterozygous are
individual has a pairing of two genes.
NOT TRUE BREEDING.
Genotype
MONOHYBRID CROSS
• Genotype refers to a unique sequence of
• Any cross involving just one trait
DNA.
• A genotype refers to the two alleles an
DIHYBRID CROSS
organism has inherited for a particular
• Any cross between two organisms that
gene.
are identically hybrids for two traits.
Genotypic Ratio
PUNNETT SQUARE
• The ratio depicting the different
• Graphical representation of the possible
genotypes of the offspring from a test
genotypes of an offspring arising from a
cross.
particular cross or breeding event.

GOOD LUCK ON YOUR EXAM, GRADE 8!!!