lyksjh lsUVj&IERT xzkm.

M ds lkeus] vkse xk;=h uxj] lyksjh] iz;kxjkt [0]

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 INDEX
Sr. No. Chapter Name Page no.
1. BELT, ROPE & CHAIN DRIVE 2-15
2. CLUTCHES 16-21
3. BEARINGS 22-32
4. THREADED JOINT & POWER SCREW 33-41
5. RIVETED & WELDED JOINT 42-49
6. KEYED JOINT, SHAFT & COUPLINGS 50-58
7. COTTER & KNUCKLE JOINT 59-62
8. GEAR 63-66
9. BRAKES 67-69

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 CHAPTER : 1 - BELT, ROPE & CHAIN DRIVE
MACHINE DESIGN 2. Maximum shear stress theory
• To create new thing or modify old for a (Tresca or J.J. Guest Theory):
According to this theory, “for no failure
particular need is known as design.
maximum shear stress developed in a strained
• In other words, design is to formulate a plan to body should be less than or equal to maximum
satisfy a particular need and to create something shear stress in uniaxial loading at yield point”.
with a physical reality.  σy 
 τ max   Theory
• Machine design is a decision making process  2

which is used to satisfy the human need.  σ y fos 

τ max   Design
• Design must be simple (that is less number of  2 
parts involved). 3. Maximum shear strain energy theory
(Distortion energy theory or Van mises or
Hanky Theory):
According to maximum shear strain energy
theory, “for no failure the total shear strain
energy in a given volume under strained
condition should be less than or equal to shear
strain energy in the same volume in uniaxial
loading at yield point”.
 σy 
2

u s   Theory
CONTENTS  6G 

 σ y fos  
1. Belt, rope and chain drive
 2
2. Clutches u s   Design
3. Bearing  6G 
4. Threaded joint and power screw Factor of Safety:
5. Riveted and welded joint It is defined as the ratio of material strength
6. Keyed joint, shaft and couplings (ultimate strength or yield strength or endurance
7. Cotter and knuckle joint strength) to the working or allowable stress.
Material Strength
Factor of Safety 
8. Gears Working or Allowable or design stress
9. Brakes Fatigue and Endurance Limit:
THEORY OF FAILURE When a material is subjected to repeated
1. Maximum principal stress theory stresses, it fails at stresses below the yield point
(Rankine Theory): stresses. Such type of failure of a material is
According to this theory, “for no failure known as fatigue. The endurance or fatigue
limit is defined as the maximum value of the
maximum principal stress developed in a completely reversed bending stress which a
strained body should be less than or equal to polished standard specimen can withstand
yield stress in uniaxial loading”. without failure, for infinite number of cycles
 
σ1  σ y Theory (usually 106 cycles).
The endurance limit of the material depends
 σy  upon many factors such as surface finish factor,
σ1   Design size factor, load factors, etc. It may be noted
 fos 
that for a mirror polished material, the surface
finish factor is unity.
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 For steel, e = 0.5 u ; CLASSIFICATION OF MECHANICAL
POWER TRANSMISSION SYSTEM
For cast steel, e = 0.4 u ;
(There is no word like –ve drive)
For cast iron, e = 0.35 u; The correct word is slack drives
For non-ferrous metals and alloys, e = 0.3 u.
When a component is subjected to fatigue
loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for
failure. Therefore, the factor of safety should be
based on endurance limit which is defined as
the ratio of endurance limit to the working
stress.
Stress Concentration:
The irregularity in the stress distribution
caused by abrupt changes of shape is called
stress concentration. It occurs for all kinds of
stresses in the presence of fillets, notches, holes,
keyways, splines, surface roughness or
scratches etc.
The ratio of the maximum stress in a member
(at a notch or a fillet) to the nominal stress at
the same section, is called theoretical or form
stress concentration factor. Its value depends
upon the material and geometry of the part.

BELT DRIVE
• Belt drives are called flexible machine
elements.
• The belts or ropes are used to transmit
power from one shaft to another with the
help of pulleys with variable velocity.
Stress Concentration due to Elliptical Hole
• Belts are used to transmit power between
two shafts by means of friction.
MECHANICAL POWER TRANSMISSION • A belt drive consists of three elements –
driving and driven pulleys and endless belt,
SYSTEM
which covers them.
Need of power transmission system:
Applications:
• To obtain variable speeds at the driven machine • Conveyors, Crushers, Saw mill, Textile
• To transmit power over a larger distance machinery, Machine tools like lathe etc.
• To drive more than one machine by using a Law of Belting:
single prime-mover. • The centerline of the belt when it
• To obtain a safety for the driver and the driven approaches a pulley must lie in the mid
machine in presence of overload. plane of that pulley.
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 CLASSIFICATION OF BELT DRIVES
On the basis of speed:
1. Light Drives:
These are used to transmit small powers at
belt speeds upto about 10m/sec as in
agricultural machines and small machine
tools.
Quarter turn belt drive:
2. Medium Drives:
• It is used with shafts arranged at right angles
These are used to transmit medium powers
and rotating in one definite direction.
at belt speeds over 10 m/sec but upto 22
• In order to prevent the belt from leaving the
m/sec, as in machine tools.
pulley the width of the face of the pulley
3. Heavy Drives:
should be greater or equal to 1.4b.
These are used to transmit large powers at
• In case when the reversible motion is
belt speeds above 22 m/sec. as in
desired, then a quarter turn belt drive with a
compressor and generators.
guide pulley may be used.
BASED ON ARRANGEMENT
QUARTER TURN BELT DRIVE
Open Belt Drive :
• It is used with shafts arranged parallel and
rotating in the same direction.
• Tight side is the portion of belt which is
entering the drive pulley or leaving the
driven pulley.
• Slack side is the portion of belt which is
leaving the driver pulley or entering the Compound belt-drive:
driven pulley. • It is used when power is transmitted from
• Tight & slack sides depend on position of one shaft to another through a number of
the driven machine and rotation of pulleys. pulleys.
• The tight side of the belt should be the
lower one.

Belt Drive with Idler Pulleys:

• It is used with shafts arranged parallel and
Crossed or twist belt drive: when an open belt drive cannot be used due
• It is used with shafts arranged parallel and to small angle of contact on the smaller
rotating in the opposite direction. pulley due to less centre distance.
• Idler pulley is used to maintain the required
• At a point where the belt rubs against each tension.
other, there is excessive wear and tear. • It increases  Angle of contact, tension,
• In order to avoid this the shafts should be velocity ratio,  and power transmission.
placed at a maximum distance of 20b, where
b is the width of belt and the speed of the
belt should be less than 15 m/s.

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Stepped or Cone Pulley: Cemented Joint:
• A stepped or cone pulley drive is used for Mostly used in Rubber & leather belts.
changing the speed of the driven shaft while Strength is 80 to 85% of the strength of the belt.
the main or driving shafts runs at constant Laced Joint:
speed. This is accomplished by shifting the Strength = 50% strength of belt.
belt from one part of the steps to the other. Joint with metal fasteners:
• In this pulleys are arranged in conical steps. Requires least time to joint
Strength = 25% strength of belt
BELT JOINTS

Fast and Loose Pulley Drive: Velocity Ratio of a Belt Drive:

• A fast and loose pulley drive is used when • It is the ratio between the velocities of the
the driven or machine shaft is to be started driven to the driver. Let
or stopped whenever desired without d1 = diameter of driver
interfering with driving shaft. d2 = diameter of follower
• A pulley which is keyed to the machine N1 = speed of driver in rpm
shaft is called fast pulley and runs at the N2 = speed of follower in rpm.
same speed as that of machine shaft.
N d
• A loose pulley runs freely over the machine Velocity ratio 2  1
N1 d 2
shaft and is incapable of transmitting any
when thickness of belt is considered then
power. When the driven shaft is required to
N 2 d1  t
be stopped the belt is pushed on the loose 
pulley by means of sliding bar having belt N1 d 2  t
forks. where, t is the thickness of the belt
• In case of compound belt drive
N 4 d1  d 3 Product of diameters of drivers
 
N1 d 2  d 4 Product of diameter of drivens
Slip of Belt:
• Sometimes the frictional grip becomes
insufficient, this may cause, some forward
motion of the driver without carrying the
belt with it. This is called slip of the belt.
• Slip is defined as the relative motion
BELT JOINTS between the belt and pulley surfaces.
Flat belts are produced in the form of long bonds • Slip is measure of % of relative motion
and stored in the form of coils. between belt and pulley surfaces.
There are three methods of belt joint - Cementing, • Effect of slip is to decrease the speed of
Lacing and joint using metal fasteners. driven pulley, velocity ratio and efficiency
of drive.
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 S1% = slip between the driver and the belt. POWER TRANSMITTED BY A BELT
S2% = slip between the belt and follower. Let, T1 = Tension in the tight side (in N)
N 2 d1  S  T2 = Tension in the slack side (in N)
 1   S  S1  S2  v = velocity of the belt in m/s
N1 d 2  100 
• The effective turning force at circumference of
N1 d1  t  S 
 1   the follower = (T1 – T2).
N 2 d 2  t  100 
• The torque exerted on the driving pulley is =
S   V2  (T1–T2) r1
 N2  • The torque exerted on the driven pulley is =
 VR   Pout   η  (T1–T2) r2
• P=T.
Output Power T1  T2 V2
η  Power = (T1 – T2). v N-m/s
Input Power T1  T2 V1 T  T  v
Power transmitted  1 2 hp
Length of a Open Belt Drive: 75
Let,r1 and r2 = Radii of the larger and smaller 1 hp = 75 kgf (m/s)
pulleys The amount of power transmitted depends upon
C = Distance between centers of pulleys the following factors:
L = total length of the belt • The velocity of the belt.
r r • The tension under which the belt is placed
sinβ  1 2 on the pulleys.
C
π d1  d 2 
2 • The arc of contact between the belt and the
L  d1  d 2   2C  smaller pulley.
2 4C
• The conditions under which the belt is used.
r  r 2
L  πr1  r2   2C  1 2 Note:
C
1. The pulley should not be too close together, in
order maintain the arc of contact on the smaller
pulley as large as possible.
2. The pulleys should not be so far apart that cause
the belt weight heavy on the shafts, thus
Length of a Cross Belt Drive: increasing the friction load on bearing.
3. The tight side of the belt should be at the
• In expressions if sum of the radii of the two bottom. So that whatever sag is present on the
pulleys be constant; length of the belt loose side will increases the arc of contact at the
required will also remain constant, provided pulleys.
the distance between centres of pulleys Creep of Belts:
remain unchanged. • Due to the difference of two tensions the

L  πr1  r2   2C 
r1  r2 2 belt continuously creeps (moves with a very
C negligible velocity) over the pulleys. This
π d  d 2 2
L  d1  d 2   2C  1
movement of belt is very small and is
generally neglected.
2 4C
r r • Creep in a belt drive is due to the unequal
sinβ  1 2 tension on tight and slack sides of belt.
C • The efficiency of the belt drive is reduced
by 1 to 2 percent due to creep.
• Slip is caused by overloads or less frictional
grip and the belts slides over the entire arc
of contact on the pulley.
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 • While in creep the belt slides only some Angle of contact or lap or embrace:
portion of the Arc of contact.

θ  180o  2β  π
180
rad. for open belt drive.


θ  180o  2β  π
180
rad. for cross belt drive.

• When the pulleys are made of different material

(the coefficient of friction of the pulleys and the
angle of contact are different), then the design
will refer to the pulley for which  .  is small.
Centrifugal Tension:
• During continuous run of belt over pulley,
centrifugal force increases tension on both
side of belt. The tension caused by
centrifugal force is called centrifugal
tension.
If
v  8 m/s  effect of TC can be neglected
v > 8 m/s  effect of TC should be
considered.
Centrifugal Tension:
Let, w = weight of belt per unit length
m = Mass of belt per unit length (w/g)
v = Linear velocity of belt
r = radius of pulley over which the belt runs.
Ratio of Driving Tensions for Flat Belts:
TC = centrifugal tension acting tangentially
at P and Q.
w
Tc  m.v 2  .v 2
g
mass w
m   ρ  A cs
Length 

Let,
T1 = Tension in the belt on the tight side
T2 = Tension in the belt on the slack side
 = Angle of contact (in radians).
The belt PQ is in equilibrium under the following
forces.
T = Tension in the belt at P  Total tension in the tight side,
(T + T) = Tension in the belt at Q Tt1 = T1 + Tc
RN = Normal Reaction  Total tension in the slack side,
Tt2 = T2 + Tc
F =   RN = Frictional force
 T T 
T  log e  t1 c   μ . θ
log e  1   μ . θ
 Tt2  Tc 
 T2 

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Maximum Tension in the Belt: STEP USED TO DETERMINE Pmax
Let, 1. Tmax = per b.t
 = maximum safe stress 2. T1 = 2Tmax / 3
b = width of the belt 3. T2 = T1 e(-)min
t = thickness of the belt 4. m =  . b.t
Area of belt = b.t STEP USED TO DETERMINE Pmax
Maximum tension in the belt Tmax
Tmax = maximum stress  cross-sectional 5. v max 
3m
area =  . b . t 6. Pmax = (T1 – T2) vmax
• When centrifugal tension is neglected then Belt Tensioning Methods:
Tmax (or Tt1) = T1 1. Cut a short length in case of hinged or laced
• When centrifugal tension is considered then belts.
Tmax (or Tt1) = T1 + Tc 2. By slight increment of centre distance.
Condition for the Transmission of Maximum 3. By using Idler pulley.
Power: Crowning:
P = (T1 – T2)V Crowning is done on the pulley to maintain the
If TC = 0 then T1 = Tmax = per . b.t belt on the pulley. Generally crowning is done
If TC  0 then T1 = Tmax – TC on one pulley. (Driving Pulley).
 T 
P  T1 1  2  v
 T1 
P = T1 (K‟)v where K‟ = 1 – e-
If TC = 0 then Pmax = Tmax  K‟v ---- (1)
If TC  0 then Pmax = (Tmax – TC)K‟v ---- (2) Bending stress in the Belt:
from equation (1) and (2), It is clear that,
In presence of ‘TC’ Power transmission capacity σ b max  DE. t2t  Et
1 D1  t 
of a belt drive decreases. 2
Condition for Maximum Power Transmission: For given cross section thin & wide belt is
P = T1 K‟v preferred.
P = (Tmax – mv2) K‟v Initial Tension in the Belt:
P = Tmax K‟v – K‟mv2 • Initial tension is the tension developed in
for Pmax the belt when the belt is in the stationary
(dp/dv) = 0 condition.
 K‟ (Tmax – 3mv2) = 0 • In presence of initial tension, power
transmission capacity of belt drive
 K'  0 increases, hence it is useful with respect to
Tmax  3mv 2 power transmission capacity of belt drive.
• Increase in the tension on tight side
For Maximum Power Transmission:
= (T1 – T0)
• Decrease in the tension on slack side
= (T0 – T2)
• For elastic belt (T1 – T0)  = (T0 – T2) 
T T
T0  1 2
2
T  T  2TC
If TC  0 T0  1 2
2
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• If belt materials are not perfectly elastic then
according to C.G. Berth.
T1  T2  2 TC
T0 
2
In actual practice, the belt material is not
perfectly elastic. Therefore the sum of tensions
T1 and T2 when the belt is transmitting power, is
always greater than twice the initial tension.
V-Belt:
• V-belts are used to transmit power between
two parallel shafts with smaller centre
Note:
distance and rotating in same direction. • V-belts have trapezoidal X-section runs in a
• These belts are moulded to a trapezoidal grooved pulley or in shaved.
shape and are made endless. • In general pulley groove Angle = 30o – 40o
• In case of multiple V-belts, even a single
belts gets damaged, entire set of the belt is
to be replaced by complete new set of V-
belts to ensure uniform tension in all the
belts during the power transmission.
• Standard V belts are available in 5 sizes of
cross section A to E.
LENGTH OF BELT
Applications:
πD1  D 2  D1  D 2 
2
Air compressors, Automobile Radiator fans, L P  2C  
machine tools. 2 4C
Calculation the number of belts:
Power through each belt Peach = (T1 – T2) V
Wires and Ropes:
• Ropes are used for transmission of power
like V-Belts because ropes run into grooved
pulleys.
• Ropes are used for long distance power
transmission i.e. from 30m – 100m.
• It is mainly used for lifting loads. Ropes are
generally in circular cross-section. The
groove angle of the pulley is about 45o.
• Wire ropes are used in Elevators, lifting
loads, conveyers, suspension bridges.
• Wire moves over pulleys by resting on
bottom.
• It is generally made of Iron & Steels.
• Wires are twisted to form a rope strand.
Strands are twisted to form a wire/rope.

