Bice - Student’s BookContents Order of a matrix Types of Matrices Addition and subtraction of matrices. Scalar multiplication of matrices Multiplication of matrices Multiplying 2 x 2 matrices.... Compatibility in multiplication... piri: with a and zero matrices... .Tangents (0 CIT C1eS snnemnnmnenmnennie 13 Tangent to a circle. 3 Constructing a tangent at any given point on the circle... 1S ‘Common tangents to two cireles.... Angles in alternate segment .... }. Statistics TID.....ccrceereesssssserseesessereeeeesenes 2S Introduction .. Measures of dispersion Mean deviation. Variance and standard deviation... Computational formula. Simultaneous linear and quadratic €QUALIOMS ~...eeeeseereneeeeeneeree 32 Introduction ....:scsseneensenesernsintnenes 32 Solving simultaneous linear and sate ‘equations by substitution method..........33 Problems leading to simultaneous linear and quadratic equations.....c..000rnessnen 16 Progressions 38 Introduction .......... ee Arithmetic sequences... a eid Arithmetic series / Arithmetic progression (A.P.) ... Geometric sequence ... Geometric series / Geometric progression (G.P.) ... Application of A.P. and G.P. to real life situations Revision exercises I Revision exercise 1.1 Revison exercise |. Revision exercise 1.3... 6. Travel graph ernnesen Displacement Velocity .. Acceleration Velocity-time graph.. Describing motion in aeeiy time graphs Drawing and interpreting ee time graphs... = . 7. Trigonometry II. 61 Introduction ....ecs.e.eeceseeeneneen 61 Area UE. oe eseoeseseenenine 61 The sine rule........ 63 Bearings using sine and cosine rules... 68 8. Polynomials... ” Definations of polynomial cease IO Addition and subtraction of polynomial 70 itt10. Vectors...... . Probability IT... Multiplication of polynomial Division. ‘The remainder theorem The factor theorem... Solving cubic equations .. Identities... Application of polynomials to real life . Introduction......... The possibility or sample space .. Events.......... Discrete probability spac Continous possibility space. Combined events......... Independent events... Tree diagram... Vector and scalar quantities Displacement vector and notation. Equivalent vectors... Addition of vectors. Subtraction of vectors ...... Multiplication of vectors by scalars... Vectors in the Cartesian plane Position vector. Unit vectors Magnitude of a vector... Midpoints.... Parallelogram law of addition Parallel vectors and collinear points ..... 105, Parallelogram and triangle laws Application of parallelogram la\ Revision exercises 2 Revision exercise 2.1 Revision exercise 2.2 Revision exercise 2.3 ... 11. Linear programmin; Introduction... Review of graphical solution of linear inequalities snrrmnesenss 113 Variables a 4 Maximising and minimising a function ....116 7 Objective function. 12. Mensuration I: Surface area and volume of solids Introduction Sketching solids Prisms.. Surface area of a cuboid Surface area of a cube .. Surface area of a cylinder. Surface area of a pyramid Surface area of a con Frustrums... Surface area of a sphere Surface area of composite solids. Volume of a prism Volume of a pyramid Volume of a cone... Volume of a sphere... Volume of composite solids. 13. Mensuration II: Three dimensional geometry a Points, lines (edges) and planes... Identification of a plane...»MATRICES Introduction to Matrices ‘There are many instances when large quantities of numeric information have to be stored. Very often this information is arranged in the form of tables, which is one of the most convenient ways of arranging information. Table 1.1 shows how different types of packets of biscuits are packed in a certain factory. Name of | Type of biscuit peeks ok B G D Economy | 14 14 | 10 | 10 Family 5 [4 Standard 8 3 i 6 Table 1.1 This means, for example, that the “Economy” packet contains 14 type A, 14 type B, 10 type C and 10 type D biscuits. With time, the packers get to know what each row and each column refers to, and they need to remember only the patterns: 14 14 10 10 [: 8 9 es 7 & Such an arrangement is called a matrix (plural matrices). {A matrix is « rectangular array of numbers | arrange in rows and columns, and whose value | and position in the arrangement is significant, ‘A matrix is usually shown in curl or square brackets as: 18 18 ( 3 >| « [37] ‘Normally, a capital letter in bold typee.g. A, B, is used to denote a matrix. However, it is difficult to bold in our normal hand writing, we use a wavy underline on the letter, e.g. A,B. Each number in a matrix is called an element of the matrix. For example in the above matrix, 1,8 3 and 7 are elements. Order of a matrix Aconvenient way of describing the shape or size of a matrix is by using rows and columns. For example, the matrix from Table |..] has 3 rows and 4 columns. It is said to be a matrix of order 3 x 4 (read “three by four”) or a “three by four matrix” Thus: The order of a matrix denotes the number of rows and columns in the matrix. A matrix of order m x n has m rows and n columns. How many rows and columns does a mainx of order 4 « 3 have? State the order of each of the following matrices. 