Physical properties of agricultural materials

Physical attributes of agricultural materials include:

 Size
 Shape
 Volume
 Density
 Surface area
 Porosity
 Roundness
 Angle of repose
 Moisture content
 Shrinkage

1. Size
Size is an important physical attribute of materials used in screening solids to separate foreign
materials, grading of fruits and vegetables, and evaluating the quality of food materials. In fluid
flow, and heat and mass transfer calculations, it is necessary to know the size of the sample. Size
of the particulate materials is also critical. For example, particle size of powdered milk must be
large enough to prevent agglomeration, but small enough to allow rapid dissolution during
reconstitution.

The importance of particle size measurement has been widely recognized, especially in the
beverage industry, as the distribution and concentration ratio of particulates present in beverages
greatly affect their flavor. It is easy to specify size for regular particles, but for irregular particles
the term size must be arbitrarily specified. Particle sizes are expressed in different units
depending on the size range involved. Coarse particles are measured in millimeters, fine
particles in terms of screen size, and very fine particles in micrometers or nanometers.
Ultrafine particles are sometimes described in terms of their surface area per unit mass, usually
in square meters per gram

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Size can be determined using the projected area method. In this method, three characteristic
dimensions are defined:
1. Major diameter, which is the longest dimension of the maximum projected area;
2. Intermediate diameter, which is the minimum diameter of the maximum projected area or
the maximum diameter of the minimum projected area; and
3. Minor diameter, which is the shortest dimension of the minimum projected area.
Length, width, and thickness terms are commonly used that correspond to major, intermediate,
and minor diameters, respectively. The dimensions can be measured using a micrometer or
caliper. Micrometers are used to measure the outside diameters, inside diameters, the distance
between parallel surfaces, and the depth of holes.

2. Shape
Shape is also important in heat and mass transfer calculations, screening solids to separate
foreign materials, grading of fruits and vegetables, and evaluating the quality of food materials.
The shape is usually expressed in terms of:
 Sphericity or shape factor
 Aspect ratio
Sphericity/ Shape factor
It is an important parameter used in fluid flow and heat and mass transfer calculations.
Sphericity is defined as the ratio of volume of solid to the volume of a sphere that has a diameter
equal to the major diameter of the object so that it can circumscribe the solid sample. For a
spherical particle of diameter Dp, sphericity is equal to 1
volume of a solid sample
Sphericity  ( )1/3 1.1
volume of circumscribed shape
Assuming that the volume of the solid sample is equal to the volume of the triaxial ellipsoid
which has diameters equivalent to those of the sample, then:
Ve 1/3
Φ( ) 1.2
Vc
Where:
 = sphericity,

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 Ve = volume of the triaxial ellipsoid with equivalent diameters (m3),
Vc = volume of the circumscribed sphere (m3).
In a triaxial ellipsoid, all three perpendicular sections are ellipses (Fig. 1). If the major,
intermediate, and minor diameters are 2a, 2b, and 2c, respectively, volume of the triaxial
ellipsoid can be determined from the following equation:
4
Ve  Πabc 1.3
3
Then, sphericity is:
(abc)1/3
Φ 1.4
a

Figure 1Triaxial ellipsoid

Sphericity is also defined as the ratio of surface area of a sphere having the same volume as the
object to the actual surface area of the object.

Dp 6Vp
Φ  1.5
Sp DpSp
Where,

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 Dp = equivalent diameter or nominal diameter of the particle (m),
Sp = surface area of one particle (m2),
Vp = volume of one particle (m3).

The equivalent diameter is sometimes defined as the diameter of a sphere having the same
volume as the particle. However, for fine granular materials, it is difficult to determine the exact
volume and surface area of a particle. Therefore, equivalent diameter is usually taken to be the
nominal size based on screen analysis or microscopic examination in granular materials. The
surface area is found from adsorption measurements or from the pressure drop in a bed of
particles. In general, diameters may be specified for any equidimensional particle. Particles that
are not equidimensional, that is, longer in one direction than in others, are often characterized by
the second longest major dimension. For example, for needlelike particles, equivalent diameter
refers to the thickness of the particles, not their length.