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Note:
1. On increasing number of wires in the strand and
number of strands in the rope, the flexibility of
the rope increases.
2. Smaller diameter of the wire also increases the
flexibility and fatigue life/strength.

Application:
Agricultural machinery, Bicycle, Motor cycles,
Mopads, rolling mills etc.
Advantage of Chain Drive as Compare with Belt
and Gear Drive:
(a) Chain drives can be used over a wider range
STRESSES IN THE WIRE ROPES of centre distance
Direct Stress: (b) Chain drives have small overall dimensions
Ww than belt drives, resulting in compact unit.
σd 
A CS Advantage of Chain Drive as Compare with Belt
and Gear Drive:
(a) Chain drives can be used over a wider range
of centre distance
(b) Chain drives have small overall dimensions
than belt drives, resulting in compact unit.
Bending Stress: (c) A chain does not slip so, chain drive is a
positive drive
(d) The efficiency of chain drive is very high
(upto 98%)
(e) It permits high speed ratio of 8 – 10 in one
step.
(f) It transmits more power than belts.
(g) Atmospheric condition does not affect the
perfor-mance of chain drive.
Starting and stopping stress: Disadvantage of Chain Drive:
Ww (a) It operate without full lubricant film
F   a between the joints thus result in more wear
 g  at joint.
σS  F A w (b) It require precise alignment of shaft, not
Ww suitable for non parallel shaft.
σS   a
 g Aw 
Summation of all stresses should be less than
the per.
CHAIN DRIVE
Chain is a series of links connected by pin
joints. Chain drive consists of an endless chain,
wrapped around two sprocket. It is used for
velocity ratio less than 10 : 1 and chain velocity
up to 25 m/s.

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 4. The vibration caused by too loose chain is
known as whipping.

Note:
1. Generally to decrease the variation in speed
(polygonal effect/chordal effect) the number of
teeth on driving sprocket should be 17, 19 or
21.
Note:
2. In the chain drive tight side should be on top.
3. It should be horizontal.

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 Chapter - 1 : Practice Set
1. Chain drive is not suitable for : 7. In a flat belt drive, if the slip between the
(a) parallel shaft driver and belt is 1%, between the belt and
(b) non-parallel shaft follower is 3% and driver and follower pulley
(c) perpendicular shaft diameters are equal, then velocity ratio of the
(d) both (a) and (c) drive will be :
2. In case of belt drives, the effect of the (a) 0.96 (b) 0.97
centrifugal tension is to : (c) 0.98 (d) 0.99
(a) cause the belt to leave the pulley and 8. The power transmitted by a belt drive is
increases the power to be transmitted maximum when the maximum tension in the
(b) cause the belt to stay on the pulley and
belt …………. the centrifugal tension:
increase the power to be transmitted
(a) equal to (b) double
(c) reduce the driving power of the belt
(c) three times (d) six times
(d) stretch the belt in longitudinal direction
9. For maximum power, the velocity of the belt
3. If the two pulleys in a belt drive have different
will be :
values of coefficient of friction, then the
design will be based on the pulley for which : T T
(a) (b)
(a)  is maximum m 2m
(b)  is minimum (c)
T
(d) None of these
(c)  = 1 3m
(d)  > 1 10. In a multiple V-belt drive, if one of the belts
4. The power transmitted by means of a belt break, then :
depends upon : (a) only the broken belt is replaced
(a) velocity of the belt (b) the entire set of belts is replaced
(b) tension under which the belt is placed on (c) the broken belt and the belt on either side
the pulleys of it, is replaced
(c) arc of contact between the belt and the (d) the broken belt need not to be replaced
smaller pulley 11. The width of the pulley should be ……….
(d) all of the above width of the belt :
5. When the speed of belt increases : (a) equal to (b) less than
(a) the coefficient of friction between the belt (c) greater than (d) none of these
and pulley increases 12. Crowning on pulley helps :
(b) the coefficient of friction between the belt (a) in decreasing the slip of the belt
and pulley decreases (b) in increasing the slip of the belt
(c) the power transmitted will decrease (c) to keep the belt in centre on a pulley while
(d) the power transmitted will increase it is in motion
6. A fast and loose pulley drive is used when : (d) to increase pulley life
(a) shafts are arranged parallel and rotate in 13. The included angle for the V-belt is usually :
the opposite directions (a) 10o – 20o (b) 30o – 40o
(b) shafts are arranged parallel and rotate in (c) 40o – 60o (d) 60o – 80o
the same directions
14. The groove angle of the pulley for rope drive
(c) shafts are arranged at right angles and
is usually :
rotate in one definite direction
(a) 20o (b) 35o
(d) driven shaft is to be started or stopped
(c) 45o (d) 60o
whenever desired without interfering with
the driving shaft.
lyksjh lsUVj&IERT xzkm.M ds lkeus]
vkse xk;=h uxj] lyksjh] iz;kxjkt [12]
ckylu lsUVj&duZyxat b.Vj dkWyst ds lkeus] VSxksj Vkmu] iz;kxjkt
15. The wire ropes make contact at : 21. The sum of the tensions when the belt is
(a) bottom of groove of the pulley running on the pulley is :
(b) sides of groove of the pulley (a) less than the initial tension
(c) sides and bottom of groove of the pulley (b) more than the initial tension
(d) anywhere in the groove of the pulley (c) more than twice the initial tension
16. The relation between the pitch of the chain (p)
(d) half the initial tension
and pitch circle diameter of the sprocket (D)
22. The angle of V-belts is :
is given by :
(a) 30o (b) 35o
 90o  (c) 40o (d) 45o
(a) p  D sin  
 T  23. Tension in the tight side of a belt drive is
 120 o
 100N and that in the slack side 60N. If the
(b) p  D sin   belt breadth is 10cm and thickness 4cm, what
 T  is the maximum stress induced in the belt?
 180o  (a) 2.5 N/cm2 (b) 1.5 N/cm2
(c) p  D sin   (c) 4 N/cm2 (d) 2 N/cm2
 T 
24. Which one of the following drives is used for
 360o 
(d) p  D sin   transmitting power without slip?
 T  (a) belt drives
Where T = number of teeth on the sprocket. (b) rope drives
17. For a belt drive, the ratio of tight-side tension (c) cone pulleys
to slack-side tension is (d) chain drives
(a) independent of angle of wrap 25. Creep in belt drive is due to :
(b) dependent on friction coefficient but (a) weak material of the belt
independent of angle of wrap (b) weak material of the pulley
(c) independent of both friction coefficient (c) uneven extensions and contractions of the
and angle of wrap belt when it passes from tight to slack side
(d) dependent on both friction coefficient and (d) expansion of the belt
angle of wrap 26. If  is the actual coefficient of friction in a
18. The difference between tensions on the tight belt moving in a grooved pulley, the groove
and slack slides of a belt drive is 3000 N. If angle being 2, the virtual coefficient of
the belt speed is 15 m/sec, the transmitted friction will:
power, in kW, is (a)  / sin  (b)  / cos 
(a) 45 (b) 22.5 (c)  sin  (d)  cos 
(c) 90 (d) 100 27. Given that T1 and T2 are the tensions on the
19. For a flat open-belt drive, the belt speed is tight and slack of the belt respectively, the
880 m/min and the power transmitted is 22.5 initial tension of the belt taking centrifugal
kW. What is the difference between the tight tension TC is equal to
side and slack side tensions of the belt drive? T  T2  TC
(a) 9000 N (b) 6450 N (a) 1
3
(c) 1540 N (d) 1000 N T  T2  2TC
20. Mass per unit length of the belt of an open (b) 1
2
belt drive is 1.5 kg/m. If the linear velocity of T  T2  3TC
the belt is 10 m/s and radius of driving pulley (c) 1
3
0.5m, centrifugal tension in the belt is:
T  T2  4TC
(a) 150 N (b) 600 N (d) 1
4
(c) 400 N (d) 300 N
lyksjh lsUVj&IERT xzkm.M ds lkeus]
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28. Centrifugal tension in belts is (d) on factors other than geometry and
(a) Useful because it maintains some tension material of the component
even when no power is transmitted 33. The ratio of maximum stress in a machine
(b) Not harmful because it does not take part component (at a notch or fillet) to the nominal
in power transmission stress at the same section is called
(c) Harmful because it increases belt tension (a) Stress concentration factor
and reduces the power transmitted (b) Endurance limit
(d) A hypothetical phenomenon and does not (c) Lewis factor
actually exist in belts. (d) Lozenge factor
29. The length of the belt in the case of a cross- 34. A plate with a circular hole in the centre is
belt drive is given in terms of centre distance subjected to a tensile load. The maximum
between pulleys (C), diameters of the pulley stress induced at the edge of hole will be
D and d as
…………times of the normal stress.
 ( D  d )2
(a) 2C  ( D  d )  (a) 2 (b) 2.5
2 4C
(c) 3 (d) 4
 ( D  d )2
(b) 2C  ( D  d)  35. The maximum distortion energy theory of
2 4C failure is suitable to predict the failure of
 ( D  d )2 which one of the following type of materials ?
(c) 2C  ( D  d) 
2 4C (a) brittle (b) ductile
 ( D  d )2 (c) composite (d) plastics
(d) 2C  ( D  d) 
2 4C 36. Rankine‟s theory of failure is used for which
30. An idler pulley is used: type of the following materials ?
(a) For frequent stoppage of motion (a) brittle (b) ductile
(b) To maintain requisite tension in the belt (c) plastic (d) tough
(c) To change the direction of motion of the 37. Who postulated the maximum distortion
belt energy theory?
(d) To run only during non-load periods (a) Tresca
31. Stress concentration in a machine component (b) Rankine
results from : (c) St. Venant
1. abrupt changes in the cross-section of the (d) Mises-Henky
component 38. If T, g and w represent tension, acceleration
2. pressure at points/areas of the component due to gravity and weight per unit length of
at which the load is applied the belt respectively, then maximum
3. point-to-point variation in the properties permissible speed of the belt is given by
of the material of the component (a) gT / 3w (b) 2 gT / w
Which of the statements made above are
(c) gT / w (d) 2 gT / 3w
correct ?
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 1 and 3 39. What strength of the material is to be
(c) 2 and 3 (d) 1, 2 and 3 considered for design of a ductile component
32. Stress concentrations factor for a machine under cyclic load?
component is dependent (a) Ultimate strength
(a) only on the geometry of the component (b) Yield strength
(b) only on the material of the component (c) Endurance strength
(c) on geometry as well as material of the (d) Fracture strength
component
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40. Fatigue of a component is due to: 42. Which of the following causes the variation in
(a) cyclic load (b) static load chain speed?
(c) constant heating (d) collision (a) Chordal action
41. A loaded semi-infinite flat plate is having an
(b) Creep
A 
elliptical hole   2  in the middle as (c) Slip
B 
(d) Backlash
shown in the below figure. The stress
43. All the failure theories give nearly the same
concentration factor at points either X or Y is
result ………...
(a) When one of the principal stresses at a
point is larger in comparison to the other
(b) When shear stresses act
(c) When both the principal stresses are
(a) 1 (b) 3 numerically equal
(c) 5 (d) 7 (d) For all situations of stress

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

D C B D C D A C C B C C

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

B C A C D A C A C C A D

25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36

C A B C A B D C A C B A

37 38 39 40 41 42 43

D A C A C A A

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 CHAPTER : 2 - CLUTCHES
CLUTCHES • It gives extremely smooth start and absorbs
It is a mechanical device, which is used to shock.
connect or disconnected the source of power Torque Transmitting Capacity of Friction
from remaining power transmission system, at Clutches:
the will of operator. • A friction disk of single plate clutch is
It is not a permanent connection. shown in figure below.

TYPE OF CLUTCHES
Positive Contact Clutches:
• In this type of clutch power transmission is
achieved by interlocking of jaws or teeth.
Ex. - Jaw clutch, toothed clutches.
• It can transmit large torque with no slip and
no heat generated during engagement /
disengagement.
• Used in power press, rolling mills.

