Operational amplifiers : Introduction

• An operational amplifier (or OP AMP) is a very high gain differential amplifier with high
input impedance and low output impedance.
• Op amp offer all the advantages of monolithic integrated circuit such as small size, high
Module 2 reliability, reduced cost and less power consumption.
•
Operational amplifiers and Oscillators Op amps are used in used in applications such as adder, subtractor, multiplier, integrator,
differentiator, rectifier, comparator, instrumentation amplifiers etc.

Figure 8.1 A typical operational amplifier.

Internal Circuit of IC741 Symbols and Connections

• The device has two inputs i.e. inverting input & non-
inverting input and one output and no common
connection.
• Inverting input is marked by “−” sign & Non-inverting
input is marked by “+” sign.
• The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while the ‘−’ sign
indicates 180° phase shift.
• Opamp requires symmetrical supplies i.e. positive and
negative rail supply (±6 V to ±15 V) to allow the output
voltage to swing both positive (above 0 V) and negative
(below 0 V).
 Operational Amplifier Parameters Operational Amplifier Parameters
• The various operational amplifier parameters are as follows:
a) Open-loop voltage gain
 It is ratio of output voltage to input voltage measured with no feedback applied.
a) Open loop gain  Open loop gain (Av(OL)) is the internal voltage gain of opamp and is given by expression
Vout
b) Closed loop gain Av OL  
Vin

c) Input Resistance  In decibels,

Vout
Av OL   20 log
d) Output Resistance Vin

e) Input offset voltage where Vin & Vout is the input & output voltage respectively under open loop conditions.

f) Full Power Bandwidth

 Most operational amplifiers have very high open-loop voltage gains values (Typically
g) Slew Rate
Av(OL) > 100000 or Av(OL) > 90 dB).

Operational Amplifier Parameters Operational Amplifier Parameters

b) Closed-loop voltage gain c) Input Resistance
 It is ratio of output voltage to input voltage measured with negative feedback applied.  It is defined as ratio of input voltage to input current and is given by expression:
Vin
 Open loop gain (Av(CL)) is the internal voltage gain of opamp and is given by expression Rin 
V I in
Av CL   out where Rin is the input resistance (in ohms), Vin is the input voltage (in volts) and Iin is the input current (in
Vin amps).
 In decibels,
Vout  The input of an operational amplifier is purely resistive at lower frequencies.
Av CL   20 log
Vin  However, at high frequencies the shunt capacitive reactance become more significant.
where Vin & Vout is the input & output voltage respectively under closed loop conditions.  Input resistance of operational amplifiers is very much dependent on the semiconductor technology
employed.
 Closed-loop voltage gain is normally very much less than the open-loop voltage gain.  In practice values range from about 2 MΩ for common bipolar types to over 1012 Ω for FET and
CMOS devices.
 Operational Amplifier Parameters Operational Amplifier Parameters
d) Output Resistance e) Input offset voltage
 It is defined as ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current and is  An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0 V difference is applied to
given by expression: its inputs.
Vout ( OC )
Rout   In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some small voltage present at the output.
I out ( SC )

where, Rout is the output resistance (in ohms), Vout(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in  The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier input in order to
make the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
volts) and Iout is the short-circuit output current (in amps).
 Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts of negative feedback or
by using the offset null facility provided by a number of operational amplifier devices.
 Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending
upon the configuration and amount of feedback employed.  Typical values of input offset voltage range from 1mV to 15mV.

 If AC rather than DC coupling is employed, offset voltage is not normally a problem and can be
happily ignored.

Operational Amplifier Parameters Operational Amplifier Parameters

f) Slew Rate g) Full Power Bandwidth
 It is the maximum rate of change of output voltage with  It is defined as the maximum frequency at which the op-amp will yield an undistorted ac
time in response to a perfect step-function input and is output with the largest possible signal amplitude.
given by expression:
Vout
SR   Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed
t devices.
where ∆VOUT is the change in output voltage (in volts) and
∆t is the corresponding interval of time (in seconds).

 Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values

range from 0.2 V/μs to over 20 V/μs.
 Slew rate imposes a limitation on circuits in which large
amplitude pulses rather than small amplitude sinusoidal
signals are likely to be encountered.
 Example 8.3
Example 8.1 A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 μs for the output voltage to change
An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2V when supplied with an input of from –5 V to +5 V, Determine the slew rate of the device.
400μV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
Vout 10
 Av CL 
Vout

2
 5000 Slew Rate    2.5V /  s
Vin 400  10 6 t 4  106
 Av CL 
  dB  20 log 5000  74 dB
Example 8.4
A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/μs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit with a voltage gain of 20 and a
Example 8.2 perfect step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time taken for the output to change level.
An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 M. Determine the input current when an input voltage of 5 mV is present.
Vout
Slew Rate 
Vin t
Rin  Vout
I in  t 
Slew Rate
Vin 5  103
 I in    2.5nA The output voltage change will be 20 100 = 2,000 mV (or 2 V).
Rin 2  106
2V
t  0.133 s
15V /  s

Operational Amplifier Characteristics Operational Amplifier Circuits

• The desirable characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational Inverting Amplifier
amplifier are: An inverting amplifier is one whose output is amplified and is out of
a) Open-loop voltage gain should be very high phase by 1800 with respect to the input.
(ideally infinite).
b) Input resistance should be very high (ideally  The gain expression is given by:
infinite). VO  Rf 
  
c) Output resistance should be very low (ideally zero). Vi  R1 
d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as
• The negative sign in the equation indicates an inversion of the
possible.
output signal with respect to the input as it is 180o out of phase.
e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
This is due to the feedback being negative in value.
f) Input offset should be as small as possible.
• The equation for the output voltage Vo also shows that the circuit
• The characteristics of most modern integrated circuit operational amplifiers (i.e. ‘real’ operational is linear in nature for a fixed amplifier gain as Vo = Vin x Gain.
amplifiers) come very close to those of an ‘ideal operational amplifier, as witnessed by the data This property can be very useful for converting a smaller sensor
shown in Table 8.1. signal to a much larger voltage.
 Extra Operational Amplifier Circuits
• There are two very important rules to remember about Inverting Amplifiers or any operational amplifier
for that matter and these are. No Current Flows into the Input Terminals. The Differential Input Voltage is
Zero as V1 = V2 = 0 (Virtual Earth) Non-inverting Amplifier
• By KCL we have A non-inverting amplifier is an operational amplifier circuit with an
output voltage that is in phase with the input voltage.
• i1  i2
The gain expression is given by:
Vi  0 0  Vo
 VO  R f 
R1 Rf  1  
Vi  R1 
Vi V
 o
R1 Rf • The gain will never be less than 1, so the non-inverting op amp
will produce an amplified signal that is in phase with the input.
 Rf 
VO   Vi
 R1 

VO  Rf 
  
Vi  R1 

Operational Amplifier Circuits Problems

Voltage follower • An Op-Amp non-inverting amplifier has an input resistance of 10KΩ and Feedback resistance
• Voltage follower is one whose output is equal to the input. The of 50KΩ. If the input voltage is 0.5V, find the output voltage .
voltage follower configuration shown here is obtained by short • For the following Op-amp circuit, Rin = 1000Ω and gain A = -75. Determine the value of
circuiting “Rf” and open circuiting “R1” connected in the usual feedback resistance.(VCC = 12V and –VEE = -12V).
non-inverting amplifier.
• Thus all the output is fed back to the inverting input of the op-amp.
 The output expression is given by:
VOUT  VIN
 Therefore the output voltage will be equal and in-phase with
the input voltage. • For the following Op-amp circuit, Rg = 12KΩ and gain A = 50. Determine the value of feedback
 The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. resistance. (VCC = 12V and –VEE = -12V).
unity), a very high input resistance and a very high output
resistance.
 This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for
matching a high-impedance circuit to a low-impedance
circuit.
 Problems Operational Amplifier Circuits
• Determine the output voltage for the circuit shown in figure with a sinusoidal input of 2.5
mV. • Operational amplifiers have a number of other applications such as :

a) Summer (Summing Amplifier)

b) Subtractor (Difference Amplifier)
c) Integrator
d) Differentiator

• Design an inverting amplifier to have a gain of -10 and an input resistance of 10Kohm.

Operational Amplifier Circuits Operational Amplifier Circuits

• Summing amplifiers • Difference/differential amplifiers (subtractor)
 A summing amplifier is a circuit that produces an output – The differential amplifier amplifies the voltage difference
that is the sum of its two input voltages. present on its inverting and non-inverting inputs.
 Since the operational amplifier is connected in inverting – By connecting one voltage signal onto one input terminal and
mode, the output voltage is given by: another voltage signal onto the other input terminal the
VOUT   V1  V2  resultant output voltage will be proportional to the
where V1 and V2 are the input voltages. “Difference” between the two input voltage signals
of V1 and V2.
 Rf 
 A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input signals VOut   V2  V1 
 Rin 
to produce an output voltage that is the sum of the two.
– If all the resistors are equal, that is: RF = RIN, then the circuit
will become a Unity Gain Differential Amplifier and the
voltage gain of the amplifier will be exactly one or unity.
Then the output expression would simply be Vout = V2 – V1.
 Operational Amplifier Circuits Problems
• The summing amplifier as shown in below figure has Rf = 10KΩ, R1 = 10KΩ, R2 =
2.2KΩ and R3 = 3.3KΩ, If V1 = 6V, V2 = -3V, V3 = -0.75V, Find Vout
Differentiator
• A differentiator produces an output
voltage that is equivalent to the rate
of change of its input.
• The expression is given by:

•
dVIN
VOUT   RC Calculate the output voltage of the circuit shown in figure, if V1= - 0.2V and V2=0V.
dt
Integrator
• An integrator produces an output
which is equivalent to the area
under the graph of the input
function.
• Draw the output waveform of an Op-Amp
• The expression is given by:
– If square wave is given at the differentiator input.
1
–
RC 
VOUT   VIN dt If triangular wave is given at the differentiator input

Problems Positive feedback (Extra)

• Positive feedback is an alternative form of feedback, where the output is fed back in such a
• Identify the circuit shown in figure. When a sine wave of 1vpeak at 1000Hz is applied to the
way as to reinforce the input (rather than to subtract from it).
circuit with the following specification: RF =1kΩ and C1=0.33µF, find its output waveform and
its output equation. • The overall voltage gain (G) of amplifier with positive feedback is given by:

G
VOUT

Av where Av is the internal gain of the amplifier & β is the proportion of the
VIN 1   Av output voltage fed back to the input.

• when the loop gain, βAv, approaches

unity. The denominator (1 − βAv) will
• Design an appropriate circuit using Op-amp, whose input and output signals relations are as become close to zero.
shown in figure. Also justify your answer with relevant equations. • Therefore, the overall gain with positive
feedback applied will be greater than
the gain without feedback.
• This form of feedback is used in
oscillator circuits.
 Oscillators Condition for Oscillations
• There are two conditions for oscillation
a) the feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-phase with the signal at the
input);
• Oscillators are the circuits that generate an output signal without the need for an input signal.
b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to
• When the loop gain approaches unity (or larger), it results in unstable amplifier with infinite overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective feedback network).
gain. • To create an oscillator, an amplifier with sufficient gain is needed to overcome the losses of the network that
• In such case, amplifier will oscillate since any disturbance will be amplified and result in an provide positive feedback.
output. • If the amplifier provides 180° phase shift, the frequency of oscillation will be that at which there is 180° phase
shift in the feedback network.
• Therefore, positive feedback have an undesirable effect i.e. instead of reducing the overall gain
• Alternatively, if the amplifier produces 0° phase shift, the circuit will oscillate at the frequency at which the
it reinforces any signal present and the output continuous oscillates if the loop gain is 1 or
feedback network produces 0° phase shift.
greater.
• Positive feedback is needed in both cases so that the output signal arrives back at the input in such a sense as to
reinforce the original signal.

Classification of Oscillators Ladder Network Oscillator

• Electronic oscillators are classified mainly into the following two categories − • A phase shift oscillator based on 3-stage C–R ladder network can be
• Sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a sine waveform are used to provide 180° phase shift.
called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at frequencies • The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder network (connected
ranging from 20 Hz to 1 GHz. between collector and base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation.
• The op-amp in inverting amplifier configuration provides the other
• Non-sinusoidal Oscillators − The oscillators that produce an output having a square, 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of 360° or 0°
rectangular or saw-tooth waveform are called non-sinusoidal or relaxation oscillators. Such (note that these are the same).
oscillators can provide output at frequencies ranging from 0 Hz to 20 MHz.
• The frequency of oscillation is
1
f OSC 
2 RC 6

• The loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at least 29 in order for
the circuit to oscillate.
 Wien Bridge Oscillator Example 9.1
Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three stage ladder network oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R = 10 kΩ.

• A phase shift oscillator based on a Wien bridge network can be used The frequency of oscillation
to provide 0° phase shift. 1 1
f OSC    647 Hz
• Similar to C–R ladder, this network provides a phase shift which 2 RC 6 2  3.14  10  103  10  10 9  6
varies with frequency.
• The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is taken from Example 9.2
C and D. Fig. 9.4 shows the circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier.
• At one particular frequency (called resonant frequency), the phase If C1 = C2 = 100 nF, determine the output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when R1
shift produced by the network will be exactly zero and feedback = R2 = 6 kΩ.
component is maximum.
• If an amplifier producing 0° phase shift is connected which has (a) When R 1 = R 2 = 1 K
sufficient gain to overcome the losses of the Wien bridge, If R 1 = R 2  R and C1 = C 2  C, then
oscillations will result. f OSC 
1

1
 1.59 KHz
• The frequency at which the phase shift will be zero is : 2 RC 2  3.14  1 103  100  10 9
1 (a) When R 1 = R 2 = 6 K
f OSC 
2 R1 R2C1C2
If R 1 = R 2  R and C1 = C 2  C, then
• The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is : 1 1
f OSC    265 Hz
Av  1 
C1 R
 2 2 RC 2  3.14  6  103  100  10 9
C2 R1

Crystal Controlled Oscillators Crystal Controlled Oscillators

• The figures below represent the symbol and electrical equivalent circuit of a crystal
• Crystal controlled oscillators are used when an exact frequency of oscillation need to be respectively. The above equivalent circuit consists of a series R-L-C circuit in parallel with
accurately maintained. a mounting capacitance Cm.
• Crystal oscillator used quartz crystal as the frequency determining element and operates on the • The first one is the series resonant frequency (fs), which occurs when reactance of the
principle of piezoelectric effect. inductance (L) is equal to the reactance of the capacitance C.
• During piezoelectric effect, whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces of
quartz crystal, the crystal oscillates.
• The frequency of oscillation is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
The second one is the parallel resonant frequency (fp),
If an AC voltage is applied, the crystal starts vibrating at the which occurs when the reactance of R-L-C branch is
frequency of the applied voltage. However, if the frequency of the equal to the reactance of capacitor Cm.
applied voltage is made equal to the natural frequency of the
crystal, resonance takes place and crystal vibrations reach a Where,
maximum value.