703 700 ut i 2 a4 V3 -S 2 4 35 9 «{s 9Types of matrices Matrices | to 4 on the previous page are rectangular. ‘square, row and column matrices respectively. * A matrix of order 1 x # is called a row matrix. An example is matrix 3 on page I * Matrix of order m x 1 is called a column matrix. An example is matrix 4 on page 1. * Matrix of order m x m is called a square matrix. An example is matrix 2 on page 1, which is a 3 x 3 square matrix. Other examples of square matrices are of orders 2% 2,4 4,5 x5 and soon. A matrix whose elements are zeros is called azero or null matrix. A matrix which has each elements in the leading diagonal as ones and all the other elements as zeros e.g ( b ‘ ) is called an identity matrix. The position of an element inside a matrix is described using suffices (plural of suffix). Thus, if A isa matrix and a. is an element | in it, then a, is the element in the m" row and n column. Sect A suffix is also known as a subscript. Exercise 1.1 1. Table 1,2 shows the number of times that three couples attended various types of entertainment in one year. [Typeor | Couple ‘entertainment "Tre [ The | The | » [ Cinema 7 2]5 Dance 1 ai) Play 8 | 1 | Circus o [3{[2 Table 1.2 (a) Write down the information im the table in the form ofa matrix and state the order of the matrix. (b) Write the Umis’ attendance as a column, matrix. What is the order of this matrix?” (c) Write, as a row matrix, the number of times that plays have been attended, and state the order of the matrix. .. Make up a matrix of order: (a) 3x5 (b) Sx4 —(@) 3x! (1x2 (@) 2x2 (f) 3x3 |. How many elements are there in a matrix of order: (a) 2x4 (bt) 4x2 () 4x4 (1x3 () 1x1 () mxn? . Given A = what is the S element: (a)a,, (b)a,, (€)a,, (d)a,,? Write down, as a, the following elements of A in Question 4: fa) 1 () 4 (c)3 (d) 1 . Three salesgirls sold the following numbers of bottles of perfume on a certain day Ivy sold 9 bottles of She, 13 of Rasy and 6 of Shield. Alinate sold 8 bottles of Yiu, 7 of Rosy and 10 of Shield. Pempho sold 15 bottles of Yi, 1 of She and 18 of Rosy. Show this information in a 3 x 4 matrixAddition and subtraction of matrices Over a period of two weeks, two families used the amounts of bread, milk and sugar shown in Table 1.3 below Week | Week 2 Item | Kasiva’s | Mlenga’s | Kasiya’s ] Mlenga's family | family | family | family Bread 7 12 7 16 (loaves) Milk 10 M4 13 16 (litres) | | Sugar | 2 3 2 4 (ke) at Table 1.3 Regard the table as two 3 x 2 matrices. We will use these to complete the 3 x 2 matrix shown below, giving the total amounts of each item used by each family in the two weeks, 7 12 7 16 7+7 12 + 16} 10 14] 13 16 | =| 10+13) 14416 3) \2 4 2+2 344 =[14 WwW 23 w 4 7 To do this you must add together the elements in corresponding positions in the first two matrices. This is how matrices are added The method of subtraction follows the same pattern as that of addition. For, example, to find out how much more of each food item that the families in Table 1.3 used in the second week than in the first week, each quantity in the first matrix is subtracted trom the corresponding quantity in the second matrix, 7 16 0 [: 7 16-12) bs - - fv} 4 [» 10 16-14] 2 «4-35 (i o Compatibility in addition or subtraction Matrices can be added or subtracted only if they are of the same order. Such matrices are said to be compatible for addition or for | subtraction, The resulting matrix is of the same order. The operation is done as follows hi, tg bth ci Gad f (ope dij) e=k ra) f def ‘Example LI gala aha pile fy @) B-A once Solution raral(Sa ihe AG ba eid aara-(; a) (33a) [902 ed 2 (eae (A-B @AtCFrom Example 1.1, we notice that: | Matnix addition 1s commutative, 1.¢ | A+B = B+A, but | Matrix subtraction is non-commutative, 1. | A-B#B-A Exercise 1.2 1. Add the following pairs of matrices where possible. (a) (2 aos 3 40 \-2 -1 (b) (; mete 5 4, 052 aay (ba (c) 2} 3fand|-3 2 5 5! $2 ” = -1 (d) (3-2 5) oa] 5 Explain why in some cases it is not possible to add. . Work out the following, where possible. Ma (isd 4624) 1435 5 o(f-B) 0 2 4 ‘ 1 3)_(8 ‘ a ( IG W\s 3 3 ©) G5-4+255)-[2 1 ) (6 45)-@ 2 -4)+B 5 2) |. Write down any three matrices A, B and C which have the same order. Work out: (a) A+(B+C) (b) (A+B)+C (c) Now complete the following statement about the implied property of matrix addition in (a) and (b). Matrix addition is . Copy the following, replacing the stars with appropriate values. oC jf Ib : " Ee)-(: }() ' 2 6) {a b\_{5 2), ui! 6 V( ‘eG 4 find the values of a and b. In relation to matrix addition or subtraction, what does it mean to say “the matrices are incompatible”?Scalar multiplication of matrices a 4 64.3 4 wa=(; jara-( 5 +f ) -( i) ButA+A = 2A. 3 4) (2x3 2x4 Thus, we see that 2A = ; I stats eel -(6 8 4 10 The number, for example 2, multiplying the matrix is called a scalar. [ To multiply a matrix by a sealar, we multiply each element of the matrix by the scalar. abc) _jka kb ke | se Hae 1 tia te w) _ i Eee 2.2 Workout (1 ) 2 Solution fi 4) _ [4x1 4x4| sf, i) - ies “| - (eal 12.8 Example 1.3 Find the values of m,n, p and q if ale 3)-4(3 al-(r @) I-Ie EHod tes me (.",") (5) Hence, m= 5,n=4, p = 6 andq =-I. aa Two matrices are equal if they are of the | | | same order and their corresponding elements | are equal Exercise 1.3 . _2 0 -( 3} 4 1. Given that A=(5 ,), B=(5_ >) am 1-2) c= to} find (a) 3A (by 4C () A+2B (4) B-2C _winarical? $+ 2) -( 3. Find the matrix M for which: 3 4 @ 6 d-45 2)- 4 (b) (eee 9) om = (3 jj-m 4. Find xand yif, fx 3) (x 4) _(18 7), 5h 3)-26 Abs 1) ptqtr\ [sl 5, Find the unknowns in|p+2q | = {6}. 