Here, D = outer diameter of friction disk

Friction Clutches: d = inner diameter of friction disk
• In this type of clutches, power transmission p = pressure at radius „r‟ (variable) or
is achieved with the help of friction between constant
contracting surface. Slip occur only in W = total operating force (N)
engagement process. Friction clutches T = torque transmitted by clutch
include single and multiplate clutches, cone Consider an elemental ring of radius „r‟ and radial
clutches, centrifugal clutches. thickness „dr‟
Electromagnetic clutches:  Area = 2r . dr
• In this clutches, power transmission is  Elemental axial force = p  (2r . dr)
achieved by means of the magnetic field.  dW = 2 p . r . dr
• It has much advantage like rapid response, Integrate both side
ease of control, smooth start/stop. D2

Fluid Clutches: W  2π  p.r.dr ....(i)

d2
• It this clutches, power transmission is
Elemental frictional force =   p  (2r.dr)
achieved by means of hydraulic pressure.
lyksjh lsUVj&IERT xzkm.M ds lkeus] vkse xk;=h uxj] lyksjh] iz;kxjkt [16]
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 Elemental frictional torque =   p  (2r.dr) = From equation (i)
2 D2 D2
2(pr .dr)  d
W  2  p.r.dr  2  pmax .   dr
Integrating both side d 2  2 d 2
D2

T  2π  pr2 .dr pmax .d

....(ii) W D  d 
d2 2
Torque Based on Uniform Pressure Theory: From equation (ii)
• In case of new clutch, the pressure remain D2
 d
D2

T  2 d 2 p.r .dr  2  pmax . 2  d2r.dr

2
constant over entire surface area of the
friction disk, thus assume „p‟ is constant.
pmax .d
T
8
D 2
d2 
W
T  D  d
4

Friction radius R f  
 D  d
1

4
• Friction radius according to UPT is more
thus torque transmitting capacity is more, as
compare to UWT.
From equation (i)
Method to Increase the Torque Transmitting
D2 D2

W  2  p.r.dr  2p  r.dr Capacity of Clutch:

d 2 d 2 • Friction material with higher coefficient of

W
πp 2
4

D  d2  friction should be used. For automotive
clutches
From equation (ii) (asbestos lining – cast iron),  = 0.3 – 0.4.
D2 D2
r3 
D2
• By increasing plate pressure.
T  2      
2 2
p.r .dr 2 . p r .dr 2 p   • Increase the mean radius of friction disk.
d 2 d 2  3 d 2
• In general, allowable pressure on friction
p W  D 3  d 3 
T
12
D 3

 d 3 Also T   
3  D2  d 2 
lining varies from 0.1 N/mm2 for large
heavy duty double plate clutches to 0.25
N/mm2 for an average passenger car
NW  D 3  d 3  clutches.
In case of multi-disk clutch T   2 2
D d  3 Note:
• The uniform pressure theory is applicable
Here, N = Number of pairs of contacting surface
only when the friction lining is new.
1  D3  d 3 
 (Rf) friction radius =   • The uniform wear theory is applicable when
3  D2  d 2 
the friction lining gets worn out.
Torque Based on Uniform Wear Theory: • The friction radius for new clutch is slightly
• In case of worn-out clutches, it is assumed greater than that of worn-out clutches.
that the wear is uniformly distributed over • The torque transmitting capacity of new
the entire surface of the disk. clutch is slightly more than that of worn-out
When wear is uniform [pr = constant] clutches.
• Pressure will be maximum (pmax) at inner • A major portion of the life of friction lining
radius. comes under the uniform wear criterion.
d • It is more logical and safer to use uniform
 pr  p max .
2 wear theory in the design of clutches.
lyksjh lsUVj&IERT xzkm.M ds lkeus] vkse xk;=h uxj] lyksjh] iz;kxjkt [17]
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 Multi-Disk Clutches: Difference between single plate clutch & multi
• A multi-disk clutch consists of two sets of plate clutch:
disk „A‟ and „B‟. Parameters Single Plate Multi Plate
• Disks of set „A‟ are usually made of bronze Clutch Clutch

and are connected to driven shaft by splines. Contacting One or More than
surface maximum two two
A clearance fit between the bolt and the
Torque Less More
holes in the plate allows disk of set „B‟ to transmitting
move in axial direction. When the disk of capacity

set „A‟ rotates, they transmit the power to Running Dry due to less Wet due to
condition heat generation more heat
the driven shaft through spilines sleeve. generation
Coefficient High Less
of friction ( = 0.3) ( = 0.1)
Space Large radial Large Axial
required space (Truck, space
Car) (Scooter,
Motorcycle)
Space Large radial Large Axial
required space (Truck, space
Car) (Scooter,
Motorcycle)
Engagement Not smoother Much more
(due to dry smoother
plate) (due to wet
Torque Transmitting Capacity:
plate)
For uniform pressure criterion FRICTION MATERIAL

T

μWN D  d 3 3
 Desirable Properties of a Good Friction

3 D2  d 2  Material:
For uniform wear criterion • At should have high friction coefficient and
μWN
T  D  d remain constant over the entire range of
4 temperature.
Here • It should have good thermal conductivity.
N = number of pairs of contacting surface • It should have high resistance to abrasive
total number of disks = N + 1 and N = z1 + z2 – 1 and adhesive wear.
Here, • For light load and lower speed wood, CI,
z1 = number of disks on driving shaft cork and leather are used as friction
z2 = number of disks on driven shaft materials.
• Modern friction lining consist of four basic
ingredients – Fibre, Filler, Binder, Friction
modifiers.

lyksjh lsUVj&IERT xzkm.M ds lkeus] vkse xk;=h uxj] lyksjh] iz;kxjkt [18]
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 Cone Clutches:
• It consists of inner and outer conical
surface. Outer cone is keyed to the driving
shaft, while the inner cone is free to slide
axially on the drive shaft due to splines.
Axial force required to engage the clutch is
provided by means of helical compression
spring. Centrifugal Clutches:
• The recommended semi-cone angle () is • This clutch is used when it is required to
12.5o. engage the load after the driving member
• There is strict requirement for the has attained a particular speed.
co-axiality of two shafts.

• This clutch works on the principal of

centrifugal force. As the angular speed of
input shaft increases, the centrifugal force
increases causing the shoes to move in a
radially outward direction, thus engagement
and vice-versa.

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 Chapter - 2 : Practice Set
1. For given dimension, the torque transmitting 7. In the multiple disc clutch, if there are 6 discs
capacity of cone clutch compared to that of on the driving shaft and 5 discs on the driven
single plate clutch is :
shaft, then the number of pairs of contact
(a) Lower (b) Higher
surfaces will be equal to :
(c) Equal (d) None of these
2. In cone clutch : (a) 11 (b) 12
(a) outer cone is keyed to driving shaft and (c) 10 (d) 22
inner cone is free to slide on driven shaft 8. Match List I with List II and select the correct
(b) inner cone is keyed to driven shaft & outer answer using the codes given below the lists :
cone is free to slide on driving shaft List I List II
(c) outer cone is free to slide on driving shaft P. Single plate friction clutch 1. Scooters
& inner cone is keyed to driving shaft Q. Multi plate friction clutch 2. Rolling
(d) outer cone is keyed to driven shaft & inner mills
cone is free to slide on driving shaft R. Centrifugal clutch 3. Trucks
3. In a plate clutch axial force is 4 kN. The S. Jaw clutch 4. Mopeds
inside radius of contact surface is 50mm and P Q R S
the outside radius is 100 mm. For uniform (a) 1 3 4 2
pressure the mean radius of friction surface (b) 1 3 2 4
will be : (c) 3 1 2 4
(a) 78 mm (b) 60 mm (d) 3 1 4 2
(c) 75 mm (d) 80 mm 9. In a multi-plate clutch with no number of
4. Torque transmitting capacity of clutch can be
outer discs and ni number of inner discs, the
given by (p = intensity of pressure, P =
number of pairs of active surfaces is :
operating force) :
p 3 P (a) ni + no (b) ni + no + 1
(a)
12
 
D  d 3 (b)
4
D  d 
(c) ni + no - 1 (d) ni + no – 2
(c) Both (a) & (b) (d) None of these 10. Which one of the following is not a friction
5. Which one of the following is the correct
clutch ?
expression for the torque transmitted by a
(a) Disc or plate clutch
conical clutch of outer radius R, inner radius r
and semi-cone angle  assuming uniform (b) Cone clutch
pressure? (where W = total axial load and  = (c) Centrifugal clutch
coefficient of friction) : (d) Jaw clutch.
W R  r  W R  r  11. On the motors with low starting torque, the
(a) (b)
3 sin  3 sin  type of the clutch to be used is :

2W R 3  r 3  
3W R 3  r 3  (a) Multiple-plate clutch
(c)

3 sin  R 2  r 2 
(d)

4 sin  R 2  r 2 (b) Cone clutch
6. The recommended semi-cone angle in case of (c) Centrifugal clutch
cone-clutch is nearly equal to : (d) Single-plate clutch with both sides
(a) 12.5o (b) 20o effective.
(c) 30o (d) 5o

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12. Assertion (A) : A clutch is the best means to 13. The inner and outer radius of friction surface
connect a driving shaft with a driven shaft for of a plate clutch are 50 mm and 100 mm
regular power transmission. respectively. What is the ratio of maximum
Reason (R) : A clutch can be frequently intensity of pressure to minimum intensity of
engaged and disengaged at operators will. pressure on clutch plate if magnitude of axial
(a) Both (A) and (R) are true, but (R) is not force is 4 kN? Assume uniform wear theory.
the correct explanation of (A). (a) 4 (b) 2
(b) (A) is true, but (R) is false. (c) 6 (d) 8
(c) (R) is true, but (A) is false 14. The device which permits the connection and
(d) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the disconnection of shaft is :
correct explanation of (A) (a) pulley (b) bearing
(c) Connector (d) clutch

ANSWER KEY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
B A A C C A C D C D C C
13 14
B D

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 CHAPTER : 3 - BEARINGS
Bearing is a machine element, which is stationary
that support and guide the moving element with
minimum friction.

Due to relative motion between shaft and

bearing surface, some amount of power losses take
Collar Bearing:
place to overcome the friction and wear of the
Collar bearings are used to support a
surfaces also occurs due to metal to metal contact.
horizontal shaft subjected to thrust loads.
Function of Bearing:
• To support shaft and to hold it at correct
position.
• To ensure free rotation of the shaft with
minimum friction.
• To carry the loads acting on the shaft and to
Note:
transmit them to the foundation or frame of
W
PUPT 
the machine.

 Ro2  Ri2 
W W
PUWT   Pmax 
2r  Ro  Ri  2Ri  Ro  Ri 
2  Ro3  Ri3 
R    
3  Ro2  Ri2 
eff UPT

Ro  Ri
R 
eff UWT   Mean Radius
2
T f  W Reff 

Radial Bearing: PLoss  T f 

It is used to support the shaft where load is For Multicoller Bearing:
acting perpendicular to shaft axis. W
n
Weach collar
 2  R 3  Ri3 
T   n  Weach   o2 
2 

f MCB
 3  o
R Ri 

 2  Ro3  Ri3 
T   W   2 
2 

f MCB
  o
3 R Ri 

Thrust Bearing: Frictional torque (Tf) are independent of

Load is acting along to axis of the shaft number of collars.
(generally axial compressive load). n = Weach   p

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Conical Collar Bearings: rolling contact bearings, they are also known as
W antifriction bearings.
pUPT 

 Ro2  Ri2  A typical rolling contact bearing consists of

T  1
  T f SCB four parts:
sin 
f CCB
1. Outer race
  Sin    (Tf)   Ploss  2. Inner race
3. Rolling elements (Balls or rollers)
CCB  2 = 120o to 160o 4. Separator (Cage / Retainer)
Cone Clutches  2 = 25o to 30o The cage holds the rolling elements together
Pressure induced or load carrying capacity is and spaces them evenly around the periphery
independent of semi cone angle but frictional of the shaft.
torque is inversely proportional to sin . Rolling Contact Bearing:
Pivot Bearings:
These bearings support vertical shaft subjected
to axial compressive load.
To obtain design equation for pivot bearings
subjected to Ro = R and Ri = 0 in collar
bearings equation.

Types of Rolling Contact Bearing:

For starting condition and at moderate speeds
the frictional loss in rolling contact bearing are
lower than that of equivalent hydrodynamic
journal bearings.
For Flat Pivot Bearing:
1. Deep Groove Ball Bearing:
Ri = 0; Ro = R (Reff)UPT = (2/3)R
• In this the radius of ball is slightly less than
(Reff)UWT = (R/2) (Tf)UPT = W (2/3)R
T 
the radii of curvature of the groove in the
f 4
(Tf)UWT =  W (R/2)   1.33 races.
UPT

T 
f UWT
3 • It gives a point contact (less noise), Less
Note: friction loss, Less temperature rise,
The frictional torque or power loss as per maximum permissible speed.
Uniform Pressure Theory is more than the Advantage:
power loss as per uniform wear theory. Hence (a) Large size balls result in high load carrying
for the safe design of bearing, if unless or capacity
otherwise not mentioned, it is better to assume (b) It takes load in axial as well as radial
uniform pressure theory because power loss direction.
occurs in overcoming the frictional resistance. Disadvantages:
Rolling Contact Bearing: (a) Not self alignment
The bearings, in which the contacting surface (b) Poor rigidity due to
point contact.
have rolling contact, are known as rolling
Application:
contact bearing. Due to low friction offered by Gear box and general
Purpose machinery
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Angular Contact Bearing:
• In this, the grooves in inner and outer races
are so shaped that the line of reaction at the
contact between ball and races makes an
angle with the axes of bearing.
• This is assembled with specific magnitude Thrust Ball Bearing:
of pre-load. • It carry thrust in only one direction.
Advantage: • It can not carry radial load.
• It can take both radial and axial load. • Large number of ball result in high thrust
• Load carrying capacity is more than deep load carrying capacity.
groove ball bearing. Disadvantage:
Disadvantage: • Not self-aligning
• Two bearing are required to take thrust load • It can be used only for low and medium
in both direction. speed.
• It must be mounted without axial play. • It requires application of continuous
• The angular contact bearing requires initial pressure applied by spring to hold the rings
pre-loading. together.
Applications: Use : Warm gear boxes, Core hook etc.
Chemical Industries.

Roller Bearing:
Self Aligning Bearing: 1. Cylindrical Roller Bearing:
• Outer race have a curvature and they allow • It is used when maximum load carrying
small shaft misalignment, there is self- capacity is required in given space.
alignment capability. Advantage:
• It has less load carrying capacity compare • Line contact is thus more rigid and radial
with spherical roller bearing. load carrying capacity is high.
• Self aligning bearing is used to compensate • Frictional loss is less in high speed
misalignment and can take both radial and application.
axial load. Disadvantage:
• This has less load carrying capacity • In general, it can not take thrust load.
compare with spherical roller bearing. • Not self-alignment, Generates more noise.
Use: Agricultural machinery, Railway axle- Application:
boxes, Ventilators etc. Transmission system Gear Box

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1.Cylindrical Roller Bearing : Application:
• Heavy duty vehicles (Truck)
• Helicopter transmission
• Speed reduction gears
• Differentials and large size bearings in
rolling mills.

2. Spherical Roller Bearing:

• High load carrying capacity.
• Self Aligned.
• More Friction compare to ball bearing.
• High friction due to sliding of rollers. 4. Needle Bearing:
Applications: • It has cylindrical roller having very small
• Paper mills diameter and relatively long length. It is also
• Marines called quill bearing (l / d) > 4
• Railway Axle Boxes • This can be used with or without inner and
outer race.
• This is suitable where limited radial space is
available.
Advantage:
(a) Used to replace sleeve bearing because
outer diameter is less.
(b) Large load carrying capacity
3. Taper Roller Bearing: • It is also suitable for continuous rotation,
• In this, rollers are arranged in such a way where load is variable or intermittent.
that the axes of individual rolling elements Uses :
intersect at a common apex point on the axis Oscillatory motion Piston-pin bearing
of the bearing. This is essential requirement
Rocker arms Universal joint
of pure rolling motion.
• When it is subjected to pure radial load it
induces a thrust component and vice-versa.
• In this bearing, the outer ring is called „cup‟
and the inner ring is called „cone‟.
Advantage:
• It can take heavy radial and thrust load.
• More rigid.
• It can be easily disassembled/assembled.
Disadvantage:
• Two bearing is required to balance axial
force.
• Pre-load is required.
• It cannot tolerate misalignment.