In a sample of uniform particles of diameter Dp, the number of particles in the sample is:
m
N 1.6
ρ pVp
Where,
N = the number of particles,
m = mass of the sample (kg),
ρp = density of the particles (kg/m3),
Vp = volume of one particle (m3).
Total surface area of the particles is obtained from Equations. (1.5) and (1.6):
6m
A  NSp  1.7
ΦρD p
Example
Calculate the sphericity of a cylindrical object of diameter 1.0 cm and height 1.7 cm.
Solution
V  Πr 2 h =  (0.5)2(1.7) = 1.335 cm3
The radius of the sphere (rs ) having this volume can be calculated as:

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4
Πrs 3  1.335cm3
3
r =0.683cm
The surface area of sphere of the same volume as the particle is:
Ss  4rs 2  = 4  Π  (0.686)2  5.859cm2
The surface area of the particle is:
Sp  2ΠΠr( r)  2  Π  0.5  (1.7  0.5)  6.908cm2
Then, sphericity is calculated as:
Ss 5.859
   0.848
Sp 6.908

Aspect ratio
It is calculated using the length (a) and the width (b) of the sample as in equation 1.8:
b
Ra  1.8
a
Where,
Ra = Aspect ratio

3. Volume
Volume is defined as the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by an object, usually
expressed in units that are the cubes of length units, such as cubic inches and cubic centimeters,
or in units of liquid measure, such as gallons and liters. In the SI system, the unit of volume is
m3 .
Volume is an important quality attribute in the food industry. It appeals to the eye, and is related
to other quality parameters. For instance, it is inversely correlated with texture. Volume of solids
can be determined by using the following methods:
1. Volume can be calculated from the characteristic dimensions in the case of objects with
regular shape.
2. Volumes of solids can be determined experimentally by liquid, gas, or solid displacement
methods.

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 3. Volume can be measured by the image processing method. An image processing method
has been recently developed to measure volume of ellipsoidal agricultural products such
as eggs, lemons, limes, and peaches

Liquid displacement volume is calculated as follows:

weigt of the liquid displaced by solid (Wpl  Wp)  (Wpls  Wps)
Vs   1.9
density of liquid ρl
Where,
Vs = volume of the solid (m3),
Wpl = weight of the pycnometer filled with liquid (kg),
Wp = weight of the empty pycnometer (kg),
Wpls = weight of the pycnometer containing the solid sample and filled with liquid (kg),
Wps = weight of the pycnometer containing solid sample with no liquid (kg),
ρ1 = density of the liquid (kg/m3).

Figure 2 Pycnometer (specific gravity bottle)

For larger objects, a platform scale can be used (Figure 3). The sample is completely submerged
in liquid such that it does not make contact with the sides or bottom of the beaker.
Weight of the liquid displaced by the solid sample is divided by its density. The method is based
on the Archimedes principle, which states that a body immersed in a fluid will experience a
weight loss in an amount equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces. That is, the upward

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buoyancy force exerted on a body immersed in a liquid is equal to the weight of the displaced
liquid.
G Wair  Wl
Vs   1.10
ρl ρl
Where:
G = the buoyancy force (N),
ρl = the density of liquid (kg/m3),
Wair = the weight of sample in air (kg),
Wl = the weight of sample in liquid (kg).

Figure 3 Platform scale for measurement of volume of large objects

Gas displacement method:

Volumes of particulate solids and materials with irregular shape can be determined by
displacement of gas or air in pycnometer. The most commonly used gases are helium and
nitrogen. The pycnometer consists of two airtight chambers of nearly equal volumes, V1 and V2,
are connected with small-diameter tubing (Fig. 1.9). The material to be measured is placed in the
second chamber. The exhaust valve (valve 3) and the valve between the two chambers (valve
2) are closed. The inlet valve (valve 1) is opened and the gas is supplied to the first chamber until
the gauge pressure is increased up to a suitable value (e.g., 700–1000 Pa). Then, the inlet valve is
closed and the equilibrium pressure is recorded. Assuming that the gas behaves ideally:

P1V1  nRT
Where,
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 P1 = equilibrium pressure when valve 2 is closed (Pa),
V1 = volume of the first chamber (m3),
n = moles of gas (kg mol),
R = gas constant (8314.34 J/kg mol K),
T1 = absolute temperature (K).