3p 6 Multiplication of matrices Multiplication of row and column matrices We have seen how matrices are added or subtracted. Sometimes, it is necessary to combine matrices in a different way. Now consider the following example. Example 1.4 ‘Mrs. Mandondo bought 2 kg of meat at K 600 per kilogram and 3 tins of milling at K 100 per tin, How much did she spend?Solution Twokinds of information are given: the quantities of food bought and their costs. This information can be shown in a matrix form as: M represents milk and U represents milling MU M U Bian 3) * (600 100) To find the total cost, we calculate it as follows: Cost = K (2 x 600 + 3 x 100) = K (i 200 + 300) = K1500 When using matrices, this calculation is written in the form Q 3)( S00) = (2x 600 + 3x 100) = (1 S00) The matrix (1 500) in Example 1.4 is known as the product of the two matrices. Note: 1. The first matrix is written as a row matrix and the second as a column matrix but in the same order. No multiplication symbol is placed between the two matrices. Notice that: ae eee | To combine a row matrix and a column | matrix with the same number of elements, we multiply their corresponding elements and add, ie. (a b) ( *)= (ax + by) Example 1.5 Ina national soccer league, the result of two soccer clubs, Tigers FC and Juke Box FC, were as shown in Table 1.4 Club | Won TigesFC | OS Juke Box FC 7 4 Drawn| Table 1.4 If three points are awarded when a match is won and | point when it is drawn, use matrices to find the total number of points obtained by each club. = Points per win T draw aa eet = (26) 4) (7x3+4x1) = (23) Thus, Tigers FC had 26 points and Juke Box FC has 25 points, Give a reason why we cannot find the product 22 Ag Exercise 1.4 1. Where possible, work out the following: 12 2 (a) (02 vfs (b) 5 1-2) 0 2 “5 ©) (3) @ G+ (5) 2 =a 6 © o9(5) Ciaran) iy 3 r Find the value (or values) of the unknown in each of the following cases. ) (2) = C24 (b) ( -5) (7) = (0) x (c) 2 x 5) (; |- (28) 4 5 (@) 30x) |1 = (40)x 3. A wholesaler sells salt in packets of two sizes: small and large. The amounts of salt contained in these packets are $00 g and | kg. A retailer bought them at K 40 and K 85 respectively. (a) Write down two column matrices, one for the amount and another for the cost. (b) The retailer ordered 2 dozens of large and 3; dozens of small packets. Write this information as a row matrix. (c) By multiplying matrices, calculate the total amount of salt ordered. (d) How much did the order cost? 4. A farmer took the following to the market: 5 boxes of cassava and 5 sacks of cabbages. He sold the vegetable at the rates of K 700 per box and K 450 per sack respectively. Use a matrix to find how much the farmer got. 5, It costs an average K 24 to feed a goat per day and K 60 to feed a cow per day. A farmer has 5 cows and 15 goats and another has 10 cows and 10 goats. Find the difference in their expenditure per day on feeding of their animals. Multiplying 2 = 2 matrices ‘A snack shop owner uses a computer to store data, in a matrix form. The owner can obtain information about the sales at one of his shops where he sells doughnuts and hotdogs. (2,0) > cost of 1 doughnut in $ i ead (tis | cera bein umber of number of doughnuts hot dogs sold sold The expression 62 (2,0) + 27(1.65) is used to calculate number of cost of | number af cost of | doughnuts doughnuts hotdogs hotdog the total sales at that outlet. If more than one shop was involved, the data can be recorded as a matrix Number of number of hotdogs doughnuts 7 ay Shop A (62 27 Shop B \a9 83 To calculate the sales of each shop we multiply the matrices (62. 27) [2.0)\=(62 «2 +27 1.65 49 3 (res] (toc2+ 43% 1.65 =(124+ 433) (os 136.95 this component gives 168,55) > teal salesofshop A | > 234.95] > total sales of shop B The example above suggest a method for multiplying matrices. For example, jab) fe ) = (ae+bg at + bh) (ca ( h ee of + dh __ component in 1* row column gy row, |" column wed Gant} 2 row 1* column CH GID The remaining elements can be found ina similar way. component in 2* row, I“ column 1* row of the first matrix combined with 2" column of the second matrix gives the component in 1* row and 2™ column. Similarly, 2" row of first matrix and 2“ column of second matrix gives the component in 2" row, 2 column. Similar procedure is followed to find the product of matrices of other orders.At the same time and at the same store, Mrs. Mambo bought 3 kg of meat and 2 tins ofmilling. On a different day, the two ladies bought the ‘Same quantities of food items at a store where the prices were K 650 per kilogram of meat and 80 per tin of milling. Use matrix method to Sind how much each lady spent at each place. Solution Mrs. Pempho, Ist store: ay ant = (2x 600+ 3x 100) = (1 500) i.e, she spent K 1.500. Mrs. Pempho, 2nd store: ay is = (2 x 650 + 3 x 80) = (1 540) i.e, she spent K 1 540, Mrs. tambo, Ist store: ay ie = (9x 600+ 2x 100) = (2.000) i.e. she spent K 2.000. Mrs. tambo, 2nd store: G2) ed) = (3 x 650+ 2x 60) = (210) ive. she spentK 2.110. Note that, in calculating Mrs. Pempho’s expenditure, the first matrix is the same in each case. We can combine these multiplications and write for Mrs. Pempho. 600 650) _ @ =n ) = (1500 1540) Likewise, we can write for Mrs, Ntambo: G 2)( $n | = (2:000 2.110) Finally, since the matrix giving the prices is the same in each case, we can now represent the whole calculation by a single product as: 23) (600 650 bigs 1540 32] \100 80 2.000 2 110 8 ‘We note that: In working out the product of two matr the rows of the left-hand matrix combined, in turns, with the columns of t | right-hand matrix. J J . work out the ab) (3) To work out this product, we combine the first row of A with the columns of B in turn to give Baath) “2 5 e «) (2 4 “Tae al]: We then combine the second row of A with the columns of B to give a C4): me lo -2/ |-2 4 mae} at) _ jas tme.(5 3) G le 5 In the product AB, we say that B has been pre-multiplied by A. If the product matrix AB, which is in Example 1:7,i5 (4% Sa i 7,38 (ee 22) -each ofits elements is obtained as shown in Table 1.5. Elements of|Gotby combining Product matrix [Row of [Column of 2nd Istmatrix | matrix 4, Istrow | Istcolumn ay Istrow 2nd column a, 2ndrow | Ist column Boy 2ndrow | 2nd column Table 1.5 .This enables us to write down any required clement in the product immediately when dealing with more complicated products, Example 1.8 er jJeuo (jf) sina. o-(s3(29 -3x2+1x3 mes 6+3 (3 Example 1.9 Write down the values of c and d in the product ( 1 ;) ( aid ( ab BF 7-2) led Solution Element c is obtained by combining the 2nd row of the Ist matrix with the Ist column of the 2nd matrix. 