SPECIAL SENSES

EYE AND THE SIGHT

a) accessory structures of the eye are those that are not directly related the sense of vision, but
facilitate the physiology of the eyeballs.
 - eyebrows – to shade the eyes from sunlight and to prevent perspiration from reaching the
eyes.
 - eyelids- to protect the eyes from foreign objects (e.g. dust particles) and to prevent
desiccation (drying) of the eyes by lubricating fluid.
 - conjunctiva- a mucous membrane on the inner lining of eyelids, which produces lubricating
and cleansing fluid for the
surface of eye.
- Lacrimal gland- exocrine gland that secretes a dilute saline solution called tears for
moistening the eyes. Tears contain mucus, antibodies and antibacterial enzymes that protect
the eye from infections. Emotional tears also contain enzymes that seem to help reduce stress
levels].
Anatomy of the Eye Ball
 The wall of the eyeball consists of 3 layers of tissue:
 I) Fibrous Tunic:
 outermost layer, made of fibrous connective tissue with minimal blood vessels.
 - contains 2 regions: sclera (a white area that extends from the back of the eye toward the
front) and cornea ( a transparent tissue in the front for allowing light to enter the eyeball).
 II) Vascular Tunic (also called uvea):
 - middle layer, made of thin fibrous connective tissue that contains numerous blood vessels
(capillaries).
Also contains choroids ( a pigmented membrane in the back to provide nutrition and to absorb
light) and iris (to regulate the amount of light entering the eye by constriction or dilation)
 Also includes specialized structures such as ciliary body (which regulates the shape of lens),
suspensory ligaments (which attach the ciliary body to the lens).
 Also includes the Lens ( another transparent tissue that bends the light entering the eye), and
pupil (an opening created by the actions of the iris where a large pupil is caused by a dilated
iris,while a small pupil is created by a constricted iris).

III) Sensory Tunic( also called retina ):

- innermost layer, made of specialized nerve tissue.
-contains 2 layers of tissue: an outer pigmented layer ( which absorbs light and stores vitamin
A) and an inner neural layer (that detects light using photoreceptors and sends nerve impulses
to the occipital lobe of cerebrum through the optic nerves.
- 2 types of photoreceptors are found on the neural layer:
Rods ( detect tones of visual images) and cones ( detect colors). These sensory cells, after being
stimulated by visual sensations, send nerve impulses through the optic nerve ( Nerve II ) to the
occipital lobs of cerebrum.

The functions of different parts of the eye

 Cornea - Light transmission& refraction
 Ciliary body , Iris - Accommodation,controls light intensity
 Sclera (outer layer) - protection
 Choroids (middle layer) - Blood supply , pigment prevents reflection
 Retina (inner layer) - photoreception , &impulse transmission

Eye Muscles
Muscle Innervation Funtion
Superior rectus- Oculomotor -rotates eye up & in
Inferior rectus -Oculomotor -rotates eye down & in
Medial rectus- Oculomotor- rotates eye inwards
Lateral rectus- Abducens -rotates eye out
Superior oblique –Trochlear- rotates eye down & out
Inferior oblique –Oculomotor- rotates eye up & out
PHYSIOLOGY OF VISION
Pathway of light:
Cornea -Aqueous humor -Lens Vitreous humor-Retina

LIGHT enters the eyes through the clear front layer called cornea. Due to its shape, it bends it to
aid in focusing.
Light then passes through the pupil; the colored part of the eye, the iris regulates how much
light enters the pupil.
Light then enters through the lens, where lens functions like the cornea to focus the light into
the retina.
In the retina, photoreceptors (rods and cones) convert light into electrical impulses. These
impulses are transmitted to by the optic nerve to the occipital lobe of the brain where sight is
perceived.

Accommodation, Close & Distant vision

 Accommodation : As the distant object moves closer , the image moves behind the retina to
keep the image sharply on the retina , the lens accommodates.
 Close vision : ciliary muscles contract, lens ligaments (suspensory) relax, and lens becomes
rounder (more convex).
 Distant vision : ciliary muscles relax, lens ligaments (suspensory) contract, lens becomes less
convex (concave).
 Note : with age, the lens hardens and is less able to accommodate . After age 55
accommodation is no longer possible (presbyopia) , requiring corrective lenses for reading .
Pupil constriction : During accommodation , the Iris also constricts to narrow the pupil ,
permitting increased depth of focus. For very close objects external eye muscles move the
eyeball in word (converge) to keep sharp focus.
 Convergence : The movement of each eye – ball is controlled by six eye muscles that allow
the eyes to follow a moving object.
Refraction
Light rays passing through the transparent media of different densities are bent
(refraction). The denseness and curvature of the medium determines the degree of
refraction .
 Refraction is necessary to form a small – sized inverted image on the retina (refractory media
is the cornea and lens) .
 The lens must thicken to focus on close objects.
 EAR AND HEARING
STRUCTURE OF THE EAR
The ear is structurally divided into 3;
1. THE OUTER EAR
-consists of auricle(pinna) and external auditory meatus.
The outer ear is responsible for transferring sound waves from the environment to the middle
ear.
2. THE MIDDLE EAR
-Consists of;
• tympanic membrane
• Three auditory ossicles (bones)
– malleus (hammer)
– incus (anvil)
– stapes (stirrup)
• Oval window: transmits vibrations from the stapes to the inner ear fluid
• Eustachian tube (auditory tube): connects inner ear to the pharynx;equalizes pressure
The middle ear is responsible for amplifying sound waves into strong signals for the hearing
receptors to detect.