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Comparison between Ball & Roller Bearings:

Only for axial loading Feq = Fa

Only for radial loading Feq = Fr
Designation of Ball Bearing
P Q R S

R S – Multiple by „5‟.
STATIC LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY
It given shaft diameter in mm.
Static Load:
• It is defined as the load acting on the 0 0  10 mm
bearing when the shaft is stationary. 0 1  12 mm
Static Load Carrying Capacity: 0 2  15 mm
• It is defined as the static load which 0 3  17 mm
corresponds to a total permanent E.g.  3 0 7
deformation of ball and races at the most 
heavily stressed point of contact equal to Medium
0.0001 of the ball diameter. 07  5 = 35 mm shaft diameter
DYNAMIC LOAD CARRYING CAPACITY Life of Bearings:
• It is defined as the radial load in radial It is defined as, the number of revolutions that
bearing (thrust load in thrust bearing) that a bearing has rotated before the first evidence
can be carried for a minimum life of one of fatigue crack either in a race or rolling
million revolution. element.
• It is based on assumption that, Inner race is Nominal Life / Rated life of the Bearing:
rotating and outer race is stationary. (For same identical bearings)
EQUIVALENT / ACTUAL BEARING LOAD For the group of identical ball/roller bearings
• The equivalent dynamic load is defined as the revolutions that 90% of the bearings will
the radial load in radial bearing (Thrust load complete or exceeds before first evidence of
in thrust bearing), which if applied to the fatigue failure or fatigue crack.
bearing would give same life as that which n
C
the bearing will attain in actual condition. L10 or L90    Million revolution
P
Feq = Ks(X V Fr + Y Fa)
C=Dynamic load rating
P = Equivalent dynamic load
n = 3  Ball bearing
n = (10/3)  Roller bearing
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Hydrodynamic Bearings: Limitations of Hydrodynamic Bearings:
• In hydrodynamic bearings, the load 1. They cannot be used for low speed applications
supporting high pressure fluid-film is as well as extremely high speed applications.
created due to the shape and relative motion 2. They have high frictional loss at low speeds
between the two surfaces. and high starting friction.
• The moving surface pulls the lubricant into 3. They have poor positional accuracy.
a wedge-shaped zone, at a high velocity 4. Fluid-film breaks during the starting and
(sufficient to create the high pressure film) stopping of the machine. Hence, they are not
and separate the two surfaces against the suitable where there are frequent starts and
load. stoppages.
• Initially when the journal (shaft) is at rest, it Applications of Hydrodynamic Bearings:
makes contact with the bearing at its lowest The hydrodynamic bearings are used in :
point A, due to load „W‟. 1. engines,
• When the journal starts rotating in 2. large centrifugal pumps,
anticlockwise direction, it will climb the 3. hydraulic turbines, etc.
bearing surface and contact is made at point Hydrostatic Bearings:
B. In hydrostatic bearings, the load supporting
• As the speed of the journal is further high pressure fluid-film is created by an
increased, the lubricant is pulled into the external source, like pump.
wedge-shaped region and forces the journal The lubricant, which is pressurized externally,
to the other side. The converging wedge- is supplied between the two surfaces
shaped film between points C and D So, unlike the hydrodynamic bearings,
supports the journal. hydrostatic bearings do not require motion of
• Thus in hydrodynamic bearings, it is not one surface relative to another.
necessary to supply the lubricant under
pressure. The only requirement is to ensure
sufficient and continuous supply of the
lubricant.

Advantages of Hydrostatic Bearings:

1. They can take heavy loads even at
exceptionally low speeds.
Advantages of Hydrodynamic Bearings: 2. The load carrying capacity of hydrostatic
1. They are simple in construction and easy to bearings is independent of the speed.
maintain. 3. They have very low frictional loss, even at the
2. They have low initial as well as maintenance starting.
cost. 4. They have high positional accuracy.
3. They do not require auxiliary equipments, like 5. Load carrying capacity of hydrostatic bearings
pump. is not dependent on viscosity. Hence, any fluid
4. They are reliable. that does not damage the bearing material can
5. They have low power loss. be used as lubricant.

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6. In hydrostatic bearings, any fluid which is
already present in a device can act as a
lubricant. For example, liquid oxygen in rocket
engines, water in hydraulic machinery,
kerosene in aircraft engines, serve the purpose
of lubricant.
7. In hydrostatic bearings, the stiffness of oil-film
can be controlled by controlling the supply
pressure. The hydrostatic bearing have high
stiffness.
Limitations of Hydrostatic Bearings:
1. They require auxiliary equipments like : pump,
filter, oil supply lines, etc. Hence, the system is
Self-Lubrication:
more complicated, expensive, and liable to
1. These bearings have itself self-lubricating
failure.
characteristic.
2. They have high initial as well as maintenance
2. No external lubrication is used.
cost.
3. It is used in food processing industries.
3. Overall power loss (i.e. frictional power loss
Example:
plus pumping power loss) is not necessarily
Graphite, Ice cubes, MoS2 & PTFE, CI, Nylon,
low.
Teflon etc.
Applications of Hydrostatic Bearings:
Journal Bearing:
The hydrostatic bearings are used in:
• It is a sliding contact bearing working on
1. Vertical turbo generators,
hydrodynamic lubrication, supports the load
2. Rolling mills,
in radial direction.
3. Gyroscopes,
Full Journal Bearing:
4. Machine tools,
• Angle of contact between journal and
5. High speed dental drills,
bearing is 360o.
6. Ultracentrifuges
• Thus take radial load in any direction.
7. Spindles of internal grinding machines,
Partial Journal Bearing:
8. Rocket engines, etc.
• Angle of contact < 180o always.
• Take good in only one radial direction.
• It is used in rail-road cars.

Thin Film Lubrication:

• Lubricant film is relatively thin and there is
partial metal to metal contact.
• Under excessive load, less oil supply, low
speed, misalignment, Boundary lubrication
will occur.
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 • Performance of bearing under boundary • The value of bearing characteristics number
lubrication will depend upon corresponding to minimum friction
(i) Chemical composition of lubrication. coefficient () (point „C‟) is called Bearing
(ii) Surface roughness. Modulus (K).
• Under excessive load and low speed. Bearing should not be operated near the critical
Hydrodynamic bearing also operate under value „K‟ because slight drop in the speed, or
boundary lubrication. increase in load result in boundary lubrication.
Mckee’s Investigation Ideally it should be  “5 K”. But for impact /
(For Hydrodynamic Bearing) : fluctuating load it is  15K.
Here,  ZN  d 
P = Pressure μ  0.326    0.002
 P  c 
Z = abs. viscosity
Somerfield Number:
n = speed (rpm) 2
 r  Z.N
S  . P = unit bearing pressure
C P

Bearing Material:
• High compressive strength
• High endurance strength to avoid failure due
to pitting.
• Ability to yield and adopt its shape to that of
journal (called conformability).

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 Chapter - 3 : Practice Set
1. In a partial journal bearing, the angle of 7. Antifriction bearings are :
contact of the bearing with the journal is : (a) thick lubricated bearings
(a) 120o (b) 180o (b) plastic bearings
(c) 270o (d) 360o (c) thin lubricated bearings
2. A sliding bearing which operates without any (d) ball and roller bearings
lubricant present, is called : 8. Which of the following bearing is preferred
(a) zero film bearing for oscillating conditions ?
(b) boundary lubricated bearing (a) double row roller bearing
(c) hydrodynamic lubricated bearing (b) taper roller bearing
(d) hydrostatic lubricated bearing (c) angular contact single row ball bearing
3. When the shaft rotates in anticlockwise (d) needle roller bearing
direction at high speed in a bearing, it will : 9. Ball bearing are provided with a cage:
(a) have contact at the bottom most of the (a) to reduce friction
bearing (b) to maintain the balls at a fixed distance
(b) move towards right of the bearing making apart
the metal to metal contact (c) to prevent the lubricant form flowing out
(c) move towards right of the bearing making (d) to facilitate slipping of balls
no metal to metal contact 10. If the load on a ball bearing is halved, its life:
(d) move towards left of the bearing making (a) remains unchanged
metal to metal contact (b increases two times
4. The bearing characteristic number is given by: (c) increases four times
(a) pZ / N (b) pN / Z (d) increases eight times
(c) p / Z N (d) Z N / p 11. A full journal bearing having clearance to
where radius ratio of (1/100), using a lubricant with
p = Bearing pressure on the  = 28 × 10-3 Pa.s supports the shaft journal
projected bearing area, running at N = 2400 r.p.m. If bearing
Z = Absolute viscosity of the pressure is 1.4 MPa, the Somerfield number
lubricant, and is:
N = Speed of the journal (a) 8 × 10-3 (b) 8 × 10-5
5. When the bearing is subjected to large (c) 0.48 (d) 0.48 × 10-2
fluctuations of load and heavy impacts, the 12. A sliding bearing which can support steady
bearing characteristic number should be loads without any relative motion between the
.............. the bearing modulus : journal and the bearing is called :
(a) 5 times (b) 10 times (a) boundary lubricated bearing
(c) 15 times (d) 20 times (b) zero film bearing
6. When the length of the journal is equal to the (c) hydrodynamic lubricated bearing
diameter of the journal, then the bearing is (d) hydrostatic lubricated bearing
said to be a : 13. In railway axle boxes, the bearing used is:
(a) short bearing (a) deep groove ball bearing
(b) long bearing (b) double row spherical roller bearing
(c) medium bearing (c) cylindrical roller bearing
(d) square bearing (d) double row self-aligning ball bearing
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14. The cone angle of a pivot bearing in increased (d) becomes minimum at an optimum speed
by 2%. The maximum load carrying capacity and then increases with further increase in
of the bearing will increase by: speed
(a) 0.5% (b) 0% 21. Consider the following statements:
(c) 0.05% (d) 1% Radius of friction circle for a journal bearing
15. Which of the following bearings can take depends upon:
large thrust loads: 1. Coefficient of friction
(a) deep-groove ball bearing 2. Radius of the journal
(b) self-aligning ball bearing 3. Angular speed of rotation of the shaft
(c) angular-contact bearing Which of these statements are correct?
(d) filling-notch ball bearing (a) 1, 2 and 3
16. Bearing used for heavy loads are : (b) only 1 and 2
(a) Ball bearings (c) only 2 and 3
(b) Roller bearings (d) only 1 and 3
(c) Thrust bearings 22. If the dynamic load capacity of a ball bearing
(d) Any of the above is increased to 1.5 times its earlier value
17. In hydrodynamic bearings : without changing its equivalent load, the life
(a) the oil film pressure is generated only by of the bearing increases to:
the rotation of the journal (a) 6.4 times its earlier life
(b) the oil film is maintained by supplying oil (b) 5.2 times its earlier life
under pressure (c) 4.2 times its earlier life
(c) no oil film is required in hydrodynamic (d) 3.4 times its earlier life
bearings 23. For general industrial machines, the ratio of
(d) none of these length of journal to its diameter for a bearing
lies between
18. If K = 3 for ball bearing and K = 3.33 for
(a) 0.5 and 1.0 (b) 0.8 and 1.5
roller bearings. Which one of the following
(c) 2.0 and 3.0 (d) 3.0 and 4.0
correctly states load (p) life (L) relationship 24. When the intensity of pressure is uniform in a
for rolling contact bearings? flat pivot bearing of radius r, the friction force
1
K is assumed to act at
L  P   L   P  K 1
(a)  1    1  (b)  2    1  (a) r (b) r/2
 L 2   P2   L1   P2 
(c) 2r/3 (d) r/3
K K 1
L  P  L  P  25. The life of a ball bearing at a load of 10 kN is
(c)  2    1  (d)  2    1 
 L1   P2   L1   P2  8000 hours. Its life in hours, if the load is
19. A journal bearing of diameter 2.5 cm and increased to 20 kN, keeping all other
length 40 cm carries a load of 150 kN. The conditions the same is
average bearing pressure is : (a) 4000 (b) 2000
(a) 1.5 kN/cm2 (b) 15 kN/cm2 (c) 1000 (d) 500
(c) 150 kN/cm2 (d) none of the above 26. A journal bearing running at 900 rev/min has
20. The friction torque, transmitted in case of flat a bearing pressure of 100 N/cm2. If the
lubricant used has absolute viscosity of 15
pivot bearing for uniform ratio of wear is centipoise, the bearing characteristic number
equal to : will be equal to.
(a)  W R (b) (2/3)  W R (a) 29.8 (b) 13.5
(c) (1/3)  W R (d) (1/2)  W R (c) 9.94 (d) 2.85
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27. The bearing modulus C refers to the bearing (c) series of the bearing
characteristic number at which for a fully (d) series and bore of the bearing
lubricated journal bearing, the amount of 29. Tapered roller bearings can take ……… :
friction (a) Radial load only
(a) remains constant (b) is zero (b) Axial load only
(c) is minimum (d) is maximum (c) Both radial and axial loads and the ratio of
28. Bearings are designated by a number which these being less than unity
consists of at least three digits such as 205, (d) Both radial and axial loads and the ratio of
306, 408. These three digits represent the these bring greater than unity
(a) bore of the bearing
(b) width of the bearing

Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

A A C D C D D D B D A D

13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

B B C B A C A D B D B C

25 26 27 28 29

C B C D D

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 CHAPTER : 4 - THREADED JOINT & POWER SCREW
Major Diameter:
• It is the largest diameter of an external or
internal screw thread. The screw is specified
by this diameter. It is also known as outside
or nominal diameter.
Pitch Diameter:
• It is the diameter of imaginary cylinder, on a
cylindrical screw thread, the surface of
THREADED JOINTS which would pass through the thread at such
• Threaded joint is a separable joint of two or points as to make equal the width of the
more machine parts that are held together by thread and the width of spaces between the
means of a threaded fastening, such as a bolt threads. It is also called effective diameter.
and a nut. Pitch:
• It is usually made of mild steel or wrought • It is the axial distance from a point on one
iron. thread to the corresponding point on the
Advantage of threaded Joints: next. This is measured in an axial direction
(a) The parts are held together by means of a between corresponding points in the same
large clamping force. There is wedge action axial plane.
at the threads, which increases the clamping Pitch = 1 / number of threads per unit length
force. of screw.
(b) The threads are self-locking. Therefore, Lead:
threaded joints can be placed in any position • It is the distance between two corresponding
vertical, horizontal or inclined. points on the same helix. It is the distance,
(c) The parts joined together by threaded joints which a screw thread advances axially in
can be detached, when required. one rotation of the nut. Lead is equal to the
Disadvantage of Threaded Joints: pitch in case of single start threads, it is
(a) Threaded joints require holes in the machine twice the pitch in double start and so on.
parts that are to be clamped. This results in (L = np).
stress concentration near the threaded Thread Angle:
portion of the parts. • Thread angle is, the angle included between
(b) Threaded joints loosen when subjected to the sides of the thread measure in an axial
vibrations. plane.
Terminology: Function of Washer:
• It distributes the load over a large area on
the surface of clamped parts.
• It prevents damaging of clamped parts
during assembly.
• It prevents marring of the bolt head and nut
surface during assembly.
• It provides bearing surface over large
clearance holes.