2 ¢ = 2x3+7x7= 55. “Element d is obtained by combining the 2nd row of the Ist matrix with the 2nd column of the 2nd matrix. od =2x1+7x2= 12 4x6+2xI] ax6e1 ef 24+ 2) 18+ i Compatibility in multiplication x. Activity 2 | Given that P= (0.5) and Q (: 3} which | ofthe products PQ and QP is possible? Work out the one which is possible. | TryPQ: PQ= (0 5) (i | # morer= (a) oor? How many rows and columns are in the possible product? You should have now noticed that: Two matrices can be multiplied if. and ony if, | the number of columns in the matrix to the | left is the same as the number of rows in the matrix to the right. When this the two matrices are said to be compatible | for multiplication. For example, a (p x q) | matrix and a (g x r) matrix are compatible in that order but a (g xr) matrix and a| (p x g) matrix are not compatible. s the case, You should also have noticed that: The product of two matrices has the sami number of rows as the first matrix and the same number of columns as the second matrix. Thus, a (p * q) matrix will pre- multiply a (q x r) matrix to give a (p x 7) matrix, ie (px gq xr) > (pxr) Example 1.10 w-|! 3)ono-(3, 8). trom OP. What do you notice? Solution "allo be a Nt “(eee Ix0+3x2 -2x2+-1x-1 -2x0+-1x (3) cal oe |e =(2x1+0x-2 2x3+ Ix 1+2x-2 -1 Kd,We notice that: PQ + QP. ie matrix multiplication is not commutative. Exercise 1.5 1, Inwhich of the following pairs of matrices is it possible to pre-multiply the second matrix by the first? Work out the product where possible (a) (; clea (b) (3) "(i 31 {c) ate 71) @ GB Tard (4) 1 8) an | 2 4) (; 2] a) ( | ama? ') Given that A= (1 3) and B= (3 3) find AB and BA. Do your results lead you to the same conclusion as that of Example 1.10? 3. Given that (3? (3) - «(7?) find the value of k. Yn . Find the values of x and y if, (x 2) (3) = (8 (i ) (7) (a) 31) _ (b) (vy) li 3) = (9 6) B 5, A matrix B is such that (2 3) B = (9 2). What is the order of the matrix B? 6. Work out the following products. (a) tt Ole i (4 i (; A ©2169 96208 oP Me: 30 i) Given that A = ( 5 9). B -( : 3) 4 13 wac =(! 3} (a) Work out BC and A(BC), (b) Work out AB and (AB)C. 40). (01 =i 3) 8. we=( §}-e-(5 and R ba calculate: (a) PR (b) OR (c) PR+QR and (d) (P+ Q)R (e) Show that (3P + 5Q)R = 3PR + 5QR. 9, When shopping for Christmas, Penina bought 2 skirts and 3 blouses at her local urban centre where the prices were K 360 per skirt and K 300 per blouse. In the main town, a bargain shop was offering the same commodities at K 350 and K 270 respectively. (a) How much would she have saved by going to buy the items at the bargain shop if the fare was K 50 return? (b) Tessie’s purchases were 3 skirts and 2 blouses. (i) Express Penina’s and Tessies’s purchases as a 2 x 2 matrix (A)and (ii) the prices in the urban centre and bargain shop as a 2x 2 matrix (B) (c) Find the matrix product P = AB, What does P tell you? Find also the matrix product BA. What does this tell you?10. In Form 4N, there are 5 candidates for Computer Studies and 12 for Agriculture. The numbers in Form 4S are 6 for Computer Studies and 10 for Agriculture. Each Computer student is required to buy 4 textbooks and 3 exercise books while each Agriculture student is required to buy 3 textbooks and 3 exercise books. Find, by matrix multiplication, the total number of each kind of book bought by each class. Multiplying with identity and zero matrices The matrix ( ‘) is called the identity (or unit) matrix of order 2, It is denoted by I). Note that an identity matrix is a square matrix which has only 1's in the diagonal from the top left corner to the bottom right corner and 0's elsewhere. The 1's are said to be in the leading or main diagonal. Note: The matrices I, and I, behave like the number | in the multiplication of numbers, e.g. 3x1=1x3=3,axl=1xa=a. Thus: | IM is a square matrix, and Lis the identity | matrix of the same order as M. then | IM=MI-M | L is more specifically, a multiplicative identity of the same order as M. In Question 6(c) of Exercise 1.5, did you obtain a matrix with all its elements zeros as shown below? (5) (00 _[Ox5+2%0 O27 2*0) Ox5+5x0 0x2+5x0 -(o 0 Such a matrix is called a zero matrix. A zero matrix is a matrix of any order, not | necessarily square, with all its elements zero. | ttis denoted by 0, and has the property that OM = MO = 0, provided that O and M are compatible both ways. O isalso an additive identity, i.e M+0=0+M=M, provided that O and M are of the same order. Thus, O behaves like the number zero. Exercise 1.6 1. Write down the additive identity of each of the following matrices. w(2 4) (84) o(f3) 2. For each of the following matrices, write down a multiplicative identity, making sure to specify the order in which itis an identity. (34) (5 4) (34) 3 P= (5 3) whats: (a) LP (b) PL? 4. Work out the product pea (es at ‘What do you notice? aera XY=Y, then X =I?5. . Given tat = {-} Al ( 1 2 fA -(5 | andB the product AB, Is it always true that if AB =0, then A= 0 or B=0? Is it true that if X= 0 and Y = 0, then XY=0? re 24} \ed find the possible values ofa, b, c and d which are non-zero. % (a) Find the products of the following matrices (0) ( *) ( ‘) (ii) (e 3) ( ‘| +2 1) \0 1, 45} \0 | (b) Give a reason why the name identity matrix is a suitable description of the i ot matrix {5}TANGENTS TO CIRCLES By the end of this topic, the student must be able to: + Describe the properties of tangents to circles. + Apply the properties of tangents to circles in solving problems. + Construct tangents. Tangent to a circle Inthis chapter, we