FACULTY OF ARTS AND HUMANITIES

BACHELOR OF ARTS WITH EDUCATION

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY(ICT)

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SOFTWARE AND HARDWARE

HCT 1102

Topic 1
Introduction to Computer Hardware and Software
• Overview of computer components
• Understanding of hardware

Topic 2
Computer Hardware
• Introduction to Computer Hardware;
• Internal parts of the computer: definition and function of CPU, RAM, HDD, SSD, GPU,
Motherboard, PSU, etc
• External parts: definition and function of input, output and peripheral devices. Buttons
and ports on a computer:
• Setting up a computer
• Storage Devices; Memory Types and Role, Types of storage devices (e.g. hard disk
drives, solid-state drives) and their differences, file systems and storage management.
Computer Hardware
Hardware refers to the external and internal tangible devices and equipment that enable you to
perform major functions such as input, output, storage, communication, processing, and more.
There are two types of computer hardware: external and internal.
External hardware devices include monitors, keyboards, printers, and scanners, whereas internal
hardware devices include motherboards, hard drives, and RAM.

PC Components
A computer system is a collection of electronic and mechanical devices operating as a unit.
These devices can be sorted according to the role they play in the computer system. The main
device categories are:
System Unit Devices and Peripherals
The system unit is the main container for system devices. It protects the delicate electronic and
mechanical devices from damage. Typical system unit devices include:
• Motherboard
• CPU (Processor)
• Memory
• Disk drives
• Expansion cards - sound card,
graphics card, network card etc.
• Ports - USB etc.
• Power supply
Peripherals

A computer peripheral, or peripheral device, is an external object that provides input and output
for the computer.
Typical peripherals include:
• Monitor
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Speakers
• Printer
• Plotter
• Scanner

System Unit Devices

The Processor (CPU)

The main unit inside the computer is the CPU. This unit is responsible for all events inside the
computer. It controls all internal and external devices
Similarly, in a computer system, all major calculations and comparisons are made inside
the CPU and the CPU is also responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other
units of a computer system
The control Unit and the Arithmetic and Logic unit of a computer system are jointly
known as the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU is the brain of any computer system. In a
human body, all major decisions are taken by the brain and the other parts of the body function
as directed by the brain.

The arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of a computer system is the place where the actual
execution of the instructions take place during the processing operations. All calculations are
performed and all comparisons (decisions) are made in the ALU
 The control unit (CU) is a component of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) that
directs the operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic and logic unit
and input and output devices how to respond to the instructions that have been sent to the
processor

A processor (CPU) is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic instructions
that drive a computer. The CPU is seen as the main and most crucial integrated circuitry (IC)
chip in a computer, as it is responsible for interpreting most of computer’s commands.

Evolution of processors
Processors tell everything from your graphics processing unit (GPU) to your disk drives and
screens what to do. Intel and AMD are some of the most common manufacturers, and they each
have different series of processors. In general, the higher the number in the series, the more
power you'll have for processing tasks
Storage Unit/ memory
The data and instructions that are entered into the computer system through input units have to
be stored inside the computer before the actual processing starts. Similarly, the results produced
by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the computer system
before being passed on to the output units.
Moreover, the intermediate results produced by the computer must also be preserved for
ongoing processing. The Storage Unit or the primary / main storage of a computer system is
designed to do all these things. It provides space for
■ storing data and instructions,
■ space for intermediate results and also
■ space for the final results

The memory system is constructed as a hierarchy of layers, as shown

Registers
■ Registers are used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU
■ While we are working on the System, these Registers are used by the CPU for
Performing the Operations. When we give some Input to the System, the Input will be
Stored into the Registers and when the System will give us the Results after Processing,
the Result will also be from the Registers. So that they are used by the CPU for
Processing the Data which is given by the User

Registers Perform: -

1) Fetch: The Fetch Operation is used for taking the instructions those are given by the user
and the Instructions those are stored into the Main Memory will be fetch by using Registers.
2) Decode: The Decode Operation is used for interpreting the Instructions means the
Instructions are decoded means the CPU will find out which Operation is to be performed on the
Instructions.
3) Execute: The Execute Operation is performed by the CPU. And Results those are produced
by the CPU are then Stored into the Memory and after that they are displayed on the user Screen
Read Only Memory (ROM)

