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On the same origin of quantum physics and general relativity from Riemannian
geometry and Planck scale formalism

Preprint · March 2024

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31340.17287

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 On the same origin of quantum physics and general relativity from
Riemannian geometry and Planck scale formalism

Chavis Srichan1,*, Pobporn Danvirutai1

1
Faculty of Engineering, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen, 40002, Thailand
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
It has been a long time to reconcile quantum physics and general relativity. To date, no globally accepted
theory has been proposed to explain all physical observations. In this work, we reformulated the
Riemannian geometry in terms of curvature and energy tensors using the Planck scale formalism. The
proposed equation can be transformed into Dirac equations in electrodynamic and chromodynamic fields
with a reduction in the background curvature. We redefined the mass and charge of leptons in terms of the
interactions between the energy of the field and the curvature of the spacetime. The obtained equation is
covariant in space–time and invariant with respect to any Planck scale. Therefore, the constants of the
universe can be reduced to only two quantities: Planck length and Planck time. We proved that the Einstein
field equation from general relativity is actually a relativistic quantum mechanical equation. We further
modeled the universe using the equation with Einstein’s lambda formalism and found that the universe
dynamics could be considered as harmonic oscillators entangled with lambda curvature. This equation can
be used to describe the energy transfer between two entangled spacetimes between the same universe and
between any two universes (ER=EPR). The singularity of black holes can be avoided at the Planck scale,
because space and time are no longer entangled. This equation predicts that information of light from the
entangled universe can be transferred to our universe. The gravitational wave background was predicted,
and its spectrum was close to that of the observation.

Keywords:
General relativity, Quantum physics, Cosmology, Unified theory

Contents
I INTRODUCTION 2
A. Planck units 3
B. Ricci tensor formulation in terms of covariant derivative 3
II THE UNIFIED EQUATION 4
III DIRAC EQUATIONS FROM EINSTEIN FIELD EQUATIONS 4
IV THE EINSTEIN’S SPECIAL RELATIVITY IN CURVED SPACE-TIME FORMALISM 6
V ORIGIN OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND THE MAXWELL’s EQUATIONS 6

A. Derivation of Maxwell’s equations 7

B. Field theory of Electromagnetics 7
VI CHROMODYNAMICS: QUARK AND GLUON FIELD THEORY 8

1
 VII CURVATURE RELAXATION AND MASS GENERATION 8
VIII COMPUTED QUARK AND NEUTRINO MASSES VS THE STANDARD MODEL 9
A. Electron mass and quark masses 9
IX MASS OF LEPTONS (ELECTRON, MUON, TAU, WITH THEIR NEUTRINOS) 10
X UNIVERSE DYNAMICS 13
A. The unified equation as harmonic oscillator of universe curvature 14
B. Universe radius plot vs time 15
XI PLANCK SCALE AND THE SPACE-TIME ENTANGLEMENT 17
XII DYNAMICS OF BLACK HOLE 17
XIII ER = EPR 18
A. Space-time entanglement between universe and conjugated universe 𝛬𝜇𝜈 18
B. BH & WH entangled with no singularity 19
XIV EIGENSOLUTION 21
XV GRAVITY IN EM FIELD THEORY 21
XVI SOLUTION TO THE UNIFIED EQUATION WITH LAMBDA FORMALISM 22
XVII GRAVITATIONAL WAVE BACKGROUND AND BIG RING STRUCTURE 23
XVIII DISCUSSION 23
A. Entangled space-time 23
B. Why universes could not collide? 24
C. Increasing velocity of objects far away from a galaxy 25
D. Two possibilities 26
XIX CONCLUSION 26
MISCELLANEOUS: Fine structure might not be constant 27
REFERENCES 27

I. INTRODUCTION

The unification of the Einstein field equation and quantum theory still lacks a clear and consistent bridge
between the two. All theories in the literature require unproven assumptions or inconsistencies. This work
bridges the gap between the two theories. In recent years, the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has
observed several phenomena, including galaxies that had already existed 300 Myr after the big bang, which
have never been thought to exist (Boyett et al, 2024; Mann, 2023). However, the proposed theory suitably
explained this phenomenon.

In addition, the discovery of the Big Ring structure challenges the cosmological principle, which posits
that the universe should look roughly the same everywhere, on a large scale. The existence of such ultra-
large structures like the Big Ring and the Giant Arc questions this fundamental assumption in cosmology.
The equation proposed in this study can be used to explain this phenomenon: Our work also explains this
finding.

Another conjecture in physics is whether the Einstein-Rosen bridge (ER) and Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen
(EPR or entanglement) are physically equivalent. The ER=EPR conjecture awaits rigorous proof (Susskind,
2016). This work also provides further proof of this claim. This work is different from other attempts at
unification: (i) string theory, which still lacks experimental observation of extra dimensions (Green &
Schwarz, 1984; Dienes, 1997; Krasnov & Percacci, 2018), (ii) loop quantum gravity, which still faces

2
challenges in its compatibility with the Standard Model (Rovelli, 2008). In our study, we assume that the
new equation should be written in a unitless manner on the Planck scale. Current physical models require
at least ten physical constants. Meanwhile, there remain only two constants used in this framework: Planck
length and Planck time. In addition, the proposed equation can explain the Gravitational Wave Background
(GWB) observed over 15 years by NANOGrav (Agazie et al., 2023).

Applying the Onsager principle on reciprocal relation to the Einstein field equation (EFE), we infer that
if a mass can create a curvature (EFE), the curvature can also create a mass. We recap the Ricci tensor
before proving each claim in this work. An important concept inferred from the proposed equation is that
relaxation of the curvature can create a mass. Because this is a theoretical work, it is organized by topic
rather than by an ordinary experimental article structure.

The Ricci tensor 𝑅𝑖𝑗 , stands as a fundamental mathematical form of the curvature inherent to a
Riemannian manifold (Einstein & Kaufman, 1955; Schouten, 2013). It is derived from the Riemann
𝑙 𝑘
curvature tensor 𝑅𝑖𝑗𝑘 by contraction. This can be expressed as 𝑅𝑖𝑗 = 𝑅𝑖𝑘𝑗 where we take the summation
convention over repeated index k. The Ricci tensor is symmetric, that is, 𝑅𝑖𝑗 = 𝑅𝑗𝑖 , and in a local coordinate
system, it can be expressed in terms of the metric tensor 𝑔𝑖𝑗 and its derivatives. The Ricci tensor is used to
describe the curvature of space-time in Einstein's field equations and is integral to the study of Einstein
manifolds, Ricci flow, and scalar curvature. Although it encapsulates important geometric information, the
Ricci tensor does not fully characterize the manifold curvature, a task reserved for the full Riemann
curvature tensor. Its utility lies in its simpler structure compared with the Riemann tensor, which facilitates
analyses in various geometrical and physical contexts.

