Cell Modification

- also known as cell differentiation or specialization

- a process after cell division to produce newly formed cells. These
tructurally modified cells are stru that can perform functions effectively and
efficiently.

THREE TYPES OF CELL MODIFICATION

Apical modifications
-found in the apical surface
of the epithelial cells
- are responsible in carrying
out different functions such as
secretion, absorption, and movement.

a. Cilia
- are hair-like structures that are projected from most eukaryotic cells are
membrane-bound structures that cover mostly the entire apical surface.
They have a beating motion like waves.
-In microscopic organisms, cilia are used for locomotion. Cilia can also
create currents that help in their feeding process.
-In humans, cilia are found in respiratory epithelium which traps and
removes dirt. They are also found in fallopian tubes in which they are
responsible for moving the ovum to the uterus.

b. Flagella
- are hair-like structures that are mainly used for locomotion of cells
- are longer in length compared to cilia.
-cells with these structures are called flagellates.

Flagella on prokaryotic cells are composed of flagellin while eukaryotic cells

consist of microtubules.

Spermatozoa are flagellated human cells.

C. Hemidesmosomes
-are protein filaments that provide a strong connection between the
epithelial cell and its basement lamına and underlying connective tissue.

Lateral Modification
-found in the lateral surface or sides of the epithelial cells.

A. Tight junctions
-also known as zonula occludens are cell junctions located within the
epithelium. --They are formed by two sets of proteins called claudin and
occludin that create a tight seal between cells.
-produce zipperlike fastening between adjacent cells
-block the flow of fluids between epithelia.

Example in the intestine, the digestive juices stay out of the body, and
in the kidneys the urine stays within the kidney tubules, because the cells
are joined by tight junctions.

B. Desmosomes
-also known as macula adherens are cell junctions found beneath the
adherens junctions and throughout the cell. They form link between cells.
-they also provide single point of connection between adjacent cells and
intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton of the other adjacent cells
-these are mostly common in skin cells

C. Gap junctions
are specialized cell junctions that directly connect the two cells' cytoplasm
are formed by connexin proteins that create pores between cells.
serve as a connection and communication allowing direct passage of
molecules between different two cells

D. Adherens junctions
-also known as zonula adherens
-are cell junctions located beneath tight junctions, which provide a strong
bond between the sides of adjacent epithelial cell membranes.

Root hairs
- are projections from root-hair cells which are responsible
for the absorption of water and minerals.

Xylem vessels
- cell walls are thickened and impregnated with a
substance called lignin which makes xylem vessels
strong and impermeable.
-main function is to transport water and minerals
from the roots to other parts of the plant.

Guard cells
are specialized cells found in the epidermis. They
surround the stomata. When the guard cells are
turgid, the guard cells bend outward resulting to the
opening of stomata. If the guard cells become flaccid,
the guard cells bend inward causing the stomata to close

Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

- are specialized type of blood cells that do not contain a nucleus
-contains the respiratory pigment hemoglobin which contains iron, which
can combine loosely with oxygen.
- insufficient number of red blood cells may lead to anemia for humans.

Neurons (nerve cells)

-are specialized cells of nervous system.
- contain specialized structure known as dendrites and axons. Dendrites
receive electrical signals from the sensory receptors or other neurons and
transmit them to the cell body. Axons transmit signals to another neuron or
to other cells.

C. Microvilli
-also known as brush or striated border
- are small finger-like projections that are shorter and narrower compared to
cilia. -They contain bundles of parallel actin filaments that are held together
to form a bundle by the proteins called villin and fimbrin.
-They are usually located on the surface of epithelia.
-They are mainly responsible for effectively increasing the surface area
absorption and secretion.

Stereocilia
are very long microvilli. They are found in male reproductive parts such as
epididymis and duct deferens.They also function for absorption.

Basal Modifications
- found in the basal surface of the epithelial cells.

A. Basal lamina
-lies underneath the epithelial cells provides support to the overlying
epithelium, which limits the contact between epithelial cells and other types
of cells in the tissueacts as a filter which allows water and small molecules
to pass through
-it also helps the cells attach and anchor to an underlying connective tissue

B.Basal Infoldings
-are often found in epithelium and are responsible for actively transporting
fluids and ions.
- they increase the surface area for the cell to become available for
transport.