■ Unlike RAM, ROM is non-volatile and only permits the user to read data. The
information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
■ A ROM stores such instructions that are required to start a computer. This operation is
referred to as bootstrap.
■ ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven
Types of ROM

■ MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a
pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kinds of ROMs are known as masked
ROMs, which are inexpensive.
■ PROM (programmable read-only memory): a PROM is a memory chip on which you can
store a program. Once the PROM has been used, you cannot wipe it clean and use it to
store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs are non-volatile.
■ EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): an EPROM is a special type of
PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
■ EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory): an EEPROM is a
special type of PROM that can be programmed and erased by exposing it to an electrical
charge. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be
selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather
than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible but slow.
Cache memory

When the processor wants to read from a memory location, it first checks the cache for the
location. If the location is in the cache, the processor can access the data without accessing main
memory - the location is accessed at the speed of the processor. This is called a cache hit. If the
location is not in the cache, then main memory must be accessed at the slower speed and this is
called a cache miss.

This small cache memory (typically 128KB) is called Level 1 cache (L1) and is on the processor.
A second cache called Level 2 cache (L2) is situated on the motherboard near the processor and
can be from 1MB to 8MB in size. This cache is slower than level 1 cache but still much faster
than main memory.

If a processor requires data from a location in RAM, the level 1 cache will be searched first. If
the location is not in level 1 cache, level 2 cache will be searched. Only if the location is not in
level 2 cache must the slow main memory be accessed.

Modern computer systems have cache hit rates in excess of 90% and this has a huge bearing on
the overall performance of the computer system.
The Motherboard
Often called the mainboard or system board, it is the main circuit board for the computer
system.
Every device in the computer system will either be part of the motherboard or connected to it.
Hard disk (hard drive) construction
■ The disk controller is the controller circuit which enables the CPU to communicate with
a hard disk, floppy disk or other kind of disk drive. Also, it provides an interface between
the disk drive and the bus connecting it to the rest of the system.
■ When the computer wants to transfer data to or from the disk, it tells the disk controller.
The controller in turn sends electronic commands to the disk drive making the disk spin
and move its magnetic heads to the proper location on the disk.
■ A hard disk uses platters, round discs that are coated with a special media that is designed
to store data in magnetic patterns.
■ These discs rotate so that heads, electromagnetic read/write devices, can either record
data onto the platters or read what the platters already contain.
■ Each platter has tracks which is then broken down into sectors which is where pieces of
data is actually recorded
Reading Data
■ When the computer wants to read data, the operating system works out where the data is
on the disk. To do this it first reads the FAT (File Allocation Table) at the beginning of
the partition.
■ This tells the operating system in which sector on which track to find the data. With this
information, the head can then read the requested data.
■ The disk controller controls the drive’s servo-motors and translates the fluctuating
voltages from the head into digital data for the CPU

File Allocation Table (FAT)

■ The precise manner in which data is organized on a hard disk drive is determined by the
file system used. File systems are generally operating system dependent
■ The purpose of the File Allocation Table is to provide the mapping between clusters – the
basic unit of logical storage on a disk at the operating system level – and the physical
location of data in terms of cylinders, tracks and sectors – the form of addressing used by
the drive’s hardware controller
■ The diagram shows three files: File1.txt uses three clusters, File2.txt is a fragmented file
that requires three clusters and File3.txt fits in one cluster. In each case, the file allocation
table entry points to the first cluster of the file.
NTFS (New Technology File System)
■ NTFS (NT file system; sometimes New Technology File System) is the file system that
the Windows NT operating system uses for storing and retrieving files on a hard disk.
■ NTFS is the Windows NT equivalent of the Windows 95 file allocation table (FAT) and
the High-Performance File System (HPTS). However, NTFS offers a number of
improvements over FAT and HPFS in terms of performance, extendibility, and security.