A. Planck Units
In this work, we applied Planck length and Planck time to form a Plack-scale invariant equation in
addition to the form of a covariant field equation. The Planck length, denoted by 𝑙𝑝 , is the smallest
measurable unit length. The Planck length embodies this inherent limitation, signifying the smallest
possible region in which a particle can be localized, owing to its associated momentum uncertainty.
Mathematically, the Planck length is expressed as (Amelino-Camelia, 1996; Vasileiou et al, 2015)
𝐺ℏ -35
𝑙𝑝 = √ 𝑐 3 ≈ 1.6×10 meters,
where G is the gravitational constant, ℏ is the reduced Planck’s constant, and c is the speed of light.
Planck time is intimately linked to Planck length is the Planck time, which is denoted by tp. It represents
the smallest measurable unit of time and is derived from the Planck length and the speed of light. Planck
time signifies the minimum duration over which any meaningful physical process can occur [1].
Mathematically, the Planck time is expressed as
𝑙𝑝
𝑡𝑝 = 𝑐 ≈ 5.3 × 10−44 seconds
These minuscule quantities are far beyond the reach of our current technology and likely represent the
fundamental granular nature of space–time at the quantum level. Understanding these concepts is crucial
for effectively applying the unification of gravity and quantum theories, as they represent the scales at
which both theories are expected to converge (Callender & Huggett, 2001). We propose an equation that is
unitless on a Planck scale. The equation can be derived into the Dirac equation, Maxwell’s equations,
quantum electrodynamics, the Klein-Gordon equation, Einstein Field Equation, and calculation of quark

3
masses as well as neutrino masses (electron, tau, and muon), which are valid compared to the Standard
Model (De Gouvêa, 2016; Bilenky et al, 2003). The proposed equation could potentially explain the
existence of the galaxies observed by the JWST in the early universe (which was not supposed to exist) and
the theory’s implications on the evolution of the universe.

B. Ricci tensor formulation in terms of covariant derivative

From Riemannian Geometry (Petersen, 2006), Ricci curvature is defined as the commutator covariant
derivative of a vector in a manifold in different directions. We can write the Ricci tensor as:

𝑅𝜇𝜈 𝜓 𝐴 = [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ]𝜓 𝐴 (1)

where 𝑅𝜇𝜈 is the Ricci curvature tensor, 𝜓 𝐴 is a vector in the manifold or spacetime, 𝐷𝜇 is the covariant
derivative in the coordinate 𝑥 𝜇 in spacetime.

II. THE UNIFIED EQUATION

According to Einstein Field Equation in General Relativity (Einstein & Kaufman 1955; Einstein, 1916)
𝑔𝜇𝜈 𝑅
𝜅𝜀𝜇𝜈 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈 − ~ 𝑅𝜇𝜈 , (2)
2

where 𝜀𝜇𝜈 denotes the energy tensor. According to the Planck unit, we can rewrite this equation in terms of
the Planck length 𝑙𝑝 and Planck energy 𝜀𝑝 because 𝜅 = 8𝜋𝑙𝑝 /𝜀𝑝 = 8𝜋𝐺/𝑐 4. We get
𝜀𝜇𝜈
8𝜋𝑙𝑝 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈 = [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ]
𝜀𝑝

or
𝜀𝜇𝜈 −2
𝑙𝑝
= [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ]. (3)
𝜀𝑝 𝑙 𝑝 8𝜋

III. DIRAC EQUATIONS FROM EINSTEIN FIELD EQUATIONS

This section provides mathematical proof that a unified equation implies a Dirac equation with an
electromagnetic (EM) gauge with curvature relaxation or inflation. From equation (3), since
𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 = ℏ𝑐

and assume Lie group of 𝐷𝜇 over spacetime manifold, we obtain

𝑘
[𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = 𝑖𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝐷𝑘 ,

𝑘 l−1
p
where 𝜀𝜇𝜈 is the Levi-Civita tensor (Epstein, 1975). Upon normalizing 𝐷𝜇 → Du to a unitless covariant
√8π
derivative, we arrive at
𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑘
ℏ𝑐
= [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = 𝑖𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝐷𝑘 , (4)
𝑘
𝜀𝜇𝜈 = 𝑖ℏ𝑐 ⋅ 𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝐷𝑘 , (5)

4
or

𝜀 = 𝑖ℏ𝑐𝛾 𝑘 𝐷𝑘 , (6)

where 𝛾 𝑘 are Dirac matrices. Finally, we derived the Dirac equation (DE) for a zero-mass object (Dirac,
1933; Thaller, 2013). By substituting the wave function 𝜓 = 𝑒 𝑖𝒌⋅𝒙 into equation (6), we obtain

ℎ𝑐
𝜀 = ℏ𝑐𝑘 = = ℎ𝑓,
𝜆

which is the quantum energy of photon.

Consider equation (4) using the definition of 𝐷𝜇 = 𝐷′𝜇 ± Γ𝜇′ , where Γ𝜇′ are the Christoffel symbols from
the curvature of the new spacetime coordinate:

[𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = [𝐷𝜇′ ± Γ𝜇′ , 𝐷𝜇′ ± Γ𝜇′ ]

= [𝐷𝜇′ , 𝐷𝜈′ ] ± 𝐷𝜇′ Γ𝜈′ ∓ 𝐷𝜈′ Γ𝜇′ ± [𝑇𝜇′ , Γ𝜈′ ] ± Γ𝜇′ 𝐷𝜈′ ∓ Γ𝜈′ 𝐷𝜇′ .

Since

′
𝑅𝜇𝜈 = 𝐷𝜇′ Γ𝜈′ − 𝐷𝜈′ Γ𝜇′ + [Γ𝜇′ , Γ𝜇′ ], (Frankel, 2011)

[𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = [𝐷𝜇′ , 𝐷𝜈′ ] ± 𝑅𝜇𝜈

′
∓ 𝜀𝜇𝜈 Γ𝜇′ 𝐷𝜈′ .

′
Because 𝑅𝜇𝜈 in unit of 𝐸/ℏ𝑐 equal to the LHS, we have

′ 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑅𝜇𝜈 =± .
ℏ𝑐

From equation 4, we deduce that

𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑚𝑐 2
ℏ𝑐
= [𝐷𝜇′ , 𝐷𝜈′ ] ± ℏ𝑐
∓ 𝜀𝜇𝜈 Γ𝜇′ 𝐷𝜈′ .

𝜀𝜇𝜈 0
𝑚𝑐 2
= 𝑅𝜇𝜈 ± ∓ 𝜀𝜇𝜈 Γ𝜇′ 𝐷𝜈′
ℏ𝑐 ℏ𝑐

Let 𝜀𝜇𝜈 Γ𝜇′ = 𝑖γ𝜈 and 𝑅𝜇𝜈

0
= [𝐷𝜇′ , 𝐷𝜈′ ], we arrive at

0
𝜀𝜇𝜈 = ℏ𝑐 𝑅𝜇𝜈 ± 𝑚𝑐 2 ∓ 𝑖γμ ℏ𝑐𝐷𝜈′ ,

0 0
𝜀𝜇𝜈 − ℏ𝑐 𝑅𝜇𝜈 = 𝜀𝜇𝜈 = 𝑖ℏ𝑐𝛾 𝜇 𝐷𝜈′ − 𝑚𝑐 2 , (7)

0
where 𝜀𝜇𝜈 is the effect of energy after resetting the new curvature of spacetime in a new reference frame.
Thus, Equation 7 is the Dirac equation, which is a relativistic quantum theory.