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 FORM OF SCREW THREAD
British Standard Whitworth (B.S.W.) Threads:
• It is a symmetrical V-thread, in which the
angle between the flanks is 55o. The B.S.W.
with fine pitches are used where great
strength at the root is required.
• These threads are also used for fine
Square Thread:
adjustments and where the connected parts
• The square threads, because of their high
are subjected to increased vibrations as in
efficiency, are widely used for transmission
aero and automobile work.
of power in both directions. Such type of
threads is usually found on the feed
mechanism of machine tools, valves,
spindles etc. The square threads are not so
strong as V-threads but they offer less
frictional resistance to motion than with
worth threads.

British Association Threads (B.A):

• This is a B.S.W. thread with fine pitches.
These threads are used on screws for
precision work.

Acme Thread:
• It is a modification of square thread. It is
much stronger than square thread and can be
easily produced.

American National Standard Thread:

• This thread has flat crests and roots. The flat
crests can withstand more rough usage than
sharp V-threads. These threads are used for
general purposes.
Ex. On bolts, nuts, screws and tapped holes.
Metric Thread:
• Unified standard thread has rounded crests
• It is an Indian standard thread and is similar
and roots with an included angle of 60o.
to B.S.W.
• It has an included angle of 60o instead of
55o.

Buttress Thread:

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 • It is used for transmission of power only in • It is screwed into a tapped hole of one part.
one direction. It has low frictional resistance The parts are fastened without nut.
characteristic like square thread and have
the same strength as V-threads. The spindle
of bench vices is usually provided with
buttress threads.

Studs:
• A stud is a round bar threaded at both ends.
One end of the stud is screwed into a tapped
hole of the parts to be fastened, while the
TYPE OF SCREW FASTENINGS
other end receives a nut on it.
Through Bolts:
• Studs are chiefly used instead of tap bolts.
• It is a cylindrical bar with threads for the nut
This is due to the fact that when tap bolts
at one end and head at the other end. The
are unscrewed or replaced, they have a
cylindrical part of the bolt is known as
tendency to break the threads in the hole.
shank. The through bolts may or may not
Cap Screws:
have machined finish and are made with
• The cap screws are similar to tap bolts
either hexagonal or square heads.
except that they are of small size and a
A through bolt should pass easily in the
variety of shapes of heads are available.
holes, when put under tension by a load
along its axis. If the load acts perpendicular
to the axis, tending to slide one of the
connected parts along the other end thus
subjected to shear.

Machine Screws:
• They are similar to cap screws with the head
slotted for a screw driver. These are
generally used with a nut.
Set Screw:
• These are used to prevent relative motion
between the two parts. A set screw is
screwed through a threaded hole in one part
so that its point presses against friction
between the point of the screw and one of
the parts. They may be used instead of key
or in connection with a key, where they
prevent relative axial motion of the shaft,
key and hub assembly.
Tap Bolts:

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 • It is mechanical device used for converting
rotary motion into linear motion and
transmitting power.
Application of Power Screw:
• To raise the load.
• To obtain accurate motion in machining
operation i.e. leads screw of lathe.
• To clamp a work piece. Ex. vice.
• To load a specimen. Ex. universal testing
machine.
Part of Power Screw:
Locking Devices: • Screw
• Locking devices are used to prevent the • Nut
• A part to hold either the screw or nut in its
loosening of the threads between the nut and
place.
the screw. Locking can be accomplished by
Advantage of Power Screw:
following three methods.
(a) Large load carrying capacity.
(b) Overall dimension is small result in compact
(i) By creating supplementary friction construction
(ii) By using special locking devices like split (c) It provides large mechanical advantage. A
pin; and load of 15 kN can be raised by applying an
(iii) By plastic deformation effort of 400N.
A large number of locking devices are available in (d) It can give highly accurate linear motion.
practice. Only some of them are described in this Disadvantage of Power Screw:
section (a) Poor efficiency as low as 40% with the
exception of lead screw.
(b) High friction in thread cause rapid wear.
• Square thread–Nut is usually made of soft
material
• Trapezoidal threads–Split type of nut is used
to compensate for the wear.
Application and Efficiency:
• Power transmission – lead screw, press.
• Self-locking purpose – screw jack, clamp.
Vice.
Forms of Threads:
• V-threads are not suitable for power screw
due to high friction. Screws with smaller
angle of thread, such as trapezoidal thread,
square thread etc, are preferred for power
transmission.

POWER SCREW
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 Advantage:
• Higher efficiency compared with
trapezoidal thread.
• Manufactured on thread milling m/c.
• Stronger than square and trapezoidal thread
both.
Disadvantage:
• It can transmit power and motion only in
one direction. Buttress threads are ideally
suited for connecting tubular component.
THERMINOLOGY OF POWER SCREW
1. Pitch (P):
• It is defined as the distance measured
parallel to the axis of screw from a point on
one thread to the corresponding point on the
SPECIAL TYPE OF THREAD adjacent thread.
1. Acme Thread: 2. Lead (L):
It is a special type of trapezoidal thread. It is • It is defined as the distance measured
identical thread with respect to trapezoidal thread, parallel to the axis of screw, which the nut
but thread angle is 29o instead of 30o. Advantage will advance in one revolution of the screw.
and disadvantage are same as trapezoidal threads. • For a single-threaded screw, the lead is
same as the pitch.
3. Nominal Diameter (D) (Major Diameter):
• It is largest diameter of screw.
4. Core Diameter (Dc) (Minor Diameter):
• It is smallest diameter of screw thread
Dc = D - P
5. Mean Diameter (Dm):
Dm = (D + Dc) / 2 = D – 0.5 P
2. Buttress Thread (Vices): Dm = d – 0.5 P
It combines the advantage of square and trapezoidal
threads.
It is used where a heavy axial force acts along the
screw axis in one direction only.

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 Divide equation (1) by (2)

For Lifting
W  cos   sin  
F
cos    sin 
6. Helix Angle () (Lead Angle):
• It is defined as the angle made by the helix Dividing by cos 
W   tan  
of thread with a plane perpendicular to the F
axis of the screw. 1   tan 
• Force „F‟ multiplied by mean radius (dm/2) Coefficient of friction [ = tan ]
give torque required to raise or lower the  = friction angle
load. W tan   tan  
F
1  tan   tan 
F = W tan ( + )
• Torque required to raise the load
dm
T  F
2
T  W . m tan   
d
2
Similarly for lowering
W  cos   sin  
F
cos    sin  
W   tan  
F
TORQUE REQUIREMENT LIFTING AND 1   tan  
LOWERING F  W tan   
Load Diagram:
tan   
dm
T  W.
Here, Load = W 2
Normal reaction = N
Frictional force = N
Effort = F
Considering equilibrium of
horizontal force
F = N cos  + N sin …. (1)
Equilibrium of vertical force
W = N cos  - N sin …. (2)
SELF-LOCKING SCREW
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Torque required to lower the load 2. sin  . cos   

2. cos  . sin    
T  W . m . tan   
d
2 [2 sin A . cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A – B)]
• For  <  sin 2     sin 

Torque will be negative, thus no torque/force is sin 2     sin 
required. This condition is known as overhauling or „‟ is constant i.e. coefficient of friction.
back driving. This is important in “Yankee Screw Thus only variable is .
Drives”. For max., sin (2 + ) should be maximum
• For     Sin (2 + ) = 1  2 +  = 90o

Torque will have positive value   45o 
Thus, positive torque is required to lower the load. 2
This condition is known as “Self Locking”. 1  sin 
 max 
 > 1  sin 
L Thus, max. Depends only upon  i.e. coefficient of
tan  > tan   
d m friction.
• Self-locking screw is not possible when the Special Case:
coefficient of friction () is low. Efficiency of self locking screw
• Self-locking property may lost, when lead is tan 

large, thus single-threaded screw is better tan   
than multiple-thread screw. For self locking screw
  , put in above equation
EFFICIENCY OF SQUARE THREADED tan 

SCREW tan2 
Work output = Force (load W)  Distance travelled
 

tan  1  tan 2  
= WL 2 tan 
Work input = F  Dm 1 tan 2 
Work o p W   
   tan  2 2
Work i p F Thus efficiency must be less than 50%
but we know, F = W than ( + ) Multiple Threaded Screws:
tan  • It is used where higher travelling speed is
 
tan    required.
• For double start screw, the travelling speed
Above relation considers frictional loss only at the
is twice that of single start screw.
contacting surface between screw and the nut. It • Efficiency of multi-start screw will be
does not take collar friction loss. higher than efficiency of single start screw.
As we know that This is due to higher helix angle ().
• Mechanical advantage of multi-start screw
tan 
 will be less than the mechanical advantage
tan    of single start screw. Thus effort required to
After simplification raise a particular load is more in multiple
After simplification threaded screw.
• It is likely that the self-locking property
sin  . cos   
 may be lost in a multi-thread screw.
cos  . sin     • Multiple threaded screws are used in high
speed actuator and sluice valve.

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 Chapter - 4 : Practice Set
1. To ensure self-locking in a screw jack it is (a) smaller linear displacement
essential that helix angle is: (b) larger linear displacement with assured
(a) larger than friction angle self locking
(b) smaller than friction angle (c) larger linear displacement with no
(c) equal to friction angle guarantee of self locking
(d) suck as to give maximum efficiency in (d) none of the above
lifting 9. A screw thread specified by M20 × 2.5C as
2. The friction torque for square thread at mean per BIS thread system means :
radius while raising load is given by : (a) metric thread of 20 mm nominal diameter
(w = load, R0 = mean radius,  = angle of and 2.5mm pitch having coarse tolerance
friction,  = lead angle) (b) metric thread of 20 mm root diameter and
(a) wR0tan( - ) (b) wR0tan( + ) 2.5 mm pitch having coarse tolerance
(c) wR0tan (d) wR0tan (c) metric thread of fine class having 20 mm
3. The maximum efficiency of self locking root diameter and 2.5 mm pitch
screw is : (d) metric thread of 20 mm shank diameter
(a) 50% (b) 70% and 2.5 mm thread depth with coarse
(c) 75% (d) 80% tolerance
4. Which of the following screw thread is 10. For a screw, the angle of helix () is related to
adopted for power transmission in either the lead (L) and mean screw thread diameter
direction? (d) is :
(a) Acme thread (a) tan  = (L/d) (b) tan  = (d/L)
(b) square thread (c) tan  = (L/d) (d) tan  = (d/L)
(c) buttress thread 11. Acme threads are generally used in
(d) multiple thread (a) railway carriage couplings
5. If P is the pitch of a square thread, then the (b) spindles of bench vices
depth of thread d is given by : (c) screw cutting lathes
(a) 0.5 P (b) P (d) feed mechanism of machine tools
(c) 1.5 P (d) 2.0 P 12. A screw is specified by its :
6. Which one of the following is the value of (a) major diameter (b) minor diameter
helix angle for maximum efficiency of a (c) pitch diameter (d) pitch
square threaded screw? ( = tan-1 ) : 13. Which of the following statement is correct?
(a) 45o +  (b) 45o -  (a) the distance from a point on one thread to
(c) 45o - /2 (d) 45o + /2 the corresponding point on the next thread
7. The maximum efficiency of a screw jack is called pitch
having square threads with friction angle  (b) the distance which a screw thread
is: advances axially in one rotation of the nut
1  tan 2
is called lead
1  tan 
(a) (b)
1  tan 2 1  tan  (c) in single start threads, lead is equal to
pitch
1  sin  1  sin  2
(c) (d) (d) all of the above
1  sin  1  sin  2
14. The included angle for the British standard
8. Multi-start threads are used to get : whit worth thread is :
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 (a) 29o (b) 47.5o 20. In a turnbuckle, if one of the rods has left
(c) 55o (d) 60o hand threads, then the other rod will have :
15. The railway carriage couplings have : (a) right hand threads
(a) square threads (b) left hand threads
(b) acme threads (c) multiple threads
(c) knuckle threads (d) pointed threads
(d) buttress threads 21. Which of the following threads would be best
16. When screw threads are to be used in a suited for getting a tight leak proof joint ?
situation where power is being transmitted in (a) Knuckle threads
one direction only, then the screw threads (b) National pipe threads
suitable for this will be : (c) Unified threads
(a) square threads (d) Seller‟s threads
(b) acme threads 22. A tap set cannot be used to cut
(c) knuckle threads (a) BSW threads
(d) buttress threads (b) metric threads
17. Which of the following has threads at both (c) square threads
ends? (d) unified threads
(a) Bolt 23. Allen bolts are ……….
(b) Tap bolt (a) self–locking bolts
(c) Stud (b) designed for shock load
(d) none of these (c) used in aircraft application
18. The function of the washer is to : (d) provided with hexagonal depression in
(a) fill up the axial gap head
(b) provide bearing area 24. Which of the following threads is used for
(c) provide cushioning effect transmission of power?
(d) absorb shocks and vibrations I. Square thread
19. The eye bolts are used for : II. Buttress thread
(a) transmission of power III. Acme thread
(b) locking devices Choose the correct answer from the options
(c) lifting and transporting heavy machines given below:
(d) absorbing shocks and vibrations (a) I and II (b) II and III
(c) I and III (d) I, II and III

Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
B B A B A C C C A C C A
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
D C C D C B C A B C D D

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 CHAPTER : 5 - RIVETED & WELDED JOINT
RIVETED JOINT • The plates are drilled together and then
Riveted joints are a permanent joints which is used separated to remove any burs or chips.
for fastening of structure, ship building, Aeroplanes • When a cold rivet is used, the process is
etc. known as cold riveting and when a hot rivet
• A rivet is a short cylindrical bar with head is used the process is known as hot riveting.
integral to it. The cylindrical portion of the • The cold riveting process is used for
rivet is called shank or body and lower
structural joint while hot riveting is used to
portion of shank is known as tail. The
riveted joints are widely used for joining make leak proof joints.
light metals. • In case of long rivets, only tail is heated and
• The function of rivets in a joint is to make a not the whole shank.
connection that has strength and tightness. Diameter of rivet hole (dh)=diameter of rivet
The strength is necessary to prevent failure (dr)+1.5 mm
of the joint. The tightness is necessary to Materials of Rivets:
prevent leakage as in boiler or in a ship hull. • The material of the rivets must be tough and
ductile. They are usually made of steel,
brass, aluminium, but when strength and
fluid tight joint is the main consideration
then the steel rivets are used.
Rivet Heads:
• snap heads are usually employed for
structural work and machine riveting.
• When two plates are to be fastened together • The counter sunk heads are mainly used for
by a rivet, the holes in the plates are ship building, where flush surfaces are
punched and reamed or drilled. necessary.
• Rivets are specified by shank diameter and • The conical heads are mainly used in case of
types of head. hand hammering.
Difference between punching and drilling • The pan heads have maximum strength, but
operation: these are difficult to shape.
1. Punching is cheaper operation, while • Flat head is used in sheet metal work.
drilling is costly.
2. In punching process, the holes in different
plates cannot be located with sufficient
accuracy. Drilling results in more accurate
location and size of the holes.
3. Punching damages the metal in the near of
the hole. The drilling operation does not
injure metal.
4. Punching is feasible only for thin plates up
to 25mm thickness because fine cracks are
formed around the periphery of the holes in
case of punching of the thick plates. Drilling
operation is feasible for any thickness of the
plates.