SSD (solid-state drive)

■ An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers. This non-

volatile storage media stores persistent data on solid-state flash memory. SSDs replace

traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the same basic functions as

a hard drive. But SSDs are significantly faster in comparison.

How do SSDs work

■ An SSD reads and writes data to underlying interconnected flash memory chips made out
of silicon. Manufacturers build SSDs by stacking chips in a grid to achieve different
densities.
■ SSDs read and write data to an underlying set of interconnected flash memory chips.
These chips use floating gate transistors (FGTs) to hold an electrical charge, which
enables the SSD to store data even when it is not connected to a power source. Each FGT
contains a single bit of data, designated either as a 1 for a charged cell or a 0 if the cell
has no electrical charge.
■ Every block of data is accessible at a consistent speed. However, SSDs can only write to
empty blocks
What are the advantages of SSDs?

The benefits of SSDs over HDDs include:

▪ Faster read/write speeds. SSDs can access large files quickly.
▪ Quicker boot times and better performance. Because the drive does not need to spin
up as an HDD would, it is more responsive and provides better load performance.
▪ Durability. SSDs are more shock-resistant and can handle heat better than HDDs
because they do not have moving parts.
▪ Power consumption. SSDs need less power to operate than HDDs due to their lack of
moving parts.
▪ Quieter. SSDs produce less audible noise because there are no moving or spinning parts.
▪ Size. SSDs come in a variety of form factors whereas HDD sizes are limited.

What are the disadvantages of SSDs?

▪ Cost. SSDs are more expensive than traditional HDDs.
▪ Life expectancy. Some SSDs, for example, those using NAND memory-flash chips, can
only be written a specified number of times that is typically less than HDDs.
▪ Performance. Limitations on the number of write cycles cause SSDs to decrease in
performance over time.
▪ Storage options. Because of cost, SSDs are typically sold in smaller sizes.
▪ Data recovery. This time-consuming process can be expensive, as the data on damaged
chips may not be recoverable.
Optical drives

Optical disk: A storage device that uses reflecting surfaces and laser technology to read and write
data on a disk. Also known as a laser disk.
Online Storage

Cloud Storage
Cloud Storage relies upon data stored on servers accessible at all times over the Internet.
Data might be stored on multiple servers to ensure 100% uptime and reliability. To access cloud
storage, a computer needs access to the internet and a cloud storage provider.
Companies like Amazon, Google, and others offer cloud storage solutions. Data is always
accessible and synced from the server to individual devices. Cloud data is essentially always
available via the internet.

File System
A file system is a process of managing how and where data on a storage disk, which is also
referred to as file management or FS. It is a logical disk component that compresses files
separated into groups, which is known as directories. It is abstract to a human user and related to
a computer; hence, it manages a disk's internal operations.

Files and additional directories can be in the directories. Although there are various file systems
with Windows, NTFS is the most common in modern times. It would be impossible for a file
with the same name to exist and also impossible to remove installed programs and recover
specific files without file management, as well as files would have no organization without a file
structure. The file system enables you to view a file in the current directory as files are often
managed in a hierarchy.
Examples of file systems
• FAT: FAT is a type of file system, which is developed for hard drives. It stands for file
allocation table and was first introduced in 1977, which is used for 12 or 16 bits for each
and every cluster access into the file allocation table (FAT).
• HFS: HFS (Hierarchical file system) is the file system that is used on a Macintosh
computer for creating a directory at the time a hard disk is formatted. Generally, its basic
function is to organize or hold the files on a Macintosh hard disk.
• NTFS: NTFS is the file system, which stands for NT file system and stores and retrieves
files on Windows NT operating system and other versions of Windows like Windows
2000, Windows XP, Windows 7, and Windows 10. Sometimes, it is known as the New
Technology File System. As compared to the FAT and HPFS file system, it provides
better methods of file recovery and data protection and offers a number of improvements
in terms of extendibility, security, and performance.
 • UDF: A UDF is a file system, stands for Universal Disk Format and used first developed
by OSTA (Optical Storage Technology Association) in 1995 for ensuring consistency
among data written to several optical media. It is used with CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs
and is supported on all operating systems. Now, it is used in the process of CD-R's and
CD-RW's, called packet writing.