5
 IV. THE EINSTEIN’S SPECIAL RELATIVITY IN CURVED SPACE-TIME FORMALISM

From the Einstein Field Equation (EFE) in Riemannian geometry (Stephani et al, 2009) and the Planck
formalism, we can derive relativistic quantum mechanics equations for fermions. Therefore, there is a
corresponding one-to-one mapping from EFE to DE for both zero mass and mass.

We can say that they are the same equations that we will elaborate further on in the next section.

In conclusion, equation 7 could be rewritten as

𝜀 1
( 𝜀𝜇𝜈 ) ⋅ 𝑙 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈
0
+ 𝑖𝛾 𝑘 𝐷𝑘 − 𝑚′ (8)
𝑝 𝑝

where 𝑚′ = 𝑚𝑐 2 /ℏ𝑐.

The Klein-Gordon equation (Bruce & Minning, 1993) can be derived from our proposed equation,
as follows: Taking the square of equation 8, we deduce:

𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝜀 𝜇𝜈 0
2 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈 𝑅0𝜇𝜈 +◻2 + 𝑚′ ,
(𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 )

𝜀2 2
2 = 𝑅02 +◻2 + 𝑚′ = 𝑅02 + 𝑝2 + 𝑚2 . (9)
(𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 )

Equation 9 is the Klein-Gordon equation, which describes bosonic particles with curvature tensors as
additional terms:

V. OF ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD AND THE MAXWELL’s EQUATIONS

Upon promoting operator 𝐷𝜇 to add 𝐴𝜇 vector potential with coupling e to the gauge, c is the
velocity of light:

𝑖𝑒𝐴𝜇
𝐷𝜇 → 𝐷𝜇 ± 𝑐
.

Introducing the gauge into equation (7), we have

𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑖𝑒𝐴𝜇 𝑖𝑒𝐴𝜈

= [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = [𝐷𝜇0 ± , 𝐷𝜈0 ± ]
𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 𝑐 𝑐

𝑖𝑒 𝑒2 𝑖𝑒
= [𝐷𝜇0 , 𝐷𝜈0 ] ± 𝑐
[𝐷𝜇 𝐴𝜈 − 𝐷𝜈 𝐴𝜇 ] ∓ 𝑐 2 [𝐴𝜈 , 𝐴𝜇 ] ± 𝑐
[𝐴𝜇 𝐷𝜈 − 𝐴𝜇 𝐷𝜈 ]

0 𝑖𝑒 𝑒 𝑒2
= 𝑅𝜇𝜈 ± 𝐹
𝑐 𝜇𝜈
± 𝑖 𝑐 𝐸𝜇𝜈 𝐴𝜇 𝐷𝜈 ∓ 𝑐 2 [𝐴𝜈 , 𝐴𝜇 ] . (10)

Suppose the term in imaginary part cancel each other out and equal to zero.

6
 A. Derivation of Maxwell’s equations

Suppose the term in imaginary part cancel each other out and equal to zero.

∴ 𝐹𝜇𝜈 = 𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝐴𝜇 𝐷𝜈 ,

𝑒
𝐹𝜇𝜈 = − 𝑙′ ⋅ 𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑥𝜇 𝐷𝜈 ,
𝑝

1
where 𝑙𝑝′ = 𝐿 = 𝑚𝑒 .
𝑛𝑜𝑤

𝐹𝜇𝜈 = −𝑒(𝑥𝜇 𝐷𝜈 − 𝑥𝜈 𝐷𝜇 )/𝑙𝑝′ ,

𝑒
𝐹𝜇𝜈 = −𝐿𝜇𝜈 ⋅ 𝑚 .
𝑒

Consider its partial derivative,

𝜕𝐹𝜇𝜈 𝑒𝑝𝜈 𝑒
= = 𝑖ℏ 𝐷 = 𝐽𝜈 . (11)
𝜕𝑥 𝜇 𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑒 𝜈

Suppose e=1/L, and we proved Maxwell’s equations in (11). From (10), with the imaginary term cancelled
out as Maxwell’s equation and the relation between the electron mass and charge in terms of curvature, we
again obtain the Dirac equation.

B. Field theory of Electromagnetics

𝜀2
2 = 𝑅02 + 𝐹 2 + 𝑚𝑒2 +◻2
(𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 )

𝑒 2
= 𝑅02 + 𝐹 2 + 𝑚𝑒2 + (𝑐 ) 𝐴𝜇 𝐴𝜇 +◻2 (12)

Next, we obtained the gauge term in EM theory. Taking the square root of equation (12), we obtain

𝜀𝜇𝜈 ′ 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑒
= 𝑅𝜇𝜈 + + 𝑖𝑟 𝜇 𝐷𝜇 − 𝐴𝜇 (13)
𝜀𝑝 𝑙 𝑝 ℏ𝑐 𝑐

By offsetting the Ricci and energy terms, we obtain the Field Theory of Electromagnetics, which is a
differential equation with an additional gauge vector field 𝐴𝜇 for electron-photon interactions. The gauge
vector was introduced into the following equation:

𝑒 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑖𝛾 𝜇 𝐷𝜇 − 𝑐 𝐴𝜇 + ℏ𝑐
= 0. (14)

7
VI. CHROMODYNAMICS: QUARK AND GLUON FIELD THEORY

𝜆𝑎
From the unified equation, we promote 𝐷𝜇 → 𝐷𝜇 + 𝑖𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑎 𝐴𝜇𝑎 , where 𝑡𝑎 is 2
, 𝜆𝑎 is the Gellman matrix, a
is the gluon field, and gs is the coupling constant.

𝜀𝜇𝜈
= [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = [𝐷𝜇 ± 𝑖𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑎 𝐴𝜇𝑎 , 𝐷𝜈 ± 𝑖𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑎 𝐴𝑎𝜈 ]
𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝

= [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] ± 𝑖𝑡𝑎 (𝐷𝜇 𝐴𝑎𝜈 − 𝐷𝜈 𝐴𝜇𝑎 ) ∓ 𝑔𝑠2 𝑡𝑎 [𝐴𝜇𝑎 , 𝐴𝑎𝜈 ] + 𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑎 𝐴𝜇𝑎 𝐷𝜈 (15)

𝑎
Let 𝐺𝜇𝜈 = 𝐷𝜇 𝐴𝑎𝜈 − 𝐷𝜈 𝐴𝜇𝑎 ± 𝑖𝑔𝑠 [𝐴𝜇 , 𝐴𝜈 ] and

𝐺𝜇𝜈 = ∑8𝑎=1 𝑡𝑎 𝐺𝜇𝜈

𝑎
. (16)

𝑎 𝑎
In the last term [𝐴𝜇 , 𝐴𝜈 ] = 𝑔𝑠 [𝑡𝑏 , 𝑡𝑐 ]𝐴𝜇𝑏 𝐴𝑐𝜈 . Then, [𝑡𝑎 , 𝑡𝑐 ] = 𝑖𝑓𝑏𝑐 𝑡𝑎 and 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ {1,2, … ,8} where 𝑓𝑏𝑐 are
the structure constants of SU(3) of ta.