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 • A double riveted joint is that in which there
are two rows of rivets in a lap joint and
there are two rows of rivets on each side in a
butt joint.
• When the rivets in the various rows are
opposite to each other then the joint is said
to be chain riveted.

TYPES OF JOINTS
Lap Joint:
• A lap joint is that, in which one plate • If the rivets in the adjacent rows are
overlaps the other and the two plates are staggered, in such a way that every rivet is
then riveted together. in the middle of the two rivets of the
opposite row, then the joint is said to be zig-
zag riveted.
• Thickness of the butt strap/cover plate :
t1 = 1.25 t for single cover strap
= 0.75 t for double cover strap
• Since the plates overlaps in lap joints,
therefore the forces P, acting on the plates
Butt Joint: are not in the same straight line but they are
• A butt joint is that in which the main plates at a distance equal to the thickness of the
are kept in alignment to (i.e. touching) each plate. These forces will form a couple which
other and a cover plate is placed either on may bend the joint.
one side or on both sides of the main plates Hence the lap joints may be used only
• A single riveted joint is that in which there where small loads are to be transmitted. But
is a single row of rivets in a lap joint and in the butt joints there will be no couples;
there is a single row of rivets on each side in hence, butt joints are used where heavy
a butt joint. loads are to be transmitted.

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TERMINOLOGY OF RIVETED JOINT • A more satisfactory way of making the
Gage Line: joints staunch is known as fullering which
• It is the line through the centers of a row of has largely super sided caulking.
rivets, parallel to the edge of the plate. • In this case a fullering tool with a thickness
Pitch: at the end equal to that of the plate is used in
• It is the distance from the centre of one rivet such a way that the greatest pressure due to
to the centre of the next rivet measured in the blows occur near the joint, giving a
the same row. It is usually denoted by (p). clean finish with less risk of damaging the
p = 2.5d to 3d plate.
Back Pitch:
• It is perpendicular distance between the
centre liens of the successive rows. It is
usually denoted by (pb).
Diagonal Pitch:
• It is the distance between the centres of
rivets in adjacent rows of zig-zag riveted
joint. It is usually denoted by (pd).
Margin and Marginal Pitch:
Assumptions on Riveted Joint design:
• It is the distance between the center of rivet
Following assumptions are made while designing a
hole to the nearest edge of the plate. It is
riveted joint:
usually denoted by (m).
(i) The load on Joints is equally shared by all the
m = 1.5d
rivets.
(ii) The tensile stress is equally distributed over the
section of metal between the rivets.
(iii) The shearing stress in all rivets is uniform.
(iv) The crushing stress is uniform .
(v) There is no bending stress in the rivets.
(vi) The holes into which the rivets are driven do
not weaken the member.
Caulking and Fullering:
(vii) The friction between the surfaces of the plate
• In order to make the joints leak proof or
is neglected.
fluid tight in pressure vessels, like steam
Tearing of the plate at an edge:
boilers, air receivers and tanks etc. a process
This can be avoided by keeping the margin m
known as caulking is employed. In this
= 1.5dh, where dh is the diameter of rivet hole.
process a narrow blunt tool called caulking
Tearing of the plate across a row of rivets:
tool, about 5 mm thick and 38 mm in • Due to tensile stresses in the main plates,
breadth, is used. the main plate or cover plates may tear off
across a row of rivets. In such cases we
consider only a pitch length of the plate.
• The resistance offered by the plate against
tearing is known as tearing resistance or
tearing strength or tearing value of the plate.

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 Crushing of Rivets:
• Sometimes, the rivets do not actually shear
off under the tensile stress, but are crushed.
Due to this, the rivet hole becomes of an
oval shape and hence the joint becomes
loose. The failure of rivets in such a manner
is also known as bearing failure.
Let, p = pitch of the rivets
dh = diameter of rivet hole
t = thickness of the plate
t = permissible tensile stress for the plate material
Tearing area per pitch length (At) = (p – dh) t
tearing resistance Pt = At × t
Pt = (p - dh)t × t
Shearing of the rivets:
• The plates which are connected by the rivets Let,
exert shear stress on the rivets, and if the t = thickness of plate
rivets are unable to resist the stress, they can c = safe permissible crushing stress for the rivet
shear off. material
• Rivets are in single shear in a lap joint and a n = no. of rivets per pitch length under crushing
single cover butt joint. But the rivets are in • Crushing area per rivet Ac = d.t.
double shear in a double cover butt joint. • Total crushing area = n.d.t.
• Pull required to crush the rivet per pitch
length =
Pc = n.d.t.c
Strength of Riveted Joint:
• The strength of a riveted joint is defined as
the maximum force which the joint can take
without failure per pitch length.
• Strength of riveted joint = Minimum of
Let, tearing strength (Pt), shearing strength (Ps)
s = safe permissible shear stress for the rivet and crushing strength (Pc).
material. Efficiency of a Riveted Joint:
• The efficiency of a riveted joint is defined
n = number of rivets per pitch length.
as the ratio of strength of riveted joint to the
 As = shearing area = (/4)d2 (in single shear) strength of the un-riveted or solid plate.
As = 2  (/4)d2 (in double shear) • Strength of the riveted joint = Least of Pt, Ps
As = 1.875  (/4)d2 (according to I.B.R.) and Pc
Shearing resistance or pull required to shear of • Strength of the un-riveted or solid plate
the rivet per pitch length per pitch length
Ps = n  (/4)d2  s for single shear • P = p  t  t.
Ps = n  2 (/4)d2  s for double shear • Efficiency of the riveted Joint
Ps = n  1.875 (/4)d2  s according to I.B.R. Least of Pt , Ps and Pc

p.t. t

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 DESIGN OF BOILER JOINTS WELDED JOINTS
• The longitudinal joint is used to join the Welding is a process of joining similar or dissimilar
ends of the plate to get the required diameter metals with / without application of heat, with /
of a boiler. For this, a butt joint with two without application of pressure and with / without
cover plate is used. addition of filler material.
• The circumferential joint is used to get the Advantage of Welded Joints:
required length of the boiler. For this a lap (a) It does not require additional cover plate,
joint with one ring overlapping the other straps, clip angle thus welding assembly
alternately is used. results in light weight construction
• Since a boiler is made up of number of (b) Design of welded assemblies can be easily
rings, therefore the longitudinal joints are and economically modified.
staggered for convenience of connecting (c) Welded joints are tight and leak-proof as
rings at places where both longitudinal and compared to riveted joints and also
circumferential joints occur. production time is less.
• Thickness of boiler shell, (d) Strength of weld metal is high, even higher
P.D than parent metal.
t  1mm
2 f t . L (e) It give efficiency upto 100%.
1 mm corrosion allowance. Disadvantage of Welded Joint:
• Where, L = Efficiency of the longitudinal (a) Vibrating damping capacity of welded
joint. structure is very poor.
• Diameter of rivets-using unwin‟s empirical (b) It result in thermal-distortion of the parts,
formula thus induces residual stress.
(c) Quality and strength of weld depends upon
d = 6t (t  8 mm)
the skill of the welder.
• If the thickness of plate is less than 8mm,
(d) Difficult to weld non ferrous metals /
then the diameter of the rivet hole is
dissimilar metals.
calculated by equating the shearing
TYPE OF WELD JOINT
resistance of the rivets to crushing
1. Butt Joints:
resistance.
• A butt joint is defined as a joint between
Riveted Joint for Structural Use:
two components lying approximately in
same plane. It connect end of two plate.

• A diamond riveted joint known as Lozenge

joint is used for roof, bridge work or girders
etc.
(a) Square Butt Joint
• Weakest section of a diamond riveting is the
When the thickness of the plates is less than
section which passes through one rivet hole
5mm, It is not necessary to bevel the edge.
of the end row.
(Square Butt Joint)
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(b) Single Welded V-joint Some Other Type of Welded Joint:
When thickness of the plate is between 5 to
12.5mm, V-edge is required, for welding
backing strip is used to avoid leakage of
molten metal.
(c) Single Welded U-joint
When the thickness of plate is more than
20mm, edge of two plates is machined to form
a U-shape. It is welded only from one side.
Strength of Butt Weld:
(d) Double Welded V-joint
• A butt welded joint, subjected to tensile
When thickness of plate is more than 12.5mm,
a double welded V-joint is used. force P, is shown in given figure.

(e) Reliability
Square butt joint < single welded V-joint <
single welded V-joint with backing strip <
double welded V-joint.
2. Fillet Joints (Lap Joint):
• It is joint between two overlapping plate or
components. It consists of an approximately
triangular cross-section joining two surfaces
at right angle to each other. It has two type. Here,
(a) Transverse fillet joint t = Tensile stress in weld
P = Tensile force on the plates (N)
A fillet weld is called transverse, if the direction of
h = Throat of Butt weld
the weld is perpendicular to the direction of the
t = Thickness of plate
force acting on the joint. Double transverse fillet
L = Length of weld
weld is preferred to avoid warp out of shape. P
 σt 
(b) Parallel/longitudinal fillet weld hL
A fillet weld is called parallel fillet weld if direction Because reinforcement is provided to compensate
of weld is parallel to the direction of force acting on for flaws in the weld, equate throat of the weld „h‟
joint. to the plate thickness„t‟.
P
 σt  P  σt t L
Lt
For safety, there must be reduction in strength of a
butt welded joint by a factor called “Efficiency of
Joint”.
 P  η σt t L

 = Efficiency of welded joint.

Strength of Parallel Fillet Joint:
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 • A parallel fillet weld subjected to a tensile
force „P‟ is shown below.

• This weld is subjected to tensile stress and

failure will occur at minimum cross-section
Here,
of weld at throat
h = leg of weld (size of weld)
Permissible tensile stress (t)
t = throat
P P
(it is the minimum cross-section of weld at 45o to σt  
leg) tL 0.707hL
L = length of weld If there are weld of equal length
 t = h cos (45o) P
t = 0.707h • t  Practically transverse weld is
1.414hL
• Generally the leg length „h‟ is equal to the subjected to normal stress, shear stress and
plate thickness. throat is subjected to bending moment.
• Failure of the fillet weld occurs due to shear
along the minimum cross-section of the • But theoretically, the inclination of the
weld. plane, where maximum shear stress is
• Weldment always fails due to shear and the induced is 67.5o to the leg dimension.
area on which maximum chances to failure • Allowable load for a transverse fillet weld is
due shear is maximum, known as throat 1.17 times more than that of a parallel fillet
area. weld.
• Permissible shear stress
P P
τ max  
tL 0.707hL
 If there are two welds of equal length on
two equal side of vertical plate
P P
τ max  
tL 2  0.707 hL
Strength of Transverse Fillet Weld:
• A transverse fillet weld subjected to a
tensile force „P‟ is given below.

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 Chapter - 5 : Practice Set
1. A double fillet welded joint with parallel fillet 9. According to I.B.R., shearing resistance
weld of length L and leg B is subjected to a required to shear off the rivet per pitch length
tensile force P. Assuming uniform shear stress (in double shear) is :
distribution, the shear stress in the weld is (a) (/4)d2    n
given by : (b) 1.875  (/4)d2    n
(a) 2 P / BL (b) P / 2BL (c) 2  (/4)d2    n
(c) P /2 BL (d) 2P / BL (d) 3  (/4)d2    n
2. The rivet head used for boiler plate riveting is 10. If the tearing efficiency of a riveted joint is
usually : 50%, then the ratio of diameter of rivet to the
(a) snap head pitch is :
(b) pan head (a) 0.20 (b) 0.30
(c) counter sink head (c) 0.50 (d) 0.70
(d) conical head 11. According to I.B.R., the factor of safety of
3. In a fillet welded joint, the weakest area of the riveted joint should not be less than :
weld is : (a) 1 (b) 2
(a) toe (b) root (c) 3 (d) 4
(c) throat (d) face 12. In a transverse fillet welded joint, the size of
4. Rivets undergo single shear in : weld is ................ the throat of weld :
(a) lap joint and single-cover butt joint (a) 0.5 times (b) equal to
(b) single-cover butt joint and double-cover (c) 2 times (d) double
butt joint 13. In a butt welded joint, the size of weld is
(c) lap joint and double-cover butt joint .............. the throat of weld :
(d) lap joint only (a) 0.5 times (b) equal to
5. The thickness of a boiler plate is 16 mm, the (c) 2 times (d) double
diameter of rivet used in the boiler joint is : 14. For longitudinal joint in boiler, the type of
(a) 24 mm (b) 28 mm joint used is:
(c) 10 mm (d) 20 mm (a) lap joint with one ring one slopping the
6. The shear strength, tensile strength and, other
compressive strength of a rivet joint are 100 (b) butt joint with single cover plate
N, 120 N and 150 N respectively. If strength (c) butt joint with double cover plate
of the unrivetted plate is 200 N, the efficiency (d) any one of the above.
of rivet joint if: 15. The material generally used for boiler plate
(a) 60% (b) 75% rivets is
(c) 80% (d) 50% (a) low carbon steel
7. Rivets are generally specified by: (b) high carbon steel
(a) Nominal diameter (c) grey cast iron
(b) diameter of head (d) nickel-chrome steel
(c) thickness of plates to be riveted 16. In a butt welded joint, the throat of weld as
(d) length of rivet compared to the size of weld bears the ratio
8. The shearing strength of a rivet is 50 N/mm2. (a) 2 : 1 (b) 2 : 1
If the diameter of the rivet is doubled, then its (c) 1 : 1 (d) 1 : 3
shearing strength will be :
(a) 100 N/mm2 (b) 200 N/mm2
2
(c) 50 N/mm (d) 300 N/mm2
Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
C A C A A D A C B C D C
13 14 15 16
B C A C