3. THE INNER EAR

- consists of cochlea, 3 semicircular canals and the vestibulocochlear nerve. The inner ear is
responsible for using mechanoreceptors to detect stimuli for hearing (in cochlea) and
equilibrium (in semicircular canals), and send the nerve impulses through the vestibulocochlear
nerve (Nerve VIII) to the brain.
The Inner Ear is made up of;
• Bony Labyrinth –outer tube(filled with perilymph)
 membranous labyrinth is enclosed inside the bony labyrinth, filled with endolymph).

It’s divided into the following parts;

I. Cochlea – is divided into :scala vestibuli,scala media(cochlea duct) and scala tympani
II. Vestibule
III. Semicircular canal (equilibrium)
IV. Round Window
V. Cranial Nerve VIII (Vestibulocochlear)
Physiology of hearing
Sound collected by pinna is transported through external auditory meatus to the tympanic
membrane where it makes it to vibrate .vibration is then transmitted to ossicles; malleus- incus
–stapes and then to the oval window to the perilymph and endolymph fluid where it causes a
wave that travels to -scala vestibule-scala tympani and this sets basilar membrane of the scala
media(cochlea duct) in motion.vibration of the basilar membrane make the hair cells to bend
hence generation of action potential (impulse).vestibulocochlear nerve transmits the impulse
to the medulla oblongata –midbrain- thalamus and then finally to the temporal lobe of
cerebrum for perception and interpretation.

BODY BALANCE AND POSTURE

Structures of the ear involved in body balance include;

i. Vestibular apparatus
ii. Semicircular Canals.

Static Equilibrium
Receptors called macula located in the semicircular canals detect the Position of the head.
When the head changes position, fluid in the semicircular canals moves
and generates waves that bend the stereocilia(hair cell) on these macula cells, this movement
of hairs
generates a potential(impulse) in hair cells which is transmitted by the cranial nerve VIII to
pons and then to the cerebellum

Dynamic Equilibrium
Receptors called crista ampullaris located the semicircular canals detect the position of the
body.When body moves,
similar physiology with equilibrium occurs in the semicircular canals,
resulting in nerve impulses being sent to the brain for interpretation
• Change in body position causes movement of fluid within semi circular canals .This causes the
hair cells in the ampulla to generate an impulse which is transmitted by cranial nerve VIII to the
pons and then to the cerebellum.

THE SENSE OF SMELL (OLFACTION)

• Olfaction detects chemicals in solution
• The Olfactory epithelium (organ for smell) is located in the roof of each
nasal cavity.
– 5 million olfactory receptor cells
– protected & cushioned by supporting cells

The Chemical Senses

• Taste (gustatory) & Smell (olfactory)
• Chemoreceptors: respond to chemicals in an aqueous solution.
– Taste: food chemicals
– Smell: airborne chemicals
• The receptors of taste & smell complement each other and respond to
many of the same stimuli

Olfactory Pathway
• Chemicals (gaseous odors) react with olfactory hairs _ impulse in olfactory
neurons _olfactory bulb _ olfactory tracts _ olfactory area of the cerebral
cortex (interpretation of smell)

THE SENSE OF TASTE (GUSTATION)

• Taste buds: these are sensory receptors for taste.

– Location: tongue, soft palate, cheeks,
pharynx, epiglottis
Taste Buds and the Tongue
• Papillae: Projections in the tongue mucosa (taste buds are found here) – gives tongue the
abrasive feeling

Types of Papillae
• Circumvallate:– found in the back of the tongue
• Foliate (Filiform)– back sides of tongue
• Fungiform– scattered all over tongue– mostly at tip & sides

Primary types of sensation

• Sweet (sugar, saccharin, some aa)
• Sour (H+)
• Salty (Metal ions, Na+)
• Bitter (alkaloids such as quinine, nicotine,
caffeine)
• unami-raw meat

Physiology for Taste

• Chemicals in food dissolve in saliva and diffuse into the taste pore & contact the gustatory
hairs cells.
• Chemicals react with taste hairs to generate action potential (impulse) in Cranial
Nerves VII, IX, X and then to the medulla to thalamus and finally to the gustatory area of the
Cerebral cortex (parietal lobe)