From equation (1),

0
𝑅𝜇𝜈 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈 + 𝑔𝑠 𝐺𝜇𝜈 + 𝑖𝛾 𝜇 𝑔𝑠 𝐷𝜈

𝑚𝑐 2
=( ℏ𝑐
+ 𝑖𝐺𝜇𝜈 + 𝑖𝛾 𝜇 𝐷𝜇 ) 𝑔𝑠 (17)

𝜇
where 𝛾 𝜇 𝑔𝑠 𝐷𝜈 = 𝜀𝑎𝑏 𝑡𝑐 𝐴𝑐𝑎 𝐷𝑏 .

Taking square of (17) and square root back gives

𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑚𝑐 2
𝜀𝑝 𝑙 𝑝
= 𝑅𝜇𝜈 = 𝑔𝑠 (− ℏ𝑐
+ 𝑖𝛾 𝜇 (𝐷𝜇 + 𝑖𝑔𝑠 𝑡𝑎 𝐴𝜇𝑎 )) . (18)

Equation 18 is Dirac equation of motion for gluons and quarks.

VII. CURVATURE RELAXATION AND MASS GENERATION

The relaxation of R which describes a curvature larger than R0 results in R0 with the momentum and
mass. Therefore, as the universe expands, it produces both mass and kinetic energies. In other words, the
curvature is converted into mass and kinetic energy, known as momentum, electrons, or photons (or quarks
and gluons), as discussed in the previous section. Figure 1 depicts the reciprocal relation (Onsager principle)
that mass creates curvature (Einstein’s field equation), and that curvature can create mass (this work).

8
 𝜀2
(ℏ𝑐)2
= 𝑅 2 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈
0
+ 𝑚2 + 𝑝2 (19)

Figure 1. Onsager principle applied to EFE: (a) mass creates curvature (b) curvature could also create mass

VIII. COMPUTED QUARK AND NEUTRINO MASSES VS THE STANDARD MODEL

The proposed equation can compute the masses of up and down quarks and neutrinos (electron, muon,
and tau), which is consistent with the Standard Model (SM).

A. Electron mass and quark masses

We begin with electron and quark mass calculations using the proposed equations, which conform to the
values from the Standard Model. Subsequently, we derived the masses of the neutrinos (electrons, muons,
and tau). According to equation (10), where the last term is the interaction term, we arrive at
𝑒2
= 𝑚𝑒 .
𝑐2

The charge must be converted into a unit of Coulomb interactions. Thus, we added the terms electric and
magnetic field interactions and obtained the correct unit of electron charge.

𝑒2 𝑒2
𝑒2 → = = 𝑒2𝑐
√4𝜋𝜖0 ⋅ √𝜇0 /4𝜋 √𝜖0 𝜇0

Thus
𝑒2
⋅ 𝑐 = 𝑚𝑒 → 𝑒 2 = 𝑚𝑒 ⋅ 𝑐
𝑐2
1
where 𝑚𝑒 ∝ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 ∝ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑒 = 1/𝐿𝑛𝑜𝑤 .

𝑚𝑒 = 9.1 × 10−31 kg.

Hence
1
𝐿𝑛𝑜𝑤 ~ 𝑚 ~1030 m.
𝑒

Charge of electron can be calculated by

9
 1 𝑠 3
𝑒 ~√9 × 10−31 × 3 × 10−8 × 4𝜋 (𝑚) = √10 × 4𝜋 × 10−19 C

~1.9 × 10−19 C
which is close to actual value of 1.6 × 10−19 C.
In conclusion
𝑚𝑒 1
𝑒2 = = .
𝑐 𝑐⋅𝐿𝑛𝑜𝑤

As the universe expands, the charge and mass of electrons decreases, resulting in less interaction in the
aging universe. The electron charge and mass are no longer constant. They depended on the radius of the
universe at the time.
We can consider the mass of the quark in terms of the mass of the electron in the same way,
2 1
considering the charge. For the up and down quarks, the charges were 3 𝑒 and − 3 𝑒 respectively. Because a
quark is equivalent to a confined electron in the fractal dimension of space–time, it results in a larger
interaction energy.
The mass of the down quark, md should be proportional to (3e)2 because we divide the electron into 1/3
fractal dimensions. Hence,
𝑚𝑑 = 9𝑒 2 = 9𝑚𝑒 = 4.5 MeV, (SM value 4.8 MeV)
the same reason for up quark is for fractal dimension ½. Therefore, its mass

𝑚𝑢 = (2𝑒)2 = 4𝑒 2 = 4𝑚𝑒 = 2 MeV (SM value 2.2 MeV).

IX. MASS OF LEPTONS (ELECTRON, MUON, TAU, WITH THEIR NEUTRINOS)

The Christoffel symbol Γ𝜇 is a key component of the local curvature resulting from self-interaction and
interaction with the Ricci Tensor (curvature tensor).
• This local curvature results in a mass of particles owing to its local curvature and the surrounding
environment.
• If we have two curvature overlaps, according to Gauss’s curvature, the new curvature would be the
geometric mean of the curvature; for example, curvature 𝐾1 has radius 𝑅1 and curvature 𝐾2 has
radius 𝑅2 . Combining these yields the curvature
1 1
𝐾= = √𝐾1 𝐾2 = .
𝑅 √𝑅1 𝑅2

For this reason, we assume the hierarchy of curvature as in figure 2, which illustrates the hierarchical
curvature of universe, galaxy, and solar system, respectively.

10
Figure 2. Hierarchical structure of solar system, galaxy, and universe.
The masses of electrons, muons, and tau can be explained by the different curvatures of universe, galaxy,
and solar system, respectively.
We assume 𝑅𝑈 , 𝑅𝑔 and 𝑅𝑠 stand the radii of universe, galaxy, and solar systems, respectively.

Therefore,
1 1
𝑚𝑒 = 𝑅 , 𝑚𝜇 (𝑚𝑢𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠) = ,
𝑈 √𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑔

1
𝑚𝜏 = .
√𝑅𝑠 √𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑔

Rearrange the terms for 𝑚𝜇 and 𝑚𝜏 ,

𝑅 1 𝑅 1 𝑅
𝑚𝜇 = √ 𝑅𝑈 ⋅ 𝑅2 = √ 𝑅𝑈 ⋅ 𝑅 = √ 𝑅𝑈 ⋅ 𝑚𝑒 ,
𝑔 𝑈 𝑔 𝑈 𝑔

2
√𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑔 1
𝑚𝜏 = √ ( )
𝑅𝑠 √𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑔

1
=√ ⋅ √𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑔
𝑅𝑠 𝑅𝑈 𝑅𝑔

𝑅 𝑅 1 𝑅 1
= √ 𝑅𝑔 ⋅ 𝑅𝑈 ⋅ 𝑅 (√ 𝑅𝑈 ⋅ 𝑅 )
𝑠 𝑔 𝑈 𝑔 𝑈

2
1 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 1
= 𝑅 ⋅ √ 𝑅𝑔 (√𝑅𝑢 ) = √ 𝑅𝑔 ⋅ √ 𝑅𝑈 ⋅ 𝑅
𝑢 𝑠 𝑔 𝑠 𝑔 𝑢

11
 𝑅𝑔 𝑚𝜇 𝑅𝑔 𝑚𝜇 𝑅𝑔
𝑚𝜏 = √ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑚𝑒 = √ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑚𝑒 = √ ⋅ 𝑚𝜇
𝑅𝑠 𝑚𝑒 𝑅𝑠 𝑚𝑒 𝑅𝑠