will concentrate on construction and properties of tangents to a circle. Let us first understand what a tangent to a circle is. Consider Fig. 2.1. K i, fa) (h) T U Q V R to (d) P' Fig. 2.1 In Fig. 2.1(a), lines KL and PQ have only one common point with the circle. Aline with at least ‘one point common with the circle is said to meet the circle at that point. In Fig. 2.1(b), line RS has two distinct common points with the circle. Such a line is said to meet and cut the circle at the two points. Such a line is called a secant. In Fig. 2.1(c), the line TV has one point of contact with the circle. Line TV is said to meet and touch the circle at that point of contact. Point U is called the point of contact. Sucha line is called a tangent to the circle. Thus, in Fig. 2.1 (c) TV is the tangent to the circle at point U. Similarly, in Fig. 2.1 (4) PQ is the tangent to the circle at point R. -| 1. Aline which cuts a circle at two distinc points (as in Fig. 2.1(b)) is called a secant of the circle A line which has one, and only one point in contact with a circle (as in Fig. 2.1(¢) and (d)), however far it is produced eit | way, is called a tangent to the ci Relationship between tangent and radius of a circle at the point of contact. Consider Fig. 2.2. (a (b)(© (@) Fig. 2.2 Fig. 2.2(a) to (d) shows what happens when the secant PQRS moves away from the centre of the circle. As the secant moves further away, the points Q and R get closer to each other and the chord QR gets shorter each time. Eventually, Q and R coincide at one point [Fig. 2.2(d)]. On the other hand, angles OQP and ORS become smaller and smaller. Eventually when Q and R coincide, angles OQR and ORS each becomes 90°. Note that in AOQR, since OQ = OR, ZOQR = ZORQ. It follows that ZPQO = ZSRO. Therefore, when Q and R coincide [Fig. 2.2(d)], ZPQO =ZSRO = 90° Hence the radius is perpendicular to the tangent PS. Activity 2.1 | 1. Draw a circle of any radius centre O. | 2. Mark a point A anywhere on the| circumference of the circle and draw a line through A so that the line just touches the circle at A extending on both sides Ato points C and D. Cc A D 3. Join OA and measure the two angles ac] and OAD. c A D | Note that: . Atangent toa circle is perpendicular to the radius drawn through the point of contact. | 2. At any point on a circle, one, and only | one, tangent can be drawn to the circle. | 3. The perpendicular to a tangent at its point | of contact passes through the centre of the circle. Thus, Fig. 2.3 (a) to (d) shows the angles between the radius and tangent at various points on the circumference. Ce ee EE. > Fig. 2.3ZABD ~ LABO 120° - 90° = 30° OB = OD (radii) B = LOBD (hase angles ofan isosceles A) ee OA? = AB + BO® (right A; Pythagoras theorem) Exercise 2.1 1. Fig. 2.5 shows acircle, centre O. PR isa tangent to the circle, at P and PQ isa chord. Calculate P (a (b) (c) d) ZRPQ given that ZPOQ = 85°. ZRPQ given that Fig. 25 ZPQO = 26°. ZPOQ given that ZRPQ = 54° ZPOQ given that ZQPO = 17°. 2. InFig.2.6,ABCisa sg mn tangent and BE is a diameter to the circle. Calculate: (a) ZEBD if ie ZCBD = 33°. (b) ZBED if a ZABD =150°. Fig. 2.6 (c) DBC if ZDEB = 65° (d) ZABD if ZBED = 38°. 3. PQisadiameter ofa circle. Let R be a point on the circumference of the circle. Show that PR is a tangent to a circle, centre O, radius OR. 4. AB is achord of a circle, centre O. If BC is a perpendicular to the tangent at A, show that ZOBA = ZABC. 5. Two circles have the same centre O, but different radii, PQ is a chord of the bigger circle but touches the smaller circle at A. Show that PA= AQ. 6. Two circles have the same centre O and radii of 13 cm and 10 cm. AB is a chord of the bigger circle, but a tangent to the small circle. What is the length of AB? 7. Atangent is drawn from a point 17 cm away from the centre of a circle of radius 8 cm. What is the length of the tangent? Constructing a tangent at any given point on the circle To construct a tangent to a circle, we use the fact that a tangent is perpendicular to the circle at the point of contact. Procedure 1. Draw a circle, centre O, using any radius. 2. Drawa line OB through any point A on the circumference, with B outside the circle.3. AtA, construct a line PQ perpendicular to OB. The line PQ e (Fig. 2.7) isa tangent to the circle at A. Fig. 27 Constructing tangents to a circle from a common point Procedure 1. Draw a circle of any radius, centre O. 2. Mark a point T outside the circle. 3. Join OT. Construct the perpendicular bisector of TO to meet TO at P. 4. With centre P, radius PO, construct arcs to cut the circle at points A and B. | 5, Join AT and BT. These are the required tangents from the external point T. 6. Join OA and OB to get Fig. 2.8 below. Fig. 28 | 7. Measure: (e) AT, BT. ' | (b) ZATO, ZBTO, (c) ZAOT, ZBOT (a) ZTAO, ZTBO What do you notice? Which points on a circle would have {_ tants that do not meet? You should have observed that: AT=BT. ZATO = ZBTO, eae. | ZAOT= ZBOT ZTAO = LTBO Tangents at points on a circle which are diametrically opposite do not meet. If two tangents are drawn to a circle from a common point outside the circle: (a) the tangents are equal; | (b) the tangents subtend equal angles at the centre; | | (c)_ the line joining the centre to the common point bisects the angles between the | | tangents. | (@) the angle between the tangent and the | radius at the point of contact is 90°, Theorem Tangents from an external point to the same circle are equal in length. Consider Fig, 2.9. B Fig. 2.9 O is the centre of the circle, AT and BT are the tangents to the circle from an external point T. To prove AT = BT; Join OT, OA, OB. Proof Using As AOT and BOT; OA=OB....... radii of the same circle. OT=OT ..,. OT is common