Storage Management
Storage Management is defined as it refers to the management of the data storage equipment’s
that are used to store the user/computer generated data. Hence it is a tool or set of processes used
by an administrator to keep your data and storage equipment’s safe.

Storage management is a process for users to optimize the use of storage devices and to protect
the integrity of data for any media on which it resides and the category of storage management
generally contain the different type of subcategories covering aspects such as security,
virtualization and more, as well as different types of provisioning or automation, which is
generally made up the entire storage management software market.

Storage management key attributes: Storage management has some key attribute which is
generally used to manage the storage capacity of the system. These are given below:
1. Performance
2. Reliability
3. Recoverability
4. Capacity
Mouse
The mouse is a small device used to point to a particular place on the screen and select in order to
perform one or more actions. It can be used to select menu commands, size windows, start
programs etc. The most conventional kind of mouse has two buttons on top: the left one
being used most frequently,

Mouse Actions
Left Click: Used to select an item.
Double Click: Used to start a program or open a file.
Right Click: Usually used to display a set of commands.
Drag and Drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To achieve
this place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse button and while holding
the button down move the cursor to where you want to place the item, and then release it.
MONITORS

It is a most common peripheral in computer is graphic display device. Increasing demand for
display of graphics, diagrams and pictures to make visual presentation of information more
effectively. Easy user interaction and decision making.
A monitor or display (also called screen or visual display unit) is an electronic visual display for
computers.

Graphic display is made up of a series of serial dots(picture elements) called “pixels” whose
pattern produces images.
Main categories of display screen:
• Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
• Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
• Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Organic light emitting diodes (OLED)
• Plasma Display

CRTS
Cathode-ray tubes were commonly used in televisions and computer monitors throughout the
mid-to-late 1900s.
They use three colored RGB guns, when activated by electrons and combined can produce any
color on the spectrum repeatedly sweeping across the monitor and produce an image
LCDS
■ Lighter, thinner that CRTs
■ Backlight shines through liquid crystals to produce light through RGB filters
■ Backlight is from fluorescent lamps, the circular types, that emit uv light when the
mercury vapor inside the lamp is ionized
■ First used in laptops and now commonly used in desktop monitors
■ Has a higher contrast ratio (contrast between a brighter white and darker black)-600: 1

LEDs
■ LED monitors are liquid crystal displays (LCDs) that use light-emitting diodes (LEDs) to
light the screen's pixels
■ Produce sharper image, thinner and consume lesser power
■ Has a higher contrast ratio 1000: 1
OLED
■ With OLED each pixel will produce its own illumination without having a separate
backlight. Electrical current is applied to organic compounds that cause them to glow.
■ Produce own colors without filters
■ Best viewing angles
■ New and expensive
■ Highest contrast 100000:1
■ Used in smart phones

MONITOR QUALITY AND RESOLUTION

Quality:
■ Manufacturers describe quality by dot pitch.
■ Smaller dot pitches mean pixels are closely spaced which will yield a sharper image.
■ Most monitors have dot pitches that range from 0.22mm to 0.39mm.
Resolution:
■ Indicates how densely packed the pixels are.
■ Most modern monitors can display 1024x768 pixels. (HIGH DEFN -FHD)
■ High end models can display 1280x1024 (FULL HIGH DEFN -FHD)
Printers
Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hardcopy) output. Based on the
technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.

Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this
category.

Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or electrical
signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, Deskjet, Laser, Thermal printers fall under this
category of printers.

When we talk about printers, we refer to two basic qualities associated with printers: resolution,
and speed. Print resolution is measured in terms of number of dots per inch (dpi). Print speed
is measured in terms of number of characters printed in a unit of time and is represented as
characters-per-second (cps), lines-per-minute (lpm), or pages-per-minute (ppm).
Setting up a desktop computer
Some speakers, headphones, and microphones have USB connectors instead of the usual audio
plug. These can be connected to any USB port. In addition, many computers have speakers or
microphones built into the monitor.
Generally, peripherals are optional, and you can add new ones at any time; you don't have to add
all peripherals during the initial setup of your computer.

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