Table II. Masses of electron, muon and tau from the Standard Model. This will be used to compute the
ratio in relation to the solar system/galaxy/universe radii.
𝑚𝜇 𝑅𝑈
From the table II, we get =√ ≈ 212 and
𝑚𝑒 𝑅𝑔

𝑚𝜏 𝑅𝑔
= √ ≈ 17.7
𝑚𝜇 𝑅𝑠

These parameters were used to calculate the mass of their neutrino counterparts, 𝑚𝜈𝑒 , 𝑚𝜈𝜇 , and 𝑚𝜈𝜏 or the
mass of (electron, muon, and tau) neutrinos, respectively. Assume 𝑚𝜈𝑒 is the mass where the maximum
radius of the universe takes place.
1
𝑚𝜈𝑒 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 R now 1030
∴ = = =
𝑚𝑒 1 R max 1035
𝑅𝑛𝑜𝑤
1
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≈ 10−5
𝑙𝑝
10−5
𝑚𝜈𝑒 = × 0.5 MeV/c 2 = 2.5 eV (Standard Model: <2.2 eV)
2

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑅 𝑅𝑛𝑜𝑤
𝑚𝜈𝜇 = √ 𝑅𝑔
⋅ 𝑚𝜈𝑒 = √ 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 ⋅ √ 𝑅𝑔
⋅ 𝑚𝜈𝑒
𝑛𝑜𝑤

5
= 102 ⋅ 212 ⋅ 2.5 = 0.168 MeV/c 2 (SM value <1.7 MeV)

𝑅
𝑚𝜈𝜏 = √ 𝑅𝑔 𝑚𝜈𝜇 = 3 MeV/c 2 (SM value < 15.5 GeV/c2)
𝑠

12
 We wrap up the masses calculated from our theory and compare them with the Standard model as
follows (table I).

Table I. Summarized table of masses computed from the proposed equation (Green) and the Standard
Model (Blue).
The occurrence of neutrino oscillations could possibly be caused by uncertainty in the hierarchies
of the curvature. The charges of the neutrinos disappear because they are fermion particles in the universe
with zero curvature (radius is infinity; 𝐸 2 = 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑐/𝐿, L approaches infinity as E approaches zero).

X. UNIVERSE DYNAMICS
λ 𝑅
𝑔𝜇𝜈
From the unified equation and modified EFE: 𝜅𝜀𝜇𝜈 = 𝑅𝜇𝜈 − 2
+ Λ𝑔𝜇𝜈 , let Λ𝑔𝜇𝜈 = Λ𝜇𝜈 is another
curvature field conjugated to 𝑅𝜇𝜈 with covariant derivatives 𝐷𝜈𝜆 and metric tensor 𝑔𝜇𝜈
λ
, we modify the below
equation coupling to the new Λ𝜇𝜈 field with

𝑅𝜇𝜈 = [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ],
λ 𝑅
𝑔𝜇𝜈
𝑖
2
[𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈𝜆 ] = 2
.

Suppose Λ𝑔𝜇𝜈 = Λ𝜇𝜈 term is another field of curvature we could rewrite

𝜀𝜇𝜈 𝑖
= 𝑙𝑝 {[𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] + Λ𝜇𝜈 } + [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈𝜆 ]. (20)
𝜀𝑝 2

Squaring the above equation gives

𝜀2
𝑒𝑝2
= 𝑙𝑝2 {𝑅2 + Λ2 − [Λ, 𝑅]}.

Let 𝑎† = 𝑅 + 𝑖Λ and 𝑎 = 𝑅 − 𝑖Λ and for simplicity let 𝑙𝑝 𝑅 → 𝑅 and 𝑙𝑝 Λ → Λ, now we obtain

2
𝜀
(𝜀 ) = 𝑎† 𝑎 − [Λ, 𝑅] . (21)
𝑝

Define

13
 𝑖 1
[Λ, 𝑅]~ [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈𝜆 ] = . (22)
2 2

A. The unified equation as harmonic oscillator of universe curvature

2
𝜀 1
From equation (22), we can deduce that (𝜀 ) = 𝑎† 𝑎 + 2 . Substituting the term lp back, we arrive at:
𝑝

2
𝜀 1
( ) = 𝑙𝑝 (𝑎† 𝑎 + )
𝜀𝑝 2

where [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈𝜆 ] = −𝑖 since 𝑅 and Λ are conjugated.

2 1
𝜀 2 = (𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 ) (𝑎† 𝑎 + )
2
thus

1
𝜀𝑁 = 𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 √𝑎† 𝑎 +
2

or
𝜀𝑁 = ℏ𝑐√𝑁 + 1/2

The energy of the universe with a lambda conjugate curvature is quantized in a manner similar to that of a
1 ℏ𝑐 𝜀𝑝 𝑙 𝑝
harmonic oscillator. However, the term √𝑁 + at the lowest energy is 𝜀0 = = .
2 √2 √2

This corresponds to the maximum radius of curvature

√2 √2
𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙 = 1.6 × 1035 ~ 0.9 × 1035 m ~1035 m.
𝑝

Consider the maximum energy 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 , where the universe is highly dense and has a size of the Planck scale
lp.

𝜀 1 𝜀𝑚𝑎𝑥 1
= 𝑙𝑝 √𝑁 + ≤ = (23)
𝜀𝑝 2 𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝

Then

1 1
√𝑁 + ≤ 2 ,
2 𝑙𝑝

1 1
𝑁 + 2 ≤ 𝑙4 ,
𝑝

1 4
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑥 ≤ 𝑙4 = 2
.
𝑝

14
 B. Universe radius plot vs time
We approximate the squared of equation (20) by letting the term [Λ, 𝑅] = 0. Now we have
2
𝜀
( ) = 𝑅 2 + Λ2 .
𝜀𝑝

Assume the 𝑅 & Λ field oscillates with frequency (𝜔) with the proper time 𝜏

𝑅 2 = 𝑙𝑝2 sin2 𝜔𝜏

Λ2 = 𝑙𝑝2 cos 2 𝜔𝜏
1 1
∴ 𝐿𝑅 (𝜏) ~ 𝑙 |sin 𝜔𝜏|
such that 𝑙𝑝 < 𝐿𝑅 < 𝑙
𝑝 𝑝

The radii of the universe are denoted by 𝐿𝑅 , 𝐿Λ . The fields 𝑅 2 (𝜏) and Λ2 are plotted in figure 3.

Figure 3. Universe radius was plotted vs time. The maximum radius would be inversely proportional to the
1 1
Planck length (𝑙 ). 𝐿𝑅 (𝜏) ~ 𝑙 | sin 𝜔𝜏| .
𝑝 𝑝

The maximum age of the universe can be calculated as

𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 13.8
𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 ~ = 1035 × × 109 = 8.6 × 1041 years
𝐻 1.6
where H is the Hubble constant.
𝐻
𝑓=𝑅 = 𝐻 ⋅ 𝑙𝑝 and 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝐻𝑙𝑝
𝑚𝑎𝑥

15
 √2 1
Hence, there should be an upper bound and a lower bound of the universe’s radius, which are 𝑙𝑝
≈𝑙
𝑝
and 𝑙𝑝 .