to the two triangles ZTAO=ZTBO = 90° .... radius meets tangent at right angles at the point of contact.As AOT and BOT are right angled at A and B respectively. As AOT and BOT are congruent i AD = BT congruent triangles, <. Tangents from an external point to the same circle are equal. ... RHS corresponding sides of ——— Theorem The line joining an external point to the centre of a circle bisects that angle between the tangents from that point. Consider Fig 2.10 Fig. 2.10 O is the centre of the circle. AT and BT are tangents to the circle from a common extemal point T. To prove LATO = ZBTO Using AATO and BTO, radii tangents from an external point to the same circle are equal. TO is common. As ATO and BTO are congruent ..... SSS. Corresponding angles of the triangles are equal. AR’ = AB’- BR’ 4 = 12-10 = 144-100 = 44 = AR = N44 = 6.633 em. But PQ = AR (opposite sides of rectangle) 2 PQ = 6.633 cm. Exercise 2.3 2 The centres of two circles of radii 10 cm and 6 cm are 20 cm apart. Find the length of: (a) a direct common tangent to the circles. (b) a transverse common tangent of the circles. . Draw two circles, radii 5 cm and 2 cm, such that their centres are 8.5 cm apart. Construct a common tangent direct to the circles. Measure its length. . Draw two circles, radii 3.5 cm and 2.5 cm, such that their centres are 9 cm apart. Construct a transverse common tangent. Measure its length. |. Two circles of radii 6.5 cm and 1.5 cm have their centres 10 cm apart. What angle does: (a) the direct common tangent make with the line joining the centres? (b) the transverse common tangent make with the line joining the centres? . The centres of two circles of radii R and r, are d units apart, What is the length of: (a) a direct common tangent to the two circles? (b) a transverse common tangent to the two circles? }. Two circles with radii 3 cm and 8 cm are positioned in such a way that their centres are 13 cm apart. What is the length of their common direct tangent? - Two circles, with radii 12 cm and 4 cm, are placed such that the length of their direct common tangent is 15 cm. What is the distance between their centres?Angles in alternate segment In Fig. 2.18, ABC is a tangent to the circle at B. The chord BD divides the circle into two segments BED and BFD. We see that ABD is in the minor x B c segment (unshaded Fig. 2.18 segment). The shaded segment BFD is the major segment. We say that segment BFD is the alternate segment to ZABD. Similarly, segment BED is the alternate segment to ZCBD. You should have observed that ZABD = ZBPD = ZBQD = ZBRD. In general: 1. Ifa straight line touches a circle, and from the point of contact a chord is drawn, the angle which the chord makes 20 with the tangent is equal to the angle the chord subtends in the alternate segment of the circle, This is called the alternate segment theorem. | Ifa straight line is drawn at the end of a | chord of a circle making with the chord an angle equal to an angle in the alternate segment, the straight line touches the circle (i.e. it is a tangent to the circle). yp Fig. 2.20 is used to explain further the properties of angles in alternate segments. (a) We use Fig. 2.20(a) to show that ZROQT = ZQST. u 5 + | aeeaeeel ares (a) 0) Fig. 2.20 Draw diameter QU. Join UT. Since QU is a diameter and PR is a tangent, ZROT + ZTQU = 90° (tangent . radius) LQTU= 90° (Z in semi-circle) =. LQUT + ZTQU = 90° (Z sum of A) <. ZROT+ ZTQU = ZQUT + ZTQU => ZRQT = ZQUT. But ZQUT = ZQST (Zs in same segment) :. LRQT = ZQST. (b) We use Fig. 2.20(b) to show that ZPQT = ZQMT ZPQT + ZROT = 180° (adj. Zs on straight line). ZQMT + ZQST = 180° (opp. Zs of eyclic quadrilateral). . 2PQT + ZRQT= ZQMT + ZOQST. But ZRQT= ZQST (shown in (a) above) :. ZPQT= ZQMTTheorem: The angle between a chord and a tangent at the point of contact is equal to the angle subtended by the same chord in the alternate segment. Given: Circle centre O Tangent at B Chord intersecting tangent at the point of contact. Let the tangent be ABC. Chord: BD and E another point on the circle as in Fig. 2.21. E Fig. 2.21 To prove ZCBD = ZBED Construction (i) Draw in the diameter through B and O to intersect the circle at a point F. (ii) Join DF and EF. Proof Let ZFED = a, ZDBF = b ZCBF = 90° .....radius meets tangent at the point of contact at right angles. But ZCBF= CBD + ZFBD = LCBD+a ZBEF = 90° angle on a semi circle = 90° ZBEF = ZBED + ZFED 2CBD+ ZFBD = BED + 4FED But ZFBD = ZFED ........angles subtended by the same chord in the same segment. B x circle, ABand cf ——B_ CD are chords that meet at X. XT is a tangent to vr the circle. —— Show that: (a) XT? = XA- XB (b) XT?=XC+ XD.* Calculate measures of dispersion. * Interpret data using measures of ‘dispersion. Introduction In book 3, we learnt the three common measures of central tendency. These are the mean, median and mode. In this unit, we will leam about the measures of dispersion. How are the two measures. related? Measures of central tendency tell us where the middle ofa set of data lies. It summarizes a set of data to its centre. Measures of dispersion denote how stretched or squeezed a distribution is. Measures of dispersion use measures of central tendency to show how data is spread out or dispersed. For example, a mean of data shows the average value of such a data, but a measure of dispersion shows how close data points are to a mean value. Measures of dispersion Consider the distributions in Table 3.1. A 150 [50 [50 |50 |50 50 {50 B |42 [45 |46 [50 [52 |56 |59 je [34 [37 [49 |s3 [57 [59 [61 Table 3.1 Mean = = Ef 50 + 50+ 50 + 50 + 50+ 50+50 Mean of A= ——————_———— By the end of this topic, the student must be able to: 42+45+ 46 +50 +52+56+59 SSS Mean of B = =. 