Figure 4 Gas comparison pycnometer

After the equilibrium pressure is recorded, the valve between the two chambers is opened (valve
2) and the gas within the first chamber is allowed to fill the empty spaces (pores) in the second
chamber. The new pressure (P2) is recorded. When valve 2 is opened, total mass of gas (m) is
divided into two, one of which fills the first tank (m1) and the other fills the pore space of the
second tank (m2).
m  m1  m 2 1.11
Assuming that the system is isothermal:
P1V1  P2V1  P2Va2 1.12
Where, Va2 is the volume of the empty spaces within the second chamber and can be expressed
as in equation 1.13.
P1  P2
Va2  V2  Vs  V1 1.13
P2
Where, Vs is the volume of the solid (m3) and can be calculated from the following equation
1.14.

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 P 1  P2
Vs  V2  V1( ) 1.14
P2
The errors in this method may come from not taking into account the volumes of the tubing
connecting the chambers. Moreover, although the calculation assumes an ideal gas, the air does
not exactly follow the ideal gas law. In addition, the equalization in pressures between the two
chambers is not isothermal.
To eliminate these errors, the instrument should be calibrated by using an object of precisely
known volume.

Solid displacement method

The volume of irregular solids can also be measured by sand, glass bead, or seed displacement
method. Rapeseeds are commonly used for determination of volume of baked products such as
bread. In the rapeseed method, first the bulk density of rapeseeds is determined by filling a glass
container of known volume uniformly with rapeseeds through tapping and smoothing the surface
with a ruler. All measurements are done until the constant weight is reached between the
consecutive measurements. The densities of the seeds are calculated from the measured weight
of the seeds and volume of the container. Then, the sample and rapeseeds are placed together in
the container. The container is tapped and the surface is smoothed with a ruler. Tapping and
smoothing are continued until a constant weight is reached between three consecutive
measurements.

Image processing method

Image processing method using disk technique
 In disk technique, the outline image of the product is used to calculate volume.
 Each two-dimensional outline image of product is assumed to be composed of individual
rectangular elements as in figure 1(a).
 Revolving the height of each rectangular element around the x-axis produces a cylindrical
disk with a diameter of Δy as shown in figure 1 (b).
 The volume of each cylindrical disk (Vi) shown is the product of the cross-sectional area of
the disk (Ai) and the thickness of the disk (Δx). Equation 1 and 2 show the cross-sectional
area of a cylindrical disk and the volume of the same disk, respectively.

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  y 
2

Ai     (1)
 2 
Vi  Ai x (2)

 The program developed, for instance compaq visual fortran, considered each disk as
having a thickness of 1 pixel and used an algorithm to determine the major and minor
diameters and calculate the mean diameter of each disk.
 Using the mean diameter, the volume of each disk can be calculated, then summed to
estimate the total volume as shown in equation 3.
n
V   Vi (3)
i 1

Figure 5 (a) The outline image of the kiwifruit was assumed to be composed of individual
rectangular elements (b) Revolving each element around the x-axis generated cylindrical disks

Types of volume
Volume can be expressed in different forms. The form of the volume must be well defined
before the data are presented. The most commonly used definitions are:
Solid volume (Vs ) is the volume of the solid material (including water) excluding any interior
pores that are filled with air. It can be determined by the gas displacement method in which the
gas is capable of penetrating all open pores up to the diameter of the gas molecule.
Apparent volume (Vapp) is the volume of a substance including all pores within the material
(internal pores). Apparent volume of regular geometries can be calculated using the
characteristic dimensions. Apparent volume of irregularly shaped samples may be determined by
solid or liquid displacement methods.
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Bulk volume (Vbulk) is the volume of a material when packed or stacked in bulk. It includes all
the pores enclosed within the material (internal pores) and also the void volume outside the
boundary of individual particles when stacked in bulk (external pores).