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CHAPTER : 6 - KEYED JOINT, SHAFT & COUPLINGS THEORY OF FAILURE
TRANSMISSION SHAFT Step I :
• It is rotating machine element generally P = 2NT / 60
circular in cross-section, which supports
transmission element (Gears, pulleys,
sprockets) and transmits power.
Specific Categories of Transmission Shaft:
Axle
• Axle is a kind of shaft that supports rotating
elements (wheels, hosting drum, rope sheaves)
and this is fitted to the housing by means of
bearing.
• In general, axle is subjected to only bending
moment due to transverse loads (like bearing KEYS
reaction) and does not transmit any useful • It is a machine element which is used to
torque E.g. Rear axle of railway wagon; some connect transmission shaft to rotating
time axle also transmits torque (automobile rear machine element like pulleys, gears,
sprockets or flywheel. A keyed joint
axle).
consists of shaft, hub and key.
• An axle may rotate with the wheel or simply
support the wheel.
Spindle:
• A spindle is a short rotating shaft. It is used in
all machine tools such as small drive shaft of
lather or the spindle of a drilling machine.
Line-Shaft:
• It consists of number of shaft, which are
connected in axial direction by means of
coupling. A number of pulleys is mounted
on line shaft and power is transmitted to
individual machine by different belt. Function of Key :
• To transmit the torque from the shaft to the
hub of mating element and vice-versa.
• To prevent relative rotational motion
between the shaft and the joined machine.
• Generally it also prevent axial motion
except feather key and splined key.
Material of Keys :
• Keys are made of plain carbon steel (45C8,
50C8) in order to withstand shear and
Design of Shaft : compressive stresses.
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 Types of Key : Taper Key :
1. Sunk Key • Taper key is uniform in width but tapered in
(i) Square Key height. The key has the taper of 1 in 100 on
(ii) Rectangle Key the top side only.
(iii) Gib head Key Advantage of Taper :
2. Saddle Key (a) When key is inserted, it become tight due to
3. Woodruff Key wedge action
4. Feather Key (b) It is easy to remove and dismantle.
5. Tangent Key Taper Key with Gib Head :
6. Kennedy Key • Tapered keys are often provided with Gib-
7. Round Key head to facilitate easy removal. Taper key
8. Splined Key
has following advantages.
Sunk Keys :
(a) The taper surface results in wedge action
• It is that type of keys in which half of the
thickness of the keys fits into the keyways and increases frictional force and the
on the shaft and the remaining half in the tightness of the joint.
keyway on the hub. (b) The taper surface facilitates easy removal of
• It may be square or rectangular in cross-
the key, particularly with Gib-head.
section.
However, machining taper on the surface
• In this power is transmitted by shear
increases the cost.
resistance of the key.
• It is suitable for heavy duty application.
• It is a positive drive because there is no
possibility of key to slip.
• Rectangular (Flat) key is more stable as
compare with square keys.
Saddle Keys :
• It is that types of a key which fits in the key
way of the hub only
• A hollow saddle keys has a concave surface
at the bottom to match the circular surface
of the shaft.
• Power is transmitted by means of friction
Selection Criteria of Square Key without thus it is suitable for light duty application.
• It require the keyway only on the hub, thus
Stress Analysis : cost of saddle key is less.
• In general a square key with sides equal to
one-fourth of the shaft diameter and length
at least 1.5 times the shaft diameter.
b = h = (d / 4) and L = 1.5 d
For flat rectangular key
b = (d / 4)
h = (d / 6) = (2b / 3)
L = 1.5 d

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 Wood-ruff key : Kennedy Key :
• It is a sunk-key in the form of an almost • It consists of two square key as shown in
semicircular disk of uniform thickness. figure given below.
• Once placed in position, the wood ruff key • It is used for heavy duty application.
tilts and aligns itself on the shaft thus it can
be used on tapered shaft.
• Extra depth of key in the shaft prevents its
tendency to slip but stress concentration
increases.
• It does not permit axial movement.
Use – Machine tools & automobiles.

Round Keys and Taper Pins :

• A round key is a straight pin of circular
Feather Key : cross-section fitted into a common hole
• It is a parallel key which is fixed either to drilled at the interface of shaft and hub.
the shaft or to the hub and which permits • Round keys are used commonly for low
relative axial movement between them. power drives. Sometimes taper pins are also
• It is particular type of sunk key with used for low power drives.
uniform width and height.
• It is used in clutches, gear shifting device.
• It is an alternative to spilined connection.

Design of Square and Flat Keys :

• A force acting on a flat key, with width „b‟
and height „h‟ is shown below
• The force „P‟ on left surface AC and its
equal and opposite reaction „P‟ and surface
Tangent Keys : DB are not in the same planes.
• Tangent keys consist of two tapered • Thus forces act as a resisting couple.
rectangular keys placed 90o apart. Each key Assumption :
with stand torque in one direction. • Uniform force distribution.
• These keys are used in heavy duty • Couple due to action and reaction is
applications. neglected being very small.

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 TYPES OF SPLINES

Force ‘P’ is tangential to shaft diameter.

d 2M t
 M t  P.  P  ....(i)
2 d
Here, Mt = transmitted torque
D = shaft diameter
P = force on key
Design Based on Failure Due to Shear
Stress :
P P COUPLINGS
τ 
Area AB bL It is a mechanical device that permanently
joins two rotating shaft to each other.
 τ
2M t
from equation i  Coupling is a permanent connection. Shafts
dbL are available upto 7 meters.
b = width of key Application :
L = length of key • Output shaft of engine to input shaft of a
hydraulic pump.
Design Based on Failure Due to • Output shaft of a electric motor to input
Compressive Stress : shaft of a gear box in machine tools.
Failure due to compressive stress will occur
on surfaces AC or DB.
P P 2P
 σC   
AreaAB h
 L hL
2
 h
 AC  BD  2 

 σC 
4M t
from equation i 
dhL
For square key h=b
2M t 4M t
thus τ  σC 
dbL dbL
 σC  2τ from equation i
Splines: CLASSIFICATION OF COUPLINGS
Splines are keys that are made integral with the
shaft. They are used when there is a relative axial
motion between the shaft and the hub.
The gear shifting mechanism in automobile
gearboxes requires such type of construction.
Splines are cut on the shaft by milling and on the
hub by broaching.
Splines shafts are stronger then the shafts with
keyway.
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 Standard proportions :
D = 2d + 13
L = 3.5d
Here, D = outer diameter of sleeve
L = axial length of sleeve
d = diameter of shaft
Design of muff is based on hollow shaft.
Clamp Coupling
Muff (Sleeve/Box) Coupling : (Compression/Split Muff)
• It consists of a sleeve or as hollow cylinder • In this sleeve is made of two-halves, which
which is fitted over the ends of input and are split along a plane passing through the
output shaft by means of sunk key. axes of shaft. They are clamped together by
means of bolt. No of bolt are always in
multiple of four.
Dynamic balancing is difficult for these type
of coupling, thus unsuitable for high speed
application.
• In this torque is transmitted by means of
frictional force on the shaft also key
transmit torque.

Advantage :
(a) It is easy to assemble and dismantle.
Advantage : (b) It can be easily removed without shifting the
(a) It is the simplest form of coupling with only shaft in axial direction, unlike solid muff
two parts i.e. sleeve and key. coupling.
(b) It has no projecting parts except the (c) As compared with flange coupling, clamp
keyhead. coupling has small diametral dimensions.
(c) Compact construction and small radial Disadvantage :
dimension. (a) There is a difficulty in dynamic balancing of
(d) Cheaper the coupling. Therefore, it is not possible to
Disadvantage : use the clamp coupling for high-speed
(a) Muff coupling is difficult to assemble or applications
dismantle. (b) Clamp coupling is unsuitable for shock
(b) It requires accurate alignment of shaft. loads.
(c) It requires more axial space compared with (c) It is necessary to provide a guAard for the
flange coupling coupling to comply with factory regulation
(d) Less popular. act.

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 There is fundamental difference between the
working of muff and clamp couplings. In
muff coupling, the torque is transmitted by
shear resistance of keys.
On the other hand, the torque is transmitted
partly by means of friction between the Bushed-Pin Flexible Coupling:
A flexible coupling employs a flexible
sleeve halves and the shaft and partly by
element like rubber bush between the
shear resistance of key in case of clamp driving and the driven flanges. This flexible
coupling. rubber bush not only accommodates the
Rigid Flange Coupling : misalignment but also absorbs shocks and
vibrations.
• It consists of two flanges – one keyed to the
A flexible coupling can tolerate 0.5mm of
driving shaft and other to the driver shaft. lateral or axial misalignment and 1.5o of
angular misalignment.
They are connected by means of bolts
It is similar to the rigid type of flange
arranged on a circle concentric with the axes coupling except the provision of rubber
bush and pins in place of bolts.
of the shaft. Flange are made of cast iron
Advantage :
and manufactured by casting. (a) It can tolerate 0.5 mm of lateral or axial
misalignment and 1.5o of angular
There are 2 types RFC
misalignment.
1. Unprotected Flang coupling (b) It prevents transmission of shock from one
2. Protected Flang coupling shaft to the other and absorbs vibrations.

1. dh = outside diameter of hub

dh = 2d
2. lh = length of hub or effective length of key
lh = 1.5d
3. D = pitch circle diameter of bolts
D = 3d
4. t = thickness of flanges (c) It can be used for transmitting high torques.
t = 0.5d (d) It is simple in construction and easy to assemble
5. t1 = thickness of protecting rim and dismantle. It is easy to design and
manufacture the coupling.
t1 = 0.25 d
Disadvantage :
6. dr = diameter of spigot and recess (a) The cost of flexible coupling is more than
dr = 1.5d that of rigid coupling due to additional parts.
7. D0 = outside diameter of flange (b) It requires more radial space compared with
other types of coupling.
D0 = (4d +2t1)
Flexible bushed-pin type couplings are
extensively used in practice due to their
advantages.
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 Chapter - 6 : Practice Set
1. The coupling which is the inversion of the List I List II
double slider crank chain is (Bearing) (Purpose)
(a) Flange coupling P. Woodruff key 1. Loose fitting, light
(b) Oldham‟s coupling duty
(c) Universal coupling Q. Kennedy key 2. Heavy duty
(d) Box coupling R. Feather key 3. Self-aligning
2. A machine part is designed as a strut, when it S. Flat key 4. Normal industrial
is subjected to use
(a) an axial tensile stress P Q R S
(b) an axial compressive stress (a) 2 3 1 4
(b) 3 2 1 4
(c) a tangential force
(c) 2 3 4 1
(d) any one of the above (d) 3 2 4 1
3. Which of the following statements is not true 8. The shearing area of a key of length „L‟
for couplings? breadth „b‟ depth „h‟ is equal to :
(a) couplings are meant for transmitting (a) b × h (b) L × h
torque (c) L × b (d) L × (h/2)
(b) couplings keep the mating shafts in 9. What is sunk key made the form of a segment
alignment of a circular disc of uniform thickness, known
(c) couplings are used in shafts as :
(d) couplings connect parallel shafts (a). feather key (b). kennedy key
4. For a key to be equally strong in shearing and (c). woodruff key (d). saddle key
crushing, the width of the key, assuming that 10. A square key of side d/4 is to be fitted on a
the allowable crushing stress is twice the shaft of diameter d and in the hub of a pulley.
allowable shear stress, should be : If the material of the key and shaft is same
(a) 2.5 times its thickness and the two are to be equally strong in shear,
(b) 2 times its thickness what is the length of the key ?
(c) 1.5 times its thickness (a). d / 2 (b). 2d / 3
(d) equal to its thickness (c). 3d / 4 (d). 4d / 5.
5. Which key is preferred for the condition 11. A transmission shaft includes
where a large amount of impact type torque is (a) counter shaft (b) line shaft
to be transmitted in both direction of rotation. (c) over head shaft (d) all of these
(a) Woodruff key (b) Feather key 12. The standard length of the shaft is :
(c) Gib-head key (d) Tangent key (a) 5m (b) 6m
6. In the assembly of pulley, key and shaft :
(a) pulley is made the weakest (c) 7m (d) all of these
(b) key is made the weakest 13. Which one of the following loading is
(c) key is made the strongest considered for the design of axles :
(d) all the three are designed for equal (a) bending moment only
strength (b) twisting moment only
(c) combined bending moment and twisting
7. Match List I (Types of keys) with List II moments
(Characteristic) and select the correct answer (d) combined action of bending moment,
using the code given below the Lists : twisting moment and axial thrust.

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14. Which of following statement is correct, for (a) 90o (b) 135o
the two shafts connected in parallel? (c) 160o (d) 180o
(a) torque in each shaft is the same 22. The key shown in the above figure is a-
(b) shear stress in each shaft is the same
(c) angle of twist of each shaft is the same
(d) torsional stiffness of each shaft is the same
15. Which of the following statement is wrong: (a) Barth key
(a) A key is used as a temporary fastening (b) Kennedy key
(b) A key is subjected to tensile stresses (c) Lewis key
(c) A key is always inserted parallel to the (d) Woodruff key
axis of the shaft 23. A woodruff key
(d) A key prevents relative motion between (a) sits flat on the shaft and fits in a key way
the shaft and boss of the pulley. in the hub
16. A feather key is generally : (b) is made from a cylindrical disc having
(a) loose in shaft and tight in hub segmental cross–section
(b) tight in shaft and loose in hub (c) is provided in pairs at right angles and
(c) tight in both shaft and hub each key withstands tension in one
(d) loose in both shaft and hub direction only
17. A key way lowers (d) transmits power through frictional
(a) the strength of the shaft resistance only
(b) the rigidity of the shaft 24. The flanges of a flange coupling are coupled
(c) both the strength and rigidity of the shaft together by means of bolts and their number
(d) the ductility of the shaft depends upon
18. Shaft coupling is used in machinery to: (a) length of the shaft
(a) introduce mechanical flexibility (b) material of the shaft
(b) introduce protection against over loads (c) diameter of the shaft
(c) reduce the transmission of shock loads (d) rotational speed of the shaft
(d) all of these 25. The greatest twisting moment which a shaft
19. A coupling used to connect two perfectly section can resist is given by
aligned shafts, is: (a) torsional rigidity of the shaft
(a) muff coupling (b) maximum shear × polar modulus
(b) compression coupling (c) maximum shear × modulus of stress
(c) flange coupling rigidity
(d) all of these (d) ratio of modulus of rigidity and polar
20. In designing a sleeve coupling, outer diameter moment of inertia
of the sleeve is taken as: 26. The bolts in a rigid flanged coupling
(a) d + 17 mm (b) 2d + 13 mm connecting two shafts transmitting power are
(c) 2d + 20 mm (d) 3.5 d subjected to :
where d = Diameter of the shaft (a). shear force and bending moment
21. In a flange coupling, the keys are staggered at (b). axial force
.....................along the circumference of the (c). torsion and bending moment
shafts in order to divide the weakening effect (d). torsion
caused by key ways:

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 Answer Key

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
B B D D D B B C C A D D
13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
A C B B C D D B A A B C
25 26
B A

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 CHAPTER : 7 - COTTER & KNUCKLE JOINT COTTER
Cotter Terminology
• A cotter is a flat wedge-shape piece of • The amount of movement of rod after which
rectangular cross-section and its width is the two rods are drawn together is called the
tapered from one end to another for an easy draw of the cotter. The draw of cotter is
adjustment. generally taken as 2 to 3 mm.
• It is usually made of mild steel or wrought Advantage of Cotter Joint :
iron. (a) Assembly and dismantling the parts of the
• A cotter joint is used to connect two co- cotter joint is quick and simple.
axial rods which are subjected to either axial (b) The wedge action develops a very high
tensile force or axial compressive force. tightening force, which prevents loosening
Use of Cotter Joint : of parts in service.
• A cotter joint is used to connect two co- (c) Joint is simple to design and manufacture.
axial rods, which are subjected to either CONSTRUCTION OF A COTTER JOINT
axial tensile force or axial compressive
force.
• It is not used for connecting shafts that
rotate and transmit torque.
Application of Cotter Joints :
• Joints between the piston rod and the cross- CONSTRUCTION OF A COTTER JOINT
head of a steam engine. • The construction of cotter joint, used to
• Joint between the piston rod and the tail or connected two rods A and B is shown above
pump rod. • Rod-A is provided with a socket and while
• Joint between the slide spindle and the fork Rod-B is provided with a spigot end. The
of the valve mechanism. socket end of Rod-A fits over the spigot end
• Foundation bolt. of Rod-B. The socket as well as the spigot is
Principles of Cotter Joint : provided with a narrow rectangular slot. A
• The principle of wedge action is used in a cotter is tightly fitted in this slot passing
cotter joint. through the socket and the spigot.
• The joint is tightened and adjusted by means Design of socket and spigot cotter joint :
of a wedge action of the cotter.
• Cotter has uniform thickness and the width
dimension has a slight taper.
• The taper is usually varies 1 in 48 to 1 in 24.
Due to taper shape, it is easy to remove the
cotter and dismantle the joint.
Assumption :
• The taper of the cotter as well as slots is on
1. The rods are subjected to axial tensile force.
one side because machining a taper on two
2. The effect of stress concentration due to the slot
side is more difficult.
is neglected.
• A clearance of 2mm to 3mm is provided
3. The stresses due to initial tightening of the
between the slots and the cotter.
cotter are neglected.