At Planck scale 𝑙𝑝 , the eigensolution to the unified equation is

𝜀𝜇𝜈
𝜀𝑝
𝜙 = 𝑙𝑝 [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ]𝜙 ,

where
𝜙 = ∑𝑖 𝜙1𝑖 (𝑥𝜇 )𝜙2𝑖 (𝑥𝜈 ) − 𝜙1𝑖 (𝑥𝜈 )𝜙2𝑖 (𝑥𝜇 )

which are entangled wavefunctions.

16
 XI. PLANCK SCALE AND THE SPACE-TIME ENTANGLEMENT
In Planck scale, it is entangled wavefunction between space and time, which is
|𝜙⟩ = |𝑐𝑡⟩1 |𝑥⟩2 − |𝑥⟩1 |𝑐𝑡⟩2.

Therefore, singularity at the Planck scale should not occur from the collapsing black hole (BH) because the
operation on |𝜙⟩ for collapsing spacetime is a permutation of space and time.
Hence,
|𝜙⟩′ = |𝑥⟩1 |𝑐𝑡⟩2 − |𝑐𝑡⟩1 |𝑥⟩2 = −|𝜙⟩

resulting in the reversal of the sign of the wavefunction, and thus the expansion of the newborn universe or
the so-called white hole (WH).
The entangled |𝜙⟩ for the BH state implies that as t increases, x decreases at the Planck scale with a toggle
between x and ct. Therefore, as t increases, x increases in the WH state |𝜙⟩′ .

XII. DYNAMICS OF BLACK HOLE

White holes (WH) are related to black hole (BH) dynamics. In the case of a collapsing BH at the Planck
scale, the energy of expansion should be proportional to its curvature 1/lp which is the constant explosion
energy for every universe or WH.
𝜀𝜇𝜈
= 𝑙𝑝 [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] = 𝛾 𝑘 𝑙𝑝 𝐷𝑘 (24)
𝜀𝑝

𝜀02 2
Squaring the equation (24) gives 2 = 𝑙𝑝2 (𝐷𝑅2 ± 𝐷𝑐𝑡 2)
𝜀𝑝

⃑
Suppose 𝜙 = 𝜙0 𝑒 𝑗𝑘𝑅⋅𝑅⃑±𝜔𝑡 ,
2
𝜀0 𝜔 2
( ) = 𝑙𝑝2 (𝑘𝑅2 ± ( ) )
𝜀𝑝 𝑐
2𝜋 1 2𝜋 1
Let 𝑘𝑅 = 𝐿
= 𝐿̅ and 𝜔 = 𝑇
= 𝑇̅.
1 1
𝜀̅02 = 𝑙𝑝2 (𝐿̅2 ± (𝑐𝑇̅)2 ) .

Rewrite this equation to 𝐿̅,

𝜀̅02 1 1
2
𝑙𝑝
± (𝑐𝑇̅)2 = 𝐿̅2 ,

2
𝑅(𝑡) = ±√𝑐 2 𝑡 2 ± 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝑐𝑇̅ ±𝑅(𝑡)
𝐿̅ = ± and 𝑐𝑡 =
̅ )2
𝜀0 (𝑐𝑇 2
√1±(𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 /𝑐 2 𝑡 2 )
√1± 𝜀 𝑙2
𝑝 𝑝

Let 𝑇̅ = 𝑇 sin 𝜔𝜏,

17
 𝑐𝑇̅
𝐿̅ =
𝜀 (𝑐𝑇̅)2
√1 − 𝜀0 ⋅ 2
𝑝 𝑙𝑝

The negative curvature of the BH results in a positive curvature of the WH and expansion with energy in
the Planck scale. Figure 4 shows the universe radius expansion and collapse with the lower limit of Planck
length.
2
𝜀𝑝 𝑙 𝑝 1
𝜀0
= 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙2 ,
𝑝

𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝4 = 𝜀0

Figure 4. The universe radius cannot collapse below Plank length (lp) and the maximum expansion be 1/lp.

XIII. ER = EPR
The conjecture that ER=EPR can be proved in our formulation (figure 5). Before we discuss whether
ER=EPR, we consider the space-time entanglement between a universe and its conjugate.

A. Space-time entanglement between universe and conjugated universe 𝚲𝝁𝝂

2
𝜀
Since (𝜀 ) = 𝑅 2 + Λ2 ,
𝑝

𝑅 2 could be relaxed and become 𝑅02 + 𝑚2 + 𝑝2 .

18
Figure 5. Blackhole and white hole entanglement.
2
𝜀
Then ( ) = 𝑅02 + 𝑚2 + 𝑝2 + Λ2 . Λ𝜇𝜈 can absorb the momentum and mass terms, increase its curvature,
𝜀𝑝
and turn into Λ′𝜇𝜈
2
𝜀
( ) = 𝑅02 + Λ′2
𝜀𝑝

Λ′𝜇𝜈 could then be relaxed and release mass in its universe, then
2
𝜀
( ) = 𝜀02 + Λ2 + 𝑚2 + 𝑝2 .
𝜀𝑝

Therefore, if two universes are entangled, we can send an energy of 𝜀02 = 𝑚2 + 𝑝2 to another universe via
curvature encoding or holographic coding. Next, we consider the cases of black hole and white hole.

B. BH & WH entangled with no singularity

As discussed earlier, singularity from collapsing the BH can be avoided at the Planck scale by space-time
inversion. Suppose that the wave function of the BH can be described by
𝑒 −𝛼𝑅 𝜙0 = 𝜙.
where 𝛼(𝑡) is the scaling factor for 𝜙0 and increase with time. Consider
2
𝜀
( ) 𝜙 = 𝑙𝑝2 [◻2 + 𝑚2 ]𝜙
𝜀𝑝

where 𝜙 is eigen wave function for space & time.

2
𝜀
( ) 𝜙 = 𝑙𝑝2 [𝜕𝑐𝑡
2
− 𝜕𝑅2 ]𝑒 −𝛼𝑅 𝜙0
𝜀𝑝

19
 𝑅2
= 𝑙𝑝2 [ 𝛼̈ − 𝛼 2 ] 𝜙
𝑐2
2
𝜀 1 𝑅 2
∴ ( ) 2 = ( ) 𝛼̈ − 𝛼 2
𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 𝑐

1 𝜀
Plug this 𝛼 back to 𝑒 −𝛼𝑅 𝜙0, therefore at 𝑡 = 𝑐𝑙 (𝜀 ) it starts to collapse to BH with radius (R):
𝑝 𝑝

1 𝜀
𝑅 = 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑙 (𝜀 ).
𝑝 𝑝

Rescaling 𝑙𝑝2 we obtain

𝜀
𝑅𝑆 = 𝑙𝑝 (𝜀 ).
𝑝

Let 𝜀 = 𝑀𝑐 2 ,
𝐺 𝐺𝑀
𝑅𝑆 = 𝑐 4 𝑀𝑐 2 = 𝑐2
.

Now we derived 𝑅𝑆 as the Schwarzschild radius.