Muscle cells
- are composed of special proteins called actin and myosin, which allows the
muscles to contract.

Sperm cells
are specialized cells necessary for human reproduction. These cells are
predominantly made up of a nucleus. They are highly motile

CELL CYCLE

Cell cycle is an alternating stages of division and rest from division.

Series of steps that includes:
-Cell growth
-Duplication of Genetic Material(DNA)
-Cell division(splits into two cells)

CELL DIVISION
A single parent cell division into either two identical cells or four cells, each
with half the number of chromatids

INTERPHASE –
-nondividing the stage, which is devoted largely to cell growth
-stage between two successive cells division

3 PHASES OF INTERPHASE
1) GAP 1 (G1) phase
period when the cell increases in size in preparation of cell division
2) SYNTHESIS (S) phase
DNA is synthesized, and chromosomes are replicated
3) GAP 2 (G2) phase
period when the cell continues to synthesize RNA and proteins and increase
in size

CELL DIVISION
undergoes division
G0 PHASE
-cells undergo an arrested stage
-the cell is dormant and nonreplicating
CELL SENESCENCE
-aging at cellular level and the cell stops dividing

Mitosis
➤process of cell division wherein parent cell produces two identical daughter
cells
The chromosome has different parts which are:

Chromatid - refers to the single strand of a chromosome

Centromere -point where two sister chromatids are joined
Kinetochore-it is where the microtubules of the spindle attach

What are the four phases of mitosis?

1. Prophase
The chromosome s coil up into rod-shaped structures, nucleoli and nuclear
membrane disappear, and spindle fibers are formed
Metaphase
-Alignment of double-stranded chromosomes at the equatorial plate, with
the kinetochores attaching the chromosomes to the spindle fibers
Anaphase
Begins with the division of the centromeres and ends with the migration of
single-stranded chromosomes to the poles.
Telophase
- Also known as "reverse prophase"
It involves the uncoiling of chromosomes, reappearance of the nucleoli and
nuclear membrane, and disappearance of the spindle fibers
Cytokinesis
➤ In plant cell, it involves the formation of cell plate that later on develops
into the cell wall and the middle lamella
Cytokinesis
➤ In animal cell, formation of cleavage furrow.
MEIOSIS

 Begins with diploid cell

 Only produces gametes; genetically different haploid cell
 Has two cell division stages; meiosis I meiosis II
 Meiosis I produces two haploid cells each containing each one
chromosome from the homologous pairs.
 Meiosis II separates sister chromatids to produce two haploid cells
each containing one chromosome from the pairs.

PROPHASE I OF MEIOSIS
 Synapsis- pairing of homologous chromosomes
 Tetrad- 4 sister chromatids of paired homologous chromosome
 “Crossing over- recombination of alleles in homologous
chromosome
- Result of Crossing Over- genetic variety in gametes
 All gametes are haploid

Meiosis
o process wherein diploid parent cell produces four unique haploid
cells.
Diploid-
o a cell that has complete set of chromosomes (2n)
Haploid-
o cell that has half of the complete set of chromosomes (n)
Homologous Chromosome-
o pairs of battered chromosome; one material chromosome has a
paternal counterpart; have similar length, genes, and centromere.

PGASES OF MEIOSIS
Meiosis I

Prophase I-
o spindle fibers formed and will be attached to the kinetochore of the
chromosome.
Synapsis- the homologous chromosome pair up, forming tetrads

Metaphase I
o the tetrads align at the equator.
Anaphase I
o the tetrad breaks up and the homologous chromosome randomly
segregate, separate, and more toward the opposite poles.

Telophase I
o two haploid cell are produced in preparation to the next stage of
cell division in meiosis.

Prophase II
o spindle fibers form and attach to the chromosome

Metaphase II
o chromosome align at the equator.

Anaphase II
o sister chromatids separate.

Telophase II
o chromosome uncoils and unfolds, and the nuclear membrane