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Step- I : Tensile failure of the shaft iii. Joints in valve mechanism of reciprocating
Step-II : Design of spigot engine.
(a) Crushing failure iv. Fulcrum for the levers.
(b) Tensile Failure v. Joint between link of a bicycle chain.
vi. Tractors, Cranes, Robotic joints.
Advantage of Knuckle Joint
(a) Joint is simple to design and manufacture.
(b) Due to few part, cost is less and high
reliability.
(c) Assembly and dismantling is quick and
simple.

Step-III : Design of cotter

(a) Crushing failure of cotter
(b) Shearing Failure

Design of Knuckle Joint :

KNUCKLE JOINT
Use of Knuckle Joint/Forked Pin Joint:
• It is used to connect two rods whose axes Design of Knuckle Joint :
either coincide or intersects and lie in one Step – I : Tensile failure of Rod
plane and used to transmit only axial tensile Step – II : Shear failure of Pin
force.
• This joint permits limited angular
movement between rods, about the axis of
the pin.
• It is not used to connect rods, that rotate and
transmit torque.
• It consists three parts : an eye, a fork and a
knuckle pin.
Application of Knuckle Joint :
i. Joint between tie bar and roof trusses.
ii. Joint between link of suspension bridge.

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 Step – III : Crushing failure of pin Step–V : Tensile failure of eye

Step – IV: Bending failure of pin

Step–VI : Tensile failure of fork

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 Chapter - 7 : Practice Set
1. A cotter joint is used to connect two rods (c) Gib and cotter joint
which are in: (d) any one of these
(a) compression only 5. The taper on cotter is usually :
(b) shear only (a) 1 in 24 (b) 1 in 8
(c) tension only (c) 1 in 100 (d) 1 in 48
(d) tension and compression only 6. A taper is provided for cotter :
2. Match List I with List II and select the correct (a) to ensure tightness is operating condition
answer using the codes given below the lists : (b) to provide wedge action
List – I (c) to ease the removal of cotter during
(Type of joint) dismantling
P. Cotter joint Q. Knuckle joint (d) for all three reason
R. Turn buckle S. Riveted joint 7. A knuckle joint is used to transmit :
List – II (a) axial tensile force only
(Mode of jointing members) (b) axial tensile or compressive force
1. Connects two rods or barspermitting small (c) axial compressive force only
amount of flexibility (d) combined bending and torsional moment
2. Rigidly connects two members 8. The pin in knuckle joint is subjected to :
3. Connects two rods having threaded ends (a) double shear stress
4. Permanent fluid-tight joint between two (b) torsional shear stress
flat Pieces (c) axial tensile stress
5. Connect two shaft and transmits torque. (d) axial compressive stress
P Q R S 9. Match List–I (different systems) with List–II
(a) 5 1 3 2 (associated terminology) and select the correct
(b) 2 1 3 4 answer using the codes given below the lists:
(c) 5 3 2 4 List–I List–II
(d) 2 3 1 4 P. Riveted joints 1. Nipping
3. In a cotter joint, the width of the cotter at the Q. Welded joints 2. Angular movement
centre is 50mm and its thickness is 12mm. R. Leaf springs 3. Fullering
The load acting on the cotter is 60 kN. What S. Knuckle joints 4. Fusion
is the shearing stress developed in the cotter? P Q R S
(a). 120 N/mm2 (b). 100 N/mm2 (a) 3 2 1 4
(c). 75 N/mm2 (d). 50 N/mm2 (b) 1 2 3 4
4. Which of the following cotter joint will be (c) 1 4 3 2
used to connect strap end of a connecting rod? (d) 3 4 1 2
(a) spigot and socket cotter joint
(b) sleeve and cotter joint
Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

D B D C A D A A D

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 CHAPTER : 8 - GEAR
Gears are defined as toothed wheels or multilobed Force Analysis :
cams, which transmit power and motion from one • According to fundamental law of gearing,
shaft to another by means of successive this resultant force PN always acts along the
engagement of teeth. pressure line.
• The tangential component (Pt) is a useful
load because it determines the magnitude of
torque and consequently the power, which is
transmitted.
• The radial component (Pr) is a separating
force which is always directed towards the
centre of gear.
N = speed of rotation

M t   60  P
2π N
GEAR TERMINOLOGY

• As the point of contacts moves, the

magnitude of resultant force PN changes.

• If the face width is too large; there is a

possibility of concentration of load at one
end of gear tooth due to misalignment,
elastic deformation and warping gear tooth.
optimum range of face width is 8m < b < 12
m
Beam strength of Spur Gear (Lewis Equation) :
Assumptions in Lewis Equation :
1. Effect of radial load which produces axial
compressive stress is neglected.
2. Gear tooth is assumed as a cantilever beam
fixed at the root portion and free at the tip of
the tooth.

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3. It is assumed that tangential force (load) is
uniformly distributed over the face width of
gear tooth.
4. Effect of stress concentration at the root
portion of gear tooth is neglected.
5. Contact ratio is assumed as 1.
6. Greatest stress is assumed to occur when
entire load is at the tip of the tooth. The value of Y independent of the size of
7. Tooth fabrication errors (i.e. inaccuracy in tooth and depend only on No. of teeth on
tooth profile and error in tooth spacing) and gear and system of teeth.
related effects are not considered. Maximum tangential force Pt called beam
8. Frictional forces due to teeth sliding are strength and replaced by Sb.
neglected. To avoid breakage of gear due to bending.
S b  P eff
P eff = Effective load
• In design when same material is used for
pinion and gear, the product (b  Y)
decides weaker between pinion and gear the
lewis form factor (Y) is always less for
pinion then gear, for same material pinion is
always weaker than gear.

Types of Gear Tooth Failure :

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 Chapter - 8 : Practice Set
1. Maximum efficiency of worm and worm wheel (b) tip of the tooth
system is (c) root of the tooth
1  cosυ 1  sinυ (d) whole face of the tooth
(a) ηmax  (b) ηmax 
1  cosυ 1  cosυ 9. Consider the following statements: The form
1  sinυ 1  tanυ factor of a spur gear tooth depends upon the
(c) ηmax  (d) ηmax 
1  sinυ 1  tanυ 1. number of teeth
where  is the friction angle. 2. pressure angle
2. For helical gears, the helix angle generally 3. addendum modification
ranges from 4. circular pitch
(a) 30 to 45 degrees (b) 45 to 60 degrees Of these statement
(c) 30 to 75 degrees (d) 0 to 30 degrees (a) 1 and 3 are correct
3. Lewis equation in spur gear design is applied to (b) 2 and 4 are correct
(a) gear (c) 1, 2 and 3 are correct
(b) stronger of the pinion or gear (d) 1 and 4 are correct
(c) weaker of the pinion or gear 10. Consider the following statements pertaining to
(d) pinion the basic Lewis equation for the strength design
of spur gear teeth:
4. From the Lewis equation Fb = fpyb, the
1. Single pair of teeth participates in power
strength factor of the gear is given by the
transmission at any instant.
product
2. The tooth is considered as a cantilever
(a) f  y (b) p  y
beam of uniform strength
(c) p  b (d) f  bs 3. Loading on the teeth is static in nature.
5. The efficiency in case of worm gear drives is 4. Lewis equation takes into account the
generally in the range of : inaccuracies of the tooth profile.
5. Meshing teeth come in contract suddenly.
(a) 10 – 25 percent (b) 40 – 60 percent
Which of the statement given above are
(c) 50 – 70 percent (d) 70 – 85 percent
correct?
6. Why are gear teeth made harder?
(a) 1, 3, 4 and 5 (b) 1, 2, 3 and 4
(a) to avoid tensile strength
(c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) 2, 4 and 5
(b) to avoid wear
11. The helix angle for single helical gears ranges
(c) to avoid abrasion
from :
(d) to avoid pitting
(a) 10o to 15o (b) 15o to 20o
7. The minimum required centre distance of two
(c) 20o to 35o (d) 35o to 50o
mating spur gears is decided based on: 12. The helix angle for double helical gears may be
(a) surface compressive strength of the gear made up to:
material (a) 45o (b) 60o
(b) ultimate strength of the gear material (c) 75o (d) 90o
(c) fatigue strength of the gear material 13. The velocity ratio between pinion and gear in a
gear drive is 2.3, the module of teeth is 2.0 mm
(d) bending strength of the gear material and the sum of number of teeth on pinion and
8. In the formulation of Lewis equation for gear is 99. What is the centre of distance (in
toothed gearing, it is assumed that tangential mm) between pinion and the gear?
tooth load Fp acts on the : (a) 49.5 (b) 99
(a) pitch point (c) 148.5 (d) 198

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 Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

C D C A D B D B C C C A

13

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 CHAPTER : 9 - BRAKES
Brake is defined as a mechanical device
which is used to retard the speed of a moving
member or to bring the moving member in
stationary condition or to hold the body in a state of
rest.
Brake performs the above functions by
offering frictional resistance between a moving
member (i.e. brake drum) and a stationary member
(i.e. a block, shoe or a band)
Note :
Clutches are used to keep the driving & driven FBD for Drum
member together where as brakes are used to MO1 = O  P  L – RN (b) –  RN (C) = 0
stop/retard the moving member.
P
RN
b  μC           1
CLASSIFICATION OF BRAKES L
FBD for Drum
MO1 = O  P  L – RN (b) –  RN (C) = 0

P
RN
b  μC           1
L
MO2 = O  P  L – RN (b) –  RN (0) = 0

P  N b  P  N b           2
R R
L L
MO3 = O  P  L – RN (b) –  RN (C) = 0

P  N b  μC           3
Function : R
1. To retard a moving body L
2. To stop a body wrt O3  This brake is known as self-energizing
3. To hold a body in stationary condition brake.
Friction Lining Material : • For the given configuration of block brake
1. High     (0.1 to 0.48) and clockwise rotation of the drum, fulcrum
2. High wear resistance O3 is the best position because it gives least
3. High thermal conductivity  K effort.
4. Low coefficient of thermal expansion =   • w.r.t. fulcrum O3, the brake is said to be a
5. Good strength self energizing brake (i.e. moment due to
Friction Lining Materials : effort and moment due to friction are in
1. Asbestos same direction). (friction supports the effort)
2. Ferrodo In self energizing brake,
3. Sintered metals If b = c  P = 0 
Applied torque, Self locking condition
P  60 If b < c  P = - Ve 
Tapplied   Nm
2ππ Uncontrollable braking action
3. Effort  P If b > c  P = + Ve 
Effort cant be determined by equating the sum of Desired but least
the moments about the fulcrum to zero.

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Self energizing brake should be designed in
such a way that the effort should be +ve and
as minimum as possible (i.e. self locking
and uncontrollable braking action should
not occour)

Band Brake :
It consists of a rope, belt or flexible steel
band (lined with friction material) which is
pressed against the external surface of a
cylindrical drum when the brake is applied.
The force is applied at the free end of a
lever.
Brake torque on the drum = (T1 – T2)r

For the given configuration of block brake

and anticlockwise rotation of brake drum,
fulcrum O1 is the best position because it
gives self emergizing brake. Internal expanding Brake :
It consists of a shoe, which is pivoted at
Note : one end and subjected to an actuating force
Long shoe brake ( > 45o) analysis is P at the other end. A friction lining is fixed
on the shoe and the complete assembly of
similar to the short shoe brakes if the actual shoe, lining and pivot is placed inside the
coefficient of friction is replaced by brake drum.
equivalent coefficient of friction Internal shoe brakes, with two symmetrical
4μμsin shoes, are used on all automobile vehicles.
μe  The actuating force is usually provided by
2θ  sin2θ means of a hydraulic cylinder or a cam
Remaining steps will be same. mechanism.
Application : Trains & Granes
Disk Brake :
A disk brake is similar to a plate clutch,
except that one of the shafts is replaced by a
fixed member. Disk brakes can be observed
on the front wheel of most motorcycles.

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 Chapter - 9 : Practice Set
1. Which of the following brakes is commonly (d) none of these
used in motor cars? 5. For a shoe brake, the equivalent coefficient of
(a) Band brake friction is equal to :
(b) Shoe brake (a) 2µ sin  /  + sin 
(c) Band and block brake (b) µ sin  / 2 + sin 2
(d) Internal expanding shoe brake (c) 4µ sin  /  + sin 
2. Brakes commonly used in trains are (d) 4µ sin  / 2 + sin 2
__________ brakes 6. when µ = Actual coefficient of friction, and 
(a) band = Semi-block angle
(b) shoe Consider the following statements:
(c) band and block 1. a brake connects a moving member to a
(d) internal expanding shoe stationary member
3. In a self-locking brake, the force required to 2. a brake connects one moving member to
apply the brake is : another moving member
(a) minimum 3. a clutch connects a moving member to a
(b) zero stationary member
(c) maximum 4. a clutch connects one moving member to
(d) none of these another moving member
4. When the frictional force helps the applied Which of the statements given above are
force in applying the brake, the brake is : correct?
(a) self-locking (a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3
(b) automatic (c) 1 and 4 (d) 1, 3 and 4
(c) self-energising

Answer Key
1 2 3 4 5 6

D B B C D C

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