As the BH collapses and reach 𝑙𝑝 , Planck-scale eigenfunction change its sign.

|𝜙0 ⟩ = |𝑐𝑡1 ⟩|𝑥2 ⟩ − |𝑐𝑡2 ⟩|𝑥1 ⟩,

𝐵𝐻|𝜙0 ⟩ = |𝑐𝑡2 ⟩|𝑥1 ⟩ − |𝑐𝑡1 ⟩|𝑥2 ⟩.

Therefore, it stops collapse and start to expand instead due to |𝑥⟩ and |𝑐𝑡⟩ interchange. This results in a
newborn WH or universe.
Because BH and WH are entangled and conjugated, we can write the unified equation as
2
𝜀
( ) = 𝑙𝑝2 (𝑅 2 + Λ2 )
𝜀𝑝

Hence, energy transfer from particles falling into the BH can be transferred to the WH or conjugated
universe via the same scenario, similar to the case of lambda. Experimental energy transfer via
entanglement was reported by Gómez-Ruiz (2023).
This could solve the information loss paradox in BH, as JWST can see light and galaxies before a big
bang from the conjugated universe.
3) EPR = ER in the same universe
In this case, we have to rewrite the unified equations to
12
𝜀𝜇𝜈
𝜀𝑝
= 𝑙𝑝 [𝜕𝜇1 , 𝜕𝜈2 ] + 𝑙𝑝 [𝜕𝜇2 , 𝜕𝜈1 ] + 𝑙𝑝 [𝜕𝜇2 , 𝜕𝜈2 ] (25)

20
 XIV. EIGENSOLUTION
The eigensolution is therefore

𝜙(𝑥𝜇 , 𝑥𝜈 ) = 𝜙1 (𝑥𝜇 )𝜙2 (𝑥𝜈 ).

which is an entangled state. Upon squaring (25),

2
𝜀 12
( ) = 𝑅12 + 𝑅22.
𝜀𝑝

We used the same trick to transport energy between entangled spaces 𝑅1 and 𝑅2 in the same universe
(Gómez-Ruiz et al, 2023).

XV. GRAVITY IN EM FIELD THEORY

We promote 𝐷𝜇 to 𝐷𝜇 + Γ𝜇 + 𝑒𝐴𝜇 . The equation becomes
𝜀𝜇𝜈
= [𝐷𝜇 + Γ𝜇 + 𝑒𝐴𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 + Γ𝜇 + 𝑒𝐴𝜇 ]
𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝′

where Γ𝜇 denotes the Christoffel symbol. From the above equation, we use the same trick as Γ𝜇 promotes
to Γ𝜇 + 𝑒𝐴𝜇 .

Therefore
𝜀𝜇𝜈
= [𝐷𝜇 , 𝐷𝜈 ] + 𝛾 𝜇 (𝐷𝜇 + 𝑖Γ𝜇 + 𝑒𝐴𝜇 )
𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝

= 𝑅0 − 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑖𝛾 𝜇 (𝐷𝜇 + Γ𝜇 + 𝑖𝑒𝐴𝜇 )

= 𝑅0 − 𝑚𝑐 2 + 𝑖𝛾 𝜇 𝐷𝜇

Thus, 𝐷𝜇 → 𝐷𝜇 + Γ𝜇 and Γ𝜇 → Γ𝜇 + 𝑖𝑒𝐴𝜇 .

Finally, we obtain the Dirac Equation with gravitational term Γ𝜇 included. The term Γ𝜇 absorbs EM and
quark-gluon interactions and creates a local curvature and hence the mass of the particles.
1
Γ𝜇 could be written as 𝑟 as its unit is [1/L] where

1 𝑒 −𝑖𝑘𝑥 3
𝑟
= 4𝜋 ∫𝑆 𝑘2
𝑑 𝑘.

This is similar to a gauge with no charge, in which the mass cancels out the term 𝑒𝐴𝜇 to consort into the
local curvature for EM interaction. Therefore, we can calculate the mass directly from the interaction term.

21
XVI. SOLUTION TO THE UNIFIED EQUATION WITH LAMBDA FORMALISM
The 𝑅 & Λ terms can be considered as the oscillating energy between 𝑅 & Λ where the lower and upper
1
bounds are and 𝑙𝑝 .
𝑙𝑝

𝜀2
= 𝑙𝑝2 (𝑅2 + Λ2 )
𝜀𝑝2

= 𝑙𝑝2 (cos 2 𝜔𝜏 + sin2 𝜔𝜏) = 𝑙𝑝2

where 𝜏 is proper time. Thus

𝑅 = 𝑙𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜏

and universe radius is simply

1 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐿= = .
𝑙𝑝 cos 𝜔𝜏 cos 𝜔𝜏

The evolution of the radius of the universe according to 𝑅 2, Λ2 , 𝐿𝑅 and 𝐿Λ versus time is plotted in figure
6.

Figure 6. Solution to proposed equation with lambda formalism, plotted against time 𝜏. (a) 𝑅 2and Λ2
versus time and (b) 𝐿𝑅 and 𝐿Λ versus time.

22
XVII. GRAVITATIONAL WAVE BACKGROUND AND BIG RING STRUCTURE
For each 𝐸𝑛 , there exists eigen wave function which contain oscillation of curvature with frequency 𝑓𝑛

1 𝑐𝑙𝑝 𝐶 1 𝑐𝑙𝑝
Since 𝐸𝑛 = √𝑛 + ⋅ ℏ𝑐𝑙𝑝 = ℏ . Let 𝑓𝑛 = ⋅ = .
2 1 𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 1 √𝑛+1/2
√𝑛+ √𝑛+
2 2

We can rewrite 𝐸𝑛 as
2 2
(𝑐𝑙𝑝 ) ℏ ℏ(𝑐𝑙𝑝 )
𝐸𝑛 = = .
√𝑛+1/2⋅𝑐𝑙𝑝 𝑓𝑛

1
Density of state in 3D is 𝜌(𝐸) = 𝐸 2 ,
3
1
𝜅𝐸 2
𝑁(𝑓) = ∫ 𝜌(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = 2
3/2
.

13
3 3 2 32 3 1 2 ⋅2
2 ℏ2 (𝑐𝑙𝑝 ) 𝜅ℏ (𝑐𝑙𝑝 ) (𝑛 + )
𝑁(𝑓𝑛 ) = 𝜅 ⋅ 3 =3 2
3
3
𝑓𝑛2 (𝑐𝑙𝑝 )2
3/2
2 3 1 1
𝑁(𝑓𝑛 ) = 𝜅ℏ2 (𝑐𝑙𝑝 (𝑛 + )) ∝ 3
3 2
𝑓2
where N is the quantum number of gravitational wave. These power laws correspond to the current
discovery of the gravitational background. Our prediction yielded 𝑁 2 ∝ 𝑓 −3 which is close to 𝑁 2 ∝ 𝑓 −4.3
reported by (Agazie et al, 2023).
After relaxation of the curvature, it releases momentum and mass. It is also possible to release angular
momentum. Thus,
𝐿2
𝐸 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑝2 + 𝑚2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑟 2 + 𝑚2 . (26)

A structure with ring radius r should carry angular momentum L, as the above equation. Stars at greater
distances from the center of a galaxy attain higher velocities than those near the center of the galaxy. This
can be explained by equation (26), where the angular momentum increases as r increases.