59 a 34+37+ 49 +53 +57+59+61 Mean of C 7 350 —==50 7 The mean of each distribution is 50. In distribution A, the values do not vary, while in distributions B and C, they do. Some of the values in B and C are above the mean while others are below. The values show variation or dispersion. Those of distribution C are more spread out than those of distribution B. Those of distribution A have no spread. It is useful, for statistical purposes, to have a way of measuring the dispersion (or spread) of a distribution. In this unit, we will look at such measures which include the range, mean deviation, standard deviation and variance. Range Range is the difference between the largest | and smallest values in a distributionNote: |. The greater the variation of the values ina distribution, the greater the range. The range is very easy to determine. However, it is disadvantageous in that it depends on only two extreme values. Mean deviation (M.D.) Table 3.2 shows the deviations from the mean of each of the values in distributions B and C in Table 3.1. Deviations from the mean 3, 5, 40,26 9 | 3, 7, 9, *W Table 3.2 Sum of deviation from the mean in distribution Bare: 8 +-5+-4+0+2+6+9 -17+17=0 ‘Sum of deviation from mean in distribution C are: 16+-13+-1+3+7+9+11 30+30=0 In each case, the sum of the deviations is zero. For any distribution, the sum of the deviations is zero. This does not reveal anything about the dispersion of the values. Since we are interested only in how far above or below the mean that the values are, we may ignore the signs on the deviations and take the absolute values (i.e sizes of the deviations irrespective of the signs). For distributions B and C, the absolute deviations are as in Table 3.3. | Absolute deviations from the mean Table 3.3 Absolute deviation from the mean are denoted as |x —| where x is the mean of the set. The mean of absolute deviations is called mean absolute deviation or simply mean deviation (MD). It tells us how far, on average, the values are above or below the mean. For distribution A (Table 3.1), MD =0. This means that every value is equal to the mean. For distribution B, +44+04+2+649 mp = 85 a 34 5 4.857 (asf). This means that, on average, the values are 4.9 more or less than the mean. For distribution C, MD = 16+13+1+3+7+9+11 7 8.571 (4s... | The formula for finding mean deviation is Df lx-¥] Mp = St | us Note: |. i The greater the dispersion, the higher the value of MD. ‘The mean deviation may be calculated from any other average, e.g. from the median or mode. However, mean deviation about the mean is the one most commonly used and preferred. 3. When the data is grouped, we use the class mid-values to find MD. Exercise 3.1 1. Forthe following distributions, determine the range and the mean absolute deviation. (a) 65, 69, 70, 72, 76, 78, 80, 81, 84 (b) 16, 23, 26, 38, 42, 47, 53, 58, 61, 64, 73, 75, 79, 83, 87.1. Table 3.4 shows the distribution of shoe sizes of 100 students in a certain school. swesee [4 [5 [6 |7 [8 9 | No.ofstudents | 11 | 26 | 33 eto le] Table 3.4 Find: (a) the range, (b) the mean deviation of the distribution. 3. Table 3.5 is a frequency distribution of the mass of tobacco harvested on a single day by labourers working on a tobacco estate. Mass (ke) | 58 | 61 | 64 | 67 Frequency | 5 | 6 | 8 | 12 | { 70 | 73 | 76 | 79 [13] 8 | 6 [2 Table 3.5 Find the mean deviation. Variance and standard deviation Standard deviation is used for quality control. In the field of manufacturing, a certain amount of deviation from the norm is considered acceptable. To determine the amount of deviation, a representative measure of the data called the standard deviation is calculated. The purpose of this measure is to determine how closely measurements cluster about the mean. Although items that are mass produced can never be identical, they need to be similar. For example, machine parts must match other machine parts that need replacing. Thus, they need to be manufactured to have measurements that are as close as possible. Inthe production of merchandise, it is important to check quality constantly. The standard deviation of sample batches is the way to determine how closely measurements cluster about the mean. Rather than ignore the signs of the deviations, we can square each deviation so that we get only positive values. The mean of the squares of the deviations from the mean is called the mean squared | _ deviation or variance, denoted as s Consider the following distribution. B: 42, 45, 46, 50, 52, 56, 59. The mean of this distribution is 50. The variance of the distribution is worked out as follows (Table 3.6). | x | d=x-x é 4a 8 64 | 4s 3 25 46 4 16 50 0 0 52 2 4 56 6 36 59 9 81 x Table 3.6 Variance = us = *s = 32.29, For a frequency distribution, variance is given by the formula Di(e-xP This is known as the basic formula for finding the variance. If the units of the values in the distribution were centimetres, what would the units of the variance be? To be useful, any measure of spread must have the following properties:1, Translation along the number line (i.e. adding a.constant A to each value in the distribution) should not affect it. 2. Enlargement with scale factor c (i.e. multiplying or dividing each value in the distribution by c) should multiply or divide the spread by the same factor c. 3. Multiplying the frequencies by any factor should not change the spread. 