4. Density
Density can be calculated after measuring the mass and volume of the object because it is
defined as the mass per unit volume. In the SI system, the unit of density is kg/m 3. Density data
of materials are required in separation processes, such as centrifugation and sedimentation and in
pneumatic and hydraulic transport of powders and particulates. In addition, measuring the
density of liquid is required to determine the power required for pumping. The most commonly
used definitions are:
True density (ρT ): is the density of a pure substance or a composite material calculated from the
densities of its components considering conservation of mass and volume. If the densities and
volume or mass fractions of constituents are known, density can be determined from:
n
ρ  X v ρ
T i i 
w/ρ
1
1.15
X
i
i 1 i

Where,
ρi = density of ith component (kg/m3),
Xiv = volume fraction of ith component,
Xiw = mass fraction of ith component,
n = number of components.
Solid density (ρs ): is the density of the solid material (including water), excluding any interior
pores that are filled with air. It can be calculated by dividing the sample weight by solid volume
determinedby the gas displacement method in which gas is capable of penetrating all open pores
up to the diameter of the gas molecule.
Material (substance) density (ρm): is the density of a material measured when the material has
been broken into pieces small enough to be sure that no closed pores remain.
Particle density (ρp) is the density of a particle that has not been structurally modified. It
includes the volume of all closed pores but not the externally connected ones. It can be
calculated by dividing the sample weight by particle volume determined by a gas pycnometer.

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Apparent density (ρapp): is the density of a substance including all pores within the material
(internal pores). Apparent density of regular geometries can be determined from the volume
calculated using the characteristic dimensions and mass measured. Apparent density of
irregularly shaped samples may be determined by solid or liquid displacement methods.
Bulk density (ρbulk): is the density of a material when packed or stacked in bulk. Bulk density of
particulate solids is measured by allowing the sample to pour into a container of known
dimensions. Special care should be taken since the method of filling and the container
dimensions can affect the measurement. It depends on the solid density, geometry, size, surface
properties, and the method of measurement. It can be calculated by dividing the sample weight
by bulk volume.

5. Porosity
Porosity is an important physical property characterizing the texture and the quality of dry and
intermediate moisture materials. Porosity data is required in modeling and design of various heat
and mass transfer processes such as drying, frying, baking, heating, cooling, and extrusion. It is
an important parameter in predicting diffusional properties of cellular material such as foods.
Porosity (ε) is defined as the volume fraction of the air or the void fraction in the sample and
expressed as:
Void voulme
Porosity 1.16
Total voume
Methods for determination of porosity
Direct method: In this method, porosity is determined from the difference of bulk volume of a
piece of porous material and its volume after destruction of all voids by means of compression.
This method can be applied if the material is very soft and no attractive or repulsive force is
present between the particles of solid.
Optical method: In this method, porosity is determined from the microscopic view of a section
of the porous medium. This method is suitable if the porosity is uniform throughout the sample,
that is, the sectional porosity represents the porosity of whole sample. Pore size distribution can
be determined if a suitable software is used to analyze images.
Density method: In this method, porosity is calculated from the measured densities. Porosity
due to the enclosed air space within the particles is named apparent porosity (εapp) and defined as
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the ratio of total enclosed air space or voids volume to the total volume. It can also be named
internal porosity. Apparent porosity is calculated from the measured solid (ρs ) and apparent
density (ρapp) data as:

εapp  1  ρ app
1.17
ρ s

ε app 1
Vs
1.18
Vapp
Bulk porosity (εbulk)/external or interparticle porosity: includes the void volume outside the
boundary of individual particles when stacked as bulk and calculated using bulk and apparent
densities as:

ε  1
ρ bulk
1.19
ρ
bulk
app

or from the specific bulk ( Vbulk ) and apparent ( Vapp ) volumes as:

ε bulk  1
Vapp
1.20
Vbulk
Then, total porosity when material is packed or stacked as bulk is:
ε TOT  εbulk  εapp 1.21
Pores within the food materials (internal pores)
1. Closed pores: closed from all sides
2. Blind pores: have one end closed
3. Open or flow- through pores: where the flow typically takes place.

Figure 5 Different kinds of pores

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Porosimeters: Porosity and pore size distribution can be determined using porosimeters, which
are the instruments based on the principle of either liquid intrusion into pores or liquid extrusion
from the pores. Pressure is applied to force the liquids, such as water, oil, or mercury, into pores
since liquids cannot flow spontaneously into pores. For extrusion porosimetry, wetting liquids
are used to fill the pores in the porous materials. Liquid is displaced from the pores by applying
differential pressure on the sample and volume of extruded liquid is measured.

6. Roundness
Roundness is a measure of the sharpness of the corners of the solid. Several methods are
available for estimating roundness. The most commonly used ones are given below (Mohsenin,
1970):

Where,
Ap = largest projected area of object in natural rest position (m2)
Ac = Area of the smallest circumscribing circle as defined in Fig. 1.4a (m2)
Roundness can also be estimated from Eq. (1.15):

Where,
r = radius of curvature as defined in Fig. 1.4b (m)
R = radius of the maximum inscribed circle (m)
N = total number of corners summed in numerator

7. Angle of repose
Angle of repose is another important physical property used in particulate foods such as seeds,
grains, and fruits. When granular solids are piled on a flat surface, the sides of the pile are at a
definite reproducible angle with the horizontal. This angle is called the angle of repose of the
material. The angle of repose is important for the design of processing, storage, and conveying
systems of particulate material. When the grains are smooth and rounded, the angle of repose is

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low. For very fine and sticky materials the angle of repose is high. For determination of this
property, a box with open sides at the top and bottom is placed on a surface. The angle of repose
is determined by filling the box with sample and lifting up the box gradually, allowing the
sample to accumulate and form a conical heap on the surface. Then, the angle of repose is
calculated from the ratio of the height to the base radius of the heap formed.

8. Moisture content
Wet basis moisture content (Mw): is the moisture content of agricultural material or food
product as the percentage of total weight, Ww which is water.
Dry basis moisture content (Md): is the moisture content expressed as the percentage
equivalent of the ratio of weight of water to the weight of dry matter, Wd.
Ww Ww
M w  100.  100. 1.22
Wt Ww  Wd 
Ww
M d  100. 1.23
Wd
Where,
Ww = weight of water in the material
Wd = weight of dry matter in the material
Wt = total weight of the sample = Ww + Wd
If either Mw or Md is known, the other can be calculated using the formulae:
Mw Md
M d  100. and M w  100. 1.24
100  M w  100  M d 
Wet basis is used to describe the composition of agricultural materials and food products.
It is also used to describe the water content of grain products when they are bought or sold.
Dry basis moisture content is used for describing moisture changes during drying.
The changes in moisture as a result of gain or loss of water can be estimated by assuming that the
weight of dry matter remains constant.
The amount of dry matter in a sample can be calculated by noting that:
M 
Ww  Wt  w 
 100 

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Wd  Wt  Ww
Thus,
 M 
Wd  Wt 1  w  1.25
 100 
Example
One metric tone (1000kg) of shelled corn at 21% moisture is dried at 14.5% moisture. What will
be the final weight of the shelled corn and how many kgs of water must be evaporated during the
drying process?
Solution
Using equation 1.25 the amount of dry matter in the shelled corn before and after drying can be
calculated as follows:
 21   14.5 
1000kg1    Wt 1  
 100   100 
1000kg 0.79
Wt   924.0kg
0.855
The amount of water removed during drying = 1000kg-924.0kg=76.0kg

Exercise
1. A commercial bakery is mixing the dry ingredients for pound cake. They combine 100kg of
flour at 11% m.c with 100kg of sugar at 0.5% m.c and 4.9kg of dried skim milk at 2.5% m.c.
Estimate m.c of the blended dry ingredient.
2. Describe methods of determining moisture content of agricultural materials

9. Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the decrease in volume of food during processing such drying.
When moisture is removed from food during drying, there is a pressure imbalance between
inside and outside of the food. This generates contracting stresses leading to material shrinkage
or collapse (Mayor & Sereno, 2004).
Shrinkage affects the diffusion coefficient of the material and therefore has an effect on the
drying rate.

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Apparent shrinkage is defined as the apparent volume at given moisture content to the initial
apparent volume of the materials before processing:
Vapp
S app  1.26
Vappo

Where,
Vapp = apparent volume at a given moisture content (m3)
Vappo= Initial apparent volume (m3)
Shrinkage is also defined as the percent change from the initial apparent volume.
Types of shrinkage in food materials
1. Isotropic shrinkage: is the uniform shrinkage in different dimensions
2. Anisotropic shrinkage: is the non-uniform shrinkage in different dimensions

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