XVIII. DISCUSSION
A. Entangled space-time
According to the unified equation, we consider space and time component:
𝜀
[Δ𝑥 , Δ𝑡 ] = ,
𝜀𝑝

(Δ𝑥 Δ𝑡 − Δ𝑡 Δ𝑥 ){𝜙1 (𝑥)𝜙2 (𝑡) − 𝜙2 (𝑡)𝜙1 (𝑥)} .

Let the minimal physical meaning length and time be 𝑙𝑝 and 𝑡𝑝 , then

23
 {𝜙1 (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑝 ) − 𝜙1 (𝑥)}{𝜙2 (𝑡 + 𝑡𝑝 ) − 𝜙2 (𝑡)} − {𝜙2 (𝑥 + 𝑙𝑝 ) − 𝜙2 (𝑥)}{𝜙1 (𝑡 + 𝑡𝑝 ) − 𝜙1 (𝑡)}

= {𝜙1 (1)𝜙̅2 (1) − 𝜙1 (0)𝜙̅2 (1) + 𝜙1 (0)𝜙̅2 (0) − 𝜙1 (1)𝜙̅2 (0)}

− {𝜙̅1 (1)𝜙2 (1) − 𝜙̅1 (0)𝜙2 (1) + 𝜙̅1 (0)𝜙2 (0) − 𝜙̅1 (1)𝜙2 (0)},
where, for simplicity, (1) either represents 𝑥 + 𝑥𝑝 or 𝑡 + 𝑡𝑝 and (0) represents either 𝑥 or 𝑡 respectively,
depending on whether the term is for time or space. The bar ( 𝜙̅ ) denotes time and 𝜙 denotes the space
states. The state can then be written as

(|11̅⟩ − |1̅1⟩) + (|01̅⟩ − |10̅⟩) + (|00̅⟩ − |0̅0⟩) − (|10̅⟩ − |1̅0⟩).

The step-by-step creation of particles using space and time entanglement is illustrated in figure 7. This
process occurs iteratively as the plank time and length increase during inflation.

Figure 7. Explanation of the inflation using iterations of space-time entanglement in Plank scales.

B. Why universes could not collide?

According to bosonic unified equation,
2
𝜀
( ) = 𝑅 2 + 𝑝2 + 𝑚2 .
𝜀𝑝

̂𝜙
𝑖𝐿
Assume that wave function |𝑏⟩ = 𝑒 ℏ |𝑏0 ⟩, then
2
𝜀
(𝜀 ) |𝑏⟩ = (𝑅 2 + 𝑝2 + 𝑚2 )|𝑏⟩.
𝑝

Square root of the equation above yields

𝜀
(𝜀 ) √|𝑏⟩ = (𝑅 + 𝛾 𝜇 𝑝𝜇 − 𝑚)√|𝑏⟩ ,
𝑝

̂𝜙
𝑖𝐿 ̂𝜙
𝑖𝐿
|𝑏⟩ = 𝑒 2ℏ |𝑏0 ⟩ = 𝑒 2 |𝑓0 ⟩ ,
where |𝑓0 ⟩ is fermion wave function. Therefore, the universe should carry half-integer spin and are all
fermionic. Hence, Pauli exclusion principle rule out the possibility of collision between universes.

24
 C. Increasing velocity of objects far away from a galaxy
2
𝜀 𝐿2
Because (𝜀 ) = 𝑅 2 + 𝑟2 + 𝑚2 is constant, L is constant if r is the radius of the galaxy.
𝑝

𝐿 = 𝑚𝜔𝑟 2 = 𝐼𝜔,
and 𝜔 must be constant. Therefore, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝜔𝑟𝑥 .
The velocity of the objects increases as their distance from the center of the galaxy increases because 𝜔
is constant. However, it should saturate when 𝑟𝑥 approaches r because the curvature of the galaxy vanishes,
including the screening effect.
𝑥
𝑚𝑥 = 𝑚0 𝑒 −𝑟
𝑥
𝐿 = 𝑚0 𝑒 𝑟 ⋅ 𝜔𝑟 2 ,
𝑥 𝑥
𝜔 ∝ 𝑒 −𝑟 ⇒ 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑒 −𝑟 ⋅ 𝑥, where 𝑥 < 𝑟. These are illustrated in figure 8.

Figure 8. Velocity plot against the radius Previously, the galaxy rotation curves do not match the
predictions based solely on the distribution of visible matter.
It is important to note that our proposed theory matches the galaxy rotation curves (Honma & Sofue,
1997).
• Galaxies rotate faster than expected, especially for distant stars, and usually assume the existence
of dark matter, a hypothetical matter.
• Our derivation complies with the experimental observation that as the distance (from the galaxy
center) increases, the velocity of the stars increases without any additional assumptions. This is an
𝐿2
obvious implication from equation (26): 𝐸 2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑝2 + 𝑚2 = 𝑅 2 + 𝑟2 + 𝑚2 that as r increases,
the angular momentum (L) also increases.

25
 D. Two possibilities
As predicted by the proposed equation, the evolution of universes over time can be divided into two
distinct schemes, as shown in figure 9.

A B

Figure 9. Two possible cases for the evolution of the universe: (A) it is possible that relative to our universe,
the lambda universe contains all antiparticles and travels back in time; (B) it is possible that there will be
three of the universes forming from previous blackholes and hence resulting in a multiverse.

XIX. CONCLUSION
From Riemannian geometry, we can prove that the Einstein Field Equation (EFE) is equal to the quantum
equation by formulating in the Planck-scale unit. In addition to Einstein’s principle of covariance that any
equation should be independent of a frame of reference, we add an additional requirement that the equation
should also be unitless on the Planck scale. The equation shows that relaxation of the curvature induces the
creation of mass and (angular) momentum. As the universe expands, the mass increases and finally reaches
the point at which it stops expanding. We calculated the masses of the three flavor neutrinos as well as some
quarks, owing to the hierarchical curvature and fractal dimension of the quarks. The masses of up/down
quarks and masses of (electron, tau, and muon) neutrinos calculated using the proposed equation are
consistent with the values from the Standard Model (Table I). At the smallest Planck scale, space and time
are entangled and will toggle via a black hole collapsing and avoiding singularity, but instead become
expanding space-time. There are two mechanisms by which the universe can form: (i) directly from the
lambda field and (ii) from the previous black hole (figure 9).

Competing interests
The author declares no conflict of interest.
Author’s Contributions
CS: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology, Writing - Original Draft. PD: Methodology,
Validation, Visualization, Writing - Original Draft.

26
 MISCELLANEOUS: Fine structure might not be constant
Since
𝑒2 𝑒2 𝑚𝑒 𝑐 𝑐
𝛼∝ = = =
ℏ𝑐 𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝 𝐿𝜀𝑝 𝑙𝑝

Where L is the universe radius. Therefore,

1
𝛼∝𝐿.

As the universe expands, the fine structure constant (𝛼) decreases. In addition, there is less interaction at
a larger expansion of the universe. However, strong interaction occurs in the early universe, and it is possible
that this accelerates the interaction of the early universe. We also found some structural objects in the early
universe compared with the previous standard model.

This article is attributed to CC-BY 4.0 license.

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