4. All members of the distribution should be taken into account, but extreme values must not influence the spread unduly. ‘The variance does not satisfy property 2! This is because we have squared the deviations. To restore this property, we take the square root of the variance. ‘The square root of the variance is known as root mean squared deviation or standard deviation (denoted by s). Thus, s = Wariance =e Mle. eet | 5 2 | 1 | ip | 4 28 i 8 x | i 6 6 | 13 4 52 Siam b= 228 Table 3.8 (a) Ma,» = EE = FE = 95 This value of xis used to complete Table 3.8(0).Note: |. Ifs is small, the numbers are closely grouped about the mean. 2. When the data is grouped, we use the class mid-values to calculate standard deviation, s. Exercise 3.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of each of the following distributions, giving your answer correct to 4 s.f. where appropriate. 1. 6,8,9, 10, 10, 12, 15 2. 34,37, 49, 53, 57, 59, 61 3 x» )2]4)]6 8 | 0] fiij2{,4 Table 3.11 & [oualiy [10s] 25s Tass ]ass] 55] 633] [remeney slo tsts| Table 3.13 6. Computational formula We have already seen that the variance is given by the formula gs Expanding this formula gives: gow Wie a2 +P)This method is very useful in cases where the mean is fractional, in which case the working would be more difficult if we tried to use the basic formula. Example 3.4 Use the formulas = |S5-—¥ to find the standard deviation of this distribution. Re cr iny ed 5 7 9 Wo 13 Fie 4 ie | 6 | 4 Table 3.15 Solution The working may be tabulated as shown in Table 3.16. z | fe 10 50 28 196 648 726 676 = 2327 (sf) Example 3.5 Inanogricultural centre, the lengths ofaasample of 50 maize cobs were measured and recorded as shown in Table 3.17, 28 Length (cm) Number of cobs 8-10 4 1-13 7 14-16 i 17-19 15 20-22 8 23-25 5 Table 3.17 Calculate: .) the mean, the variance, the standard deviation. Solution Table 3.17 shows the required working. Length fo ox fe fe (cm) 8-10 49 36 324 11-13 712 84 1008 14-16 ny) 15 165 2475 17-1915, 18 270 4360 20-22 g 21 168 3528 23-25 5 24 120 2.880 Sie. Lfe= 843 Lf = 15 075 Table 3.18 = Ui _ 88 Mean, sf 50 = 16.86 fi ' Variance = we er 15 075 = —— - (16.86) 50 é i = 301.5 — 284.26 = 17.24 ‘Standard deviation = fe 2 vo =NI7.24 = 4152Note that using the formula s= /L/%* involves less work, and hence, it is quicker. This formula is known as the computational formula for the standard deviation. An alternative method of calcul: ating standard deviation Suppose we add or subtract a constant to/from each of the values of a distribution. What is the effect of this on the standard deviation? The following example will enable us to answer this question. Example 3.6 Calculate the standard deviation (d) in Table 3.16, where d = x - 9. Compare the value obtained by that of the standard deviation of x obtained in Example 3.2. Solution The working is as shown in Table 3.19. x) f |d=x-9 fd fa aed 2 4 38 32 | 7 4 2 -8 16 % | 8 0 0 0 i” | 6 2 12 4 13 4 4 16 64 Sf=24 Yd = 12 Sf = 136 Table 3.19 qu 2 Mean, d “S57 i 05. i? =, ‘Standard deviation (d) = ioe 1369 x ea 0s = V5.667—0.25 = V5417 = 2.327 (4sf). This value is the same as the standard deviation of x in Example 3.2. Note that the constant 9 was arbitrary and any other constant could have been used. This constant is often referred to as a work mean. Example 3.7 Table 3.20 shows the heights of 50 pupils in a certain primary school. Height (cm) 105-109 110-114 MS-N9 Frequency 3 5 8 120-124 125-129 130-134 135-139 2 4 5 3 Table 3.20 Find the mean and standard deviation (d) of the distribution where d = x — 122. Solution Table 3.21 shows the required working. Height Midimervals| Frequency, d=x—Al fl vax (a=12) 105.109" 107 3) 4s) S| er one 12 3 “10 $0) $00 use 7 s S| 40) 200 noi R ° 0 0 ns) 27 “4 5} 70| 380 Boise 182 5 m0) 30 230 BS39 BT 3 i 8 oS 29From Examples 3.6 and 3.7, we see that | subtracting a constant from the values in a | distribution does not alter the value of the | variance or standard deviation. Hence, the | following formula may also be used to find the standard deviation. mean, Exercise 3.3 1. Find the standard deviation of the distribution in Table 3.22 using the computational formula. [x [9 on 213 415 | ee ed yale ses Table 3.22 2. Using a suitable working mean, find the standard deviation of the distribution in Table 3.23. Check your result using the computational formula. Table 3.23 3. Inastudy of the characteristics of cockroaches, a student of zoology measured lengths of antennae of a number of cockroaches and recorded them as in Table 3.24. Find the mean and standard deviation of the antenna lengths, using a working mean of 2.75. 30 | | \ Antenna length = Number of (cm) | cockroaches P1235 5 1.75 " 2.25 25 2.75 36 | 3.25 30 Beene zeae Table 3.24 . Using the assumed mean method, find the mean and standard deviation of the distribution of marks scored in a certain test by a number of students (Table 3.25). . Some AIDS sufferers were weighed and their masses were recorded as in Table 3.26. Find the mean and standard deviation of the masses. Mass (kg) No. of patients j 34.5 4 44.5 26 | 54.5 | 40 64.5 | 26 14.5 2 84.5 2 Table 3.26 ! CAUTION: AIDS has no cure. However, there isa sure way of avoiding it: TOTAL ABSTINENCE before marriage, and) once married, STICK TO YOUR _PARTNER!6. Using an assumed mean of 32, find the mean and standard deviation of the distribution in Table 3.27 7, Table 3.28 shows the masses of eighty students in a certain college. Calculate the mean and standard deviation of the masses. | Mass (kg) | Frequency fee a2 ee | 37 Ufa | 02 4 7 | 45 [on | n 7 Table 3.28 8. The frequency distribution in Table 3.29 shows the specimens. [Mass (2) masses of some biological [2 9 2 35 6 | Frequency,f [14 41 59 70 15 Calculate: Table 3.29 (a) the mean mass, (b) the standard deviation of the masses. > A movie was rated “unsuitable for under 16”. Table 3.30 shows the age distribution of those who attended one sitting. What is the mean age and standard deviation of the ages of the attendants? Age Frequency | 19.5 6 28.5 21 38.5 45 | 485 | 66 63.5